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 STARTING SYSTEM
The starter motor is the most important component of the
starting system, without a starter the car is pushed to start the
engine. Henry’s Ford T – engine is provided by a hand crank for
starting the engine.

Figure no. ss1

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The starting system includes the battery, starter motor,
solenoid, ignition switch, and in some cases, a starter relay. An
inhibitor (neutral safety) switch is included in the starting
system circuit to prevent the car from being started while in
gear.

1. THE BATTERY

Figure no. ss2

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The automotive battery is the source of electric power in a car
to function accordingly. The most common automotive battery
is the lead- acid battery, it is an electrochemical device that
produces voltage and delivers electrical current needed in the
operation of a car. It is important to note that automotive
battery does not store electricity but rather stores a series of
chemicals and through a chemical process electricity is
produced. Basically, there are two types of lead, submerged in
a mixture of water (64%) and sulphuric acid (36%) react
chemically and produces an electrical pressure called
VOLTAGE, the reaction changes chemical energy to electrical
energy and is the basis of all automotive batteries.

2. THE STARTER MOTOR

Electricity from the battery drive the starter motor to rotate

and crank the engine of the car, it rotates at high rpm and the
normal cranking speed is about 3,600 rpm and the small
driving (pinion) gear at the end of the starter shaft engaged to
a bigger gear (Ring gear) mounted on the flywheel. The gear
ratio of about 18:1.

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Figure ss5 (The Stator)

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Figure no. ss3 (Current flow in Stator & Rotor)

The starter motor parts and components:

2.1 Stator – the stator houses the field poles made of

soft iron and attached to the stator with large
screws, wound with field coils (Permanent
magnets field poles are sometimes used). The
magnetic field of the starter motor is provided by
two or more field poles and field coils mounted on
the stator.

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Figure no. ss6 (The Rotor or Armature)

2.2. Rotor (Armature) - The armature is the rotating

part of the starter motor, where a laminated core,
commutator, and windings are assembled together
in a long shafting of the rotor. The shafting carries
also a pinion gear that meshes the ring gear in the
flywheel of the engine.
2.2 Carbon Brushes – are used to transfer current from
the field coils of the stator via the output terminal
of the solenoid to the rotating armature of the
rotor.
2.3 Over running Clutch – is a mechanical mechanism
responsible for engaging the pinion gear of the

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 starter motor to the ring gear of the flywheel of
the engine through a pivoted fork (usually made of
hard plastic material) actuated by a plunger
(piston) of the solenoid.

Figure ss8 (Cut – out view of the starter motor)

2.4 Commutator – Are laminated bars made of copper

or bronze

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 1. The Solenoid

Figure no. ss4

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automotive battery is the source of electric power in a car to
function accordingly. The most common automotive battery is
the lead- acid battery, it is an electrochemical device that
produces voltage and delivers electrical current needed in the
operation of a car. It is important to note that automotive
battery does not store electricity but rather stores a series of
chemicals and through a chemical process electricity is
produced. Basically, there two types of lead, submerged in a
mixture of water (64%) and sulphuric acid (36%) react
chemically and produces an electrical pressure called
VOLTAGE, the reaction changes chemical energy to electrical
energy and is the basis of all automotive batteries.

***(Automotive batteries) *** (Deep cycle batteries)

The purpose of battery in the car:

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 - The battery is needed to supply electricity when
the engine is OFF, the electricity from the battery
is needed to operate lightings, accessories or other
electrical system when the car engine is not
running.
- The battery is needed to supply electricity when
starting the engine, starting the car is the most
important function of the battery. Electricity from
the battery is use to operate the starting motor
and provides the needed current for the ignition
system.
- The battery is needed to supply electricity when
the engine is running, this happens when the
electrical load requirement of the car is over and
above what the charging system is producing.
Normally encountered during heavy usage of
electrical equipment especially during night
driving.

BATTERIES can be Primary or Secondary cell.

Batteries can either be a Primary cell, such as a flashlight
battery, once the charge is gone, the battery cannot be
recharged hence is disposed of properly, or a Secondary
cell, such as a car battery, once the charge is gone, the

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battery can be recharged and put back in service once
again.

PRIMARY CELL – Chemical reactions destroys one of the

metals over a period of time is the reason, a primary cell
cannot be recharged. Flashlight and transistor radio
batteries are primary cells.

SECONDARY CELL – Metal plates and mixture of acid

changes, as the battery delivers voltage, the metal
become similar and the acid strength weakens, this
process is called DISCHARGING.

By applying electric current in reverse direction, the

battery material can be restored, thus recharging the
battery. This process is called CHARGING. Car batteries
are secondary cells and can be recharged.

BATTERIES can be Wet or Dry charged.

WET CHARGED – Lead acid battery is filled with
electrolyte, charged and put in service. During storage a
small amount of chemical reaction will cause the battery
to discharge, periodic charging is required. Most batteries
sold today are of wet charged.

DRY CHARGED – Built, charged, washed and dried,

shipped without electrolyte. When put into service,
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electrolyte and recharging is required. Dry charged
batteries such as used in motorcycles have a long shelf
life up to 18 months.

BATTERY CONSTRUCTION:

A car battery contains positive and negative electrodes in

the form of several plates, electrolyte (a solution of 64%
water and 36% sulphuric acid), separators, connectors,
assembled into cells. The battery used in automotive
application normally are made of six cells all submerged
in electrolyte solution.

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CELL OPERATION:

The metals in a cell are called the electrodes, and the

chemical solution is called electrolyte. The electrolyte
reacts oppositely with the two different electrodes, one
electrode loses electrons and develops a positive charge;
and it causes other electrode to build a surplus of
electrons and develop a negative charge. The difference
in potential between the two electrode charges is the cell
voltage. The positive plate is made of reddish- brown

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material such as lead dioxide (PbO2). The negative plate
is made of greyish material called sponge lead (Pb).

CYCLING:

Chemical energy is stored in the battery and through a

chemical process a battery creates and releases
electricity as needed by the electrical system of the car.
In the process battery loses its chemical energy and is
discharged, it is therefore being charged by the alternator
to regain its chemical energy in the reverse direction of
current flow. The process of discharging and charging is
repeated continuously and is called BATTERY CYCLING.

DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES:

Automotive batteries such as one installed in cars are not

deep cycle batteries. Deep cycling is when the battery is
completely discharged before charging. Automotive
batteries are not designed to operate as a deep cycle
batteries. They are designed to be fully charged when
starting the car, after starting, the lost of charged is being
replenished by the alternator, so the battery remains
fully charged almost all of the time. Deep cycling an
automotive battery will damage the battery plates and
shorten the life of the battery.

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MARINE OR GOLF CAR BATTERIES – are deep cycle
batteries, they are completely discharged before
charging. Since charging process causes excessive heat, it
warps the plates and damaged the battery, thicker
plates, therefore is used in a deep cycle battery and
thinner plates for automotive battery.

BATTERY CELL ELEMENT AND VOLTAGE:

In battery operations, the key is the cell element,

regardless of the size of the plates being used, all positive
and negative plates are connected by each plate strap
(connector) assembled together alternately and
separated by a micro-porous separator. The plates and
separators form a battery cell element. Assembling the

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plates in this manner increases the surface area between
the active materials and the electrolyte allowing a much
greater amount of electricity to be produced. More
plates means more surface area, hence more electricity
produced, delivering more current.

Automotive battery cell voltage is 2.1 volts, regardless of

quantity and size of the plates. There are six cells in the
battery and the cells are connected in series and
therefore the battery voltage is 12.6 volts. (2.1 volts per
cell X 6 cells).

THE PLATES:

Lead alloy containing percentage of Antimony or Calcium

are the active materials paste on the grid of the plates,
the grid serve as the backbone of the plate, it is positive if
the material pasted to it is lead dioxide (PbO2) reddish-
brown in the eye and negative if material pasted to it is a
greyish sponge lead (Pb). Fig. In p.3 shows the grid and
plates (both positive and negative) of an automotive
battery.

GEL CELL BATTERIES:

Gel cell battery is a modification of a standard lead acid

automotive battery, the design requires addition of a

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 gelling agent to the electrolyte in order to lessen its
movement inside the battery case. Some design used one
way valve in the vents to prevent gases to escape and
return back to water in the battery. The spiral design of
the plate arrangement allows more surface area and
closer spacing insuring lower internal resistance. Low
resistance means more power and easier to recharge.

Regardless of the variation of battery plate material and

electrolyte solution used, the construction is basically the
same. Here are some of the advantages:

LEAD ANTIMONY LEAD CALCIUM RECOMBINED GEL CELL

Most commonly used in Is a maintenance free lead Is a completely sealed lead acid
conventional lead - acid acid battery which uses battery which uses an electrolyte
battery which uses lead calcium cell plates. that is a gel (solid) rather than liquid.
antimony cell plates.
*Longer service life than *Larger electrolyte reserve *No liquid electrolyte to spill or leak.
calcium batteries area above the plates. *Can be deep cycled several time
*Easier to recharge when *Higher CCA rating without damaged.
completely discharged *Little or no maintenance *Totally corrosion and maintenance
*Lower cost free.

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ELECTROLYTE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

ELECTROLYTE Is a solution of 36% sulphuric acid (SO4) and

64% distilled water (H2O). The specific gravity of
electrolyte is 1.270 at 20oC (86oF) when fully charged. The
specific gravity is the weight of a given volume of liquid
compared to the weight of the same volume of water.
The thicker the liquid the denser it is, meaning, specific
gravity is high.

A hydrometer measures the specific gravity of the

electrolyte, this is the exact weight of electrolyte
compare to that of water. Charged electrolyte is heavier
and stronger than the electrolyte of a discharged battery.
The specific gravity of a sulphuric acid is 1.835, while that
of water is 1.000, therefore, the acid is 1.835 times
heavier or denser than water.

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***Checking Specific Gravity using HYDROMETER***

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***Specific Gravity Reading = 1.100 ***

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BUILT-IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY INDICATOR:

Most maintenance free batteries use a built in single ball

hydrometer that measures the specific gravity of one cell,
usually located on top of the battery.

- If the green ball is visible specific gravity is ok.

- If the green dotted ball is visible, battery
needs recharging.
- If the green and the dotted green balls are not
visible, replace battery.

BATTERY HOLD DOWN / CARRIER:

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Excessive vibration will cause the battery to fail in a way.
Battery hold downs stop the battery from unnecessary
movements while the car is in motion, active material
will fall from the plates and therefore securing the
battery is a must. Battery hold down, normally is
attached to the carrier (tray) located underneath. It
should be noted, that during charging operations, active
materials expands and sharp movement of the battery
while the car is in motion as in encountering road bumps
and humps will cause these material to fall off and
settled in the ribs of the battery.

BATTERY RATINGS:

Battery Council International (BCI) determines the

current capacity of a battery. The current capacity is the
ability of a battery to generate and deliver current
requirement of the starter motor, ignition system and
other electrical system.

The most common battery sizes in the market today are:

N40 and 1SMF (7 plates), 2SMF (9 plates), 3SMF (11

plates, 2D (15 plates), 4D (17 plates), 6D (21 plates) and
8D (27 plates). A 12 volt, 6 cells, 3SMF battery with 11
plates per cell (5 positive plates and 6 negative plates) is

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rated 70 Ampere-hour can therefore deliver 3.5 amperes
in 20 hours time.

Automotive batteries are manufactured in terms of its

physical features, width, length, height, and battery
terminal design and are produced in different sizes and
shapes.

a) COLD CRANKING AMPERES (CCA)

CCA rating indicates the amount of current a
battery can deliver at low temperature. The
rating is determined by how much current a
fully charged battery can supply for 30
seconds at 00F (-17.80C) without having the
terminal voltage of the battery to fall below
7.2V

b) CRANKING AMPERES (CA)

Cranking ampere rating is the battery’s ability
to deliver a cranking current of 320F (Do not
confused this with CCA). This is the same test
as in CCA except that it is determined at a high
temperature. To convert CA to CCA, divide CA
rating by 1.25.

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 Example: A 650 CCA rating battery is the
same as (CA/1.25 = CCA) 812 CA
rating battery.

c) RESERVE CAPACITY (RC)

Is the time a fully charged battery at 86 0F
(26.70C) can sustain delivering 25A of current
after the car charging system fails and the
battery terminal voltage fall below 10.5 volts.
This is the equivalent time in minutes the car
can be driven at night after the alternator fails
and the headlights are on.

d) AMPERE HOUR (Ah)

This is a rating measured at 860F (26.70C) a
fully charged battery can deliver current in 20
hours without having the terminal voltage fall
below 10.5 volts, if the battery delivers 5A,
then the rating is 100Ah (5A x 20 hours =
100Ah).

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BATTERY MAINTENANCE:

Routine maintenance of lead-acid batteries should be

carried out regularly and the following are the basic
requirements:

1. Check electrolyte level, see to it that the

plates are fully submerged in the electrolyte,
exposed plates will be sulphated (formation of
sulphur will occur), “top up” with distilled
water if necessary.
2. Ensure that the battery terminals are clean
and tight. Sulphur (white substance formation)
around the terminals and clamps can be wiped
out easily with hot water, use white grease to
lessen corrosion of the clamps, bolts and nuts.
3. Clean battery top and ensure that battery hold
downs and tray secures the battery in–place
firmly.
4. Check the terminal voltage regularly, a fully
charged battery reading should always be in
the range of 12.5 to 12.8 volts. Beware of old
batteries that indicate a fully charged reading
but can no longer hold the charge due to
deterioration and old age. Electrolyte specific

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gravity reading will confirm a fully charged
battery, the reading should be 1.265.

HYDROMETER

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