Journal of Applied Geophysics, 29 (1993) 227-245 227

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Geophysical aspects of areas of complex geology

an introduction

R. Cassinis a and A. Mazzotti b

"Dept. of Earth Sciences, Universityof Milano, Via L. Cicognara 7, 1-20129Milan, Italy
bAGIPSpA, S. Donato Milanese, Milan, Italy
(Accepted after revision September 30, 1992)

ABSTRACT

Cassinis, R. and Mazzotti, A., 1993. Geophysical aspects of areas of complex geology--an introduction. In: R. Cassinis, K.
Helbig and G.F. Panza (Editors), Geophysical Exploration in Areas of Complex Geology, I. J. Appl. Geophys., 29: 227-
245.

All geophysical methods are constrained, to different degrees, by the geology of the surveyed area. This paper discusses
the geophysical response in some "geologically complex" areas where the targets of the exploration are situated in the
upper continentalcrust (sedimentary or crystalline). Some problems of the lower crust and upper mantle are also touched
upon. The discussion mainly concerns the seismic exploration techniques, but also the role of gravity and magnetic meth-
ods is introduced.
Examples are given of surveys in particularly "complex" areas (the young mountain ranges of Alps and Apennines)
where the integration of several methods is mandatory in order to obtain meaningful results. The role and significance of
each exploration technique in the final interpretation model are analysed.

Introduction fractions; thus, it does not behave as a homo-

Geological complexity means geophysical
complexity, i.e. all exploration phases (acqui-
sition, processing, and interpretation) become
more difficult. The interpretation of the final
model of the buried structure is more ambigu-
ous; therefore, the combination of methods as
well as of complementary, independent infor-
mation is required.
The geophysical complexity has a different
meaning for the methods and techniques. The
thirty year old example illustrated by Cassinis
in 1965 (analogue recording of a reflection line
showing a Paleozoic basement dipping under a
thick turbiditic slide), shows that the overbur-
den looks quite different if viewed by near-ver-
tical reflection (NVR) or by the electric log in
a borehole. The turbiditic flow generates dif-
geneous medium to seismic waves with fre-
quencies around 40-50 Hz and wavelengths of
about 60 m, while is almost perfectly homoge-
neous with respect to resistivity. A more recent
example (Bally, 1983 ) shows a very similar re-
sponse to NVR from the gravity slumps of the
Ellesmerian formation in the Arctic coastal
plain of Alaska. The composition and mechan-
ics of the slump certainly play a role: the re-
sponse of a gently sloping, structureless mud
or sand deposit is different from that of high
grade slope debris flows. The signal's spectral
behaviour change with time and this, in turn,
influences the amount of scattered energy.
A third example is given by Braile and
Chiang (1986), illustrating a continental type
of lower crust both imaged by NVR (showing a
lamellar or boudins-like structure) and by re-

0926-9851/93/$06.00 © 1993 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

228
fraction-wide angle reflection (Refr-WAR).
The superior vertical resolution of the former
technique gives a quite different picture of the
transition that is viewed as a sharp first order
boundary by the latter, if interpreted as a sin-
gle wide angle reflection, or as a continuous in-
creasing vertical velocity gradient, if diving
waves are considered.
Response of methods and techniques of
exploration in "complex areas"
Seismic methods: near-vertical reflection (NVR)
Exploration of the seismic basement
Here, some examples from the literature are
shown to demonstrate the difficulty to follow
the seismic basement (corresponding both to
the sedimentary or metamorphic basement)
below different types of overburden. For com-
pressional provinces, a very good Italian ex-
ample was published by Pied ( 1983 ); it shows
the effect of overthrusting in central Po valley.
An interesting feature is the change of the re-
flected energy from the top of the carbonatic
sequence of the Mesozoic as far as the depth
and the complexity of the overburden in-
crease. Other examples are the behaviour of the
folded and unfolded molasse on the northern
slope of the Alps and the effect of detached
sediments in Alberta (Bally, 1983 ). The effect
of Alpine folded nappes on deep reflections
(see below) is an extreme case of a survey in
different scale and with different objectives. As
far as the seismic response is concerned, there
are analogies between the behaviour of the
sedimentary, irregularly layered (chaotic) ov-
erburden and that of the unstratified crystal-
line crust.
Crustal surveys
An early and well-known example of an in-
dustrial survey applied to crustal investiga-
tions shows that the excellent response from the
lower crust in northwestern Germany is also
influenced by the oscillations of the base of
R. CASSINIS AND A. MAZZOTTI
Zechstein. In the Rio Grande rift (Bally, 1983 )
the penetration seems greater where the thick-
ness of the sedimentary basins is smaller; in
these conditions the reflection from the Moho
appears beneath the "bright spot" which has a
very high reflectivity. The true amplitude dis-
play is necessary in order to evaluate the rela-
tions among the strength of reflections and the
general amplitude decay with time.
These examples require some considera-
tions about the technical problems of NVR.
First of all, the question about the definition
of "transparent" and "absorbing" medium
should be asked. If coherent signals are not re-
ceived from a deep reflector buried beneath a
large thickness of a non-reflective material this
does not necessarily demonstrate that the ov-
erburden is "transparent" (i.e. not reflective)
but can mean that the absorption is high. The
acquisition technique can have a remarkable
effect on penetration. However, there are many
factors which hamper the recording of reliable
reflections from a seismic basement buried be-
neath complex overburdens; the fine layering
that is often found in sedimentary chaotic for-
mations is only one of the factors of strong at-
tenuation. The physical definition of a "ran-
dom medium" will be discussed later during
this course (Korn, 1993-this issue) but the
question could be asked now whether "no re-
flection" geological situations do exist and also
about the subtle distinction between reflec-
tions and diffractions.
On the other hand, processing can produce
artificial reflections. As illustrated by the ex-
cellent example by Howard and Danbom
(1983) apparently coherent signals can be ob-
tained starting from random noise. Lateral
changes of velocity in shallow layers can also
generate false structures (faults) that can be
removed only by a correct application of static
corrections. The imaging of deep targets re-
quires large offsets. To comply with this re-
quirement, special acquisition procedures, such
as Expanded Spread Profiles (ESP) or Con-
stant Offset Profiles (coP) (Stoffa and Buhl,
GEOPHYSICAL ASPECTS OF AREAS OF COMPLEX G E O L O G Y - - AN INTRODUCTION 229

1979), may have to be used. As the NVR merges
with the Refr-WAR in these techniques, special
care is required in the processing phase to cor-
rectly handle the far offset data.
Problems related to the incorrect treatment
of data are illustrated in the stacked section of
Fig. 1. These data were acquired using the coP
method with offset up to 10 kin. At times of
3.5 s, a low-frequency horizon is evident that
might be interpreted as a true reflection event.
However, this event is related to u n m u t e d head
waves in the far offset traces. The undulating
structure is due to changes in velocities a n d / o r
depths of the overburden layers where the head
waves are generated. In this case, the use of ad-
equate muting functions or the application of
normal move-out corrections that take into ac-
count the non-hyperbolic behaviour of refrac-
tions, could solve the problem.
In areas characterized by a low signal-to-
noise ratio a particular care in the choice of the
correct processing parameters is necessary be-
cause erroneous applications not only do not
improve the seismic image but may introduce
artifacts and generate false events. Figure 2
shows a stacked section that is the final result
of a processing sequence that includes tau-p
domain filtering to remove strong multiple re-

STACK SECTION (9600 % FOLD)

HEAD-WAVE NOISE TIME
S

o 1 Km
I I
Fig. 1. Stacked section 96 fold. Note the low-frequency coherent noise due to unmuted head waves on the far offset.
230
STACK SECTION
EVENTS
0.7
A
1
CO
I.U
b--
2
3,
Fig. 2. Stacked section 120 fold. Note the c o n t i n u o u s events at a b o u t 2 s.
flections. Structural events are evident at times
of 2 s but their characteristics appear to be
contradictory. In particular, they exhibit a
higher frequency content than the shallower
events and anomalous lateral continuity. On
the other hand, they exhibit a geometry with
positive culminations not shown in the over-
lying horizons. A careful re-examination of the
processing sequence demonstrates the false na-
ture of these events which are due to the erro-
neous selection of parameters in the tau-p
transform and to an insufficient spatial sam-
piing of the data (Mazzotti and Ravagnan,
1990). The anomalous effects related to tau-p
processing are illustrated in Fig. 3 for a single
shot gather of the seismic line. The original shot
gather (Fig. 3a) is characterized by strong di-
rect arrivals that, when transformed to tau-p
domain (Fig. 3b ), cause spurious events at the
largest ray parameters. The inverse transform
yields some gathers, such as that shown in Fig.
3c, in which anomalous events at the largest
offsets are coherently stacked after CMP sort-
R. C A S S I N I S A N D A. M A Z Z O T T I
(120 FOLD) WITH ANOMALOUS
AT ABOUT 2 SECONDS
0 2Km
ing and NMO correction. This finally gives rise
to the continuous and structured horizon on the
stacked section of Fig. 2.
In contrast with the preceding examples the
two following cases demonstrate how NVR data,
if acquired with reliable sources and after
proper processing, can yield good results even
in difficult geological conditions. Figure 4a, b
shows the results of an offshore line in an area
of the outer belt of the Apenninic folding in the
Adriatic characterized by overthtrust tecton-
ics, where the difficulties are represented by the
strong lateral velocity variations, the complex
geometry of the reflectors, and the presence of
faults and fractures. The performance of a post-
stack f - k migration in the time domain (Sal-
vador, 1982 ) allows a satisfactory reconstruc-
tion of the structure and highlights the location
of the overthrust and backthrust faults.
In Fig. 5, an example of another offshore line
is shown where appropriate acquisition and
processing resulted in highlighting interesting
features related to halocinetic tectonics at 2 and
GEOPHYSICALASPECTSOF AREASOF COMPLEXGEOLOGY-- AN INTRODUCTION 231

ACTUAL DATA: @ SHOT GATHER (FIELD DATA), ~ INCORRECT T - p TRANSFORM,

SHOT GATHER WITH ANOMALOUS EVENTS.

OFFSET (m) RAY PARAMETER (--~m105) OFFSET (m)

3150 150 -6 +19 3150 150
0.0 •

1.o

tU

tU t-

W
t-
2.0 ="

3.0

Fig. 3. (a) Single shot gather o f the section shown in Fig. 2. (b) tau-p transform of the shot gather. Note the spurious
events at large ray-parameters. (c) Reverse transform to x - t . Note the false events at high offsets and at times o f about
2s.

3 s and a deep reflector below 8 s (probably
corresponding to the M o h o ) .
Seismic methods: refiaction-wide angle
reflection (Refr-WAR)
The complementary use of Refr--WAR in the
exploration both of the upper and lower crust
is illustrated in the following examples. In gen-
eral, it can be said that in areas where deep NV
reflections are obtained, the main objective of
Refr-wAR is to construct a velocity model to
migrate these reflections; such a model can be
provided only by refraction. In areas of scarce
reflections a well planned Refr--WAR survey can
give a velocity model as well as the rough ge-
ometry of the main boundaries. The technique
has an intrinsic low sensitivity to dip ( _ 3-4 °
if the control of reversed shots is good) espe-
cially when contrasts at boundaries are not
sharp. The vertical and horizontal resolving
power is also low; therefore, the technique is
not effective for objects smaller than the Fres-
nel zone, but is effective in correlating discon-
tinuous vertical arrivals reflected from the
main boundaries. Furthermore, the compari-
son of the spectral content Of WA and NV reflec-
tions is important in a more quantitative ap-
proach and must be carefully investigated in
the endeavour to explain the different re-
sponse caused by the physical structure of the
boundary.
232 R. CASSIN1S AND A. MAZZOTTI

0 1KM.
b)
IgllESTm,,~.,llb.~

Fig. 4. (a) Unmigrated cross-section in the Adriatic offshore. (b) Properly migrated cross-section.
GEOPHYSICAL ASPECTSOF AREASOF COMPLEX GEOLOGY-- AN INTRODUCTION
STACK SECTION (6000 % FOLD)
TIME
-0.0 S
Fig. 5 . 6 0 fold stacked offshore section. P r o p e r processing
a n d a n a d e q u a t e source allow the recording o f clear deep
reflections even in areas o f halocinetic tectonics.
Refraction fans allow a fast and inexpensive
technique determination of the approximate
shape of the main boundaries (exploiting, in
general, super-critical reflections) but are reli-
able only if tied to profiles controlled by sev-
eral reversed shots. A minimum spacing of both
sources and receivers must be guaranteed, that
varies according to the geometry of the model,
impedance contrasts at boundaries, etc. The
control must be homogeneous. This means that
the same type of arrivals and the same density
of rays should be received on direct and re-
verse recordings. Furthermore, both recording
and shot points should be arranged in order to
obtain refracted or reflected (wide angle)
233
events from the same section of the boundary
but following different paths.
The processing of Refr-WAR data is still
faced with many problems. This is due, partly,
to the complexity of the ray-path, and partly to
the fact that the development of this technique
was not supported by the oil industry, as it was
in the case of NVR. Today, the widespread use
of digital, mobile, three-component recording
stations allows a more quantitative analysis
(polarized S-waves, dynamic simulation, eval-
uation of spectral content).
Gravity and magnetics
A new role was given to these potential
methods by the computerised procedures of
modelling and, on the other hand, by the avail-
ability of more detailed seismic data (velocity
and geometry). The control by gravity and,
though in a less general way, by magnetic
anomalies, can substantially reduce the ambi-
gnity of seismic interpretation. As will be illus-
trated later by some examples, "stripping"
procedures are particularly effective to control
the solution of regional, deep structural models.
A useful procedure is to compare the model
obtained by inversion of low-pass filtered
anomalies with those obtained by stripping.
In many complex areas the horizontal gra-
dient of regional Bougner anomalies is steep;
this causes a serious reduction in the resolving
power and is a handicap when separating the
contribution of deep and shallow sources. In
general, the information on geology does not
allow simple modelling of 3-D bodies; how-
ever, the shape of the anomalies of short wave-
length can suggest the opportunity to calculate
the contribution of shallow bodies as 2.5-D or
2.75-D instead of 2-D structures. The correct
choice of densities remains highly critical, es-
pecially for deep geological targets, where the
relationship between seismic velocity and den-
sity is highly non-linear. Magnetic modelling is
employed, in many instances, as a preliminary
limitation for gravity modelling to help the
234 R. CASSINIS A N D A. M A Z Z O T T I

interpretation of shallow susceptible bodies 9 i 10 11 12 I=

, I
and the shape of the basement. '1

Examples of integrated surveys in complex

Zur~ch D Boden see
areas

~ ]~ --47 N
The Alpine and Apenninic range is a good -"1 , 2~- c ',
Statrer see ~ I { kU ~- :
example of complexity for the exploration of
both the sedimentary and deep crust. .jJJ Z J "~

Alpine range

Crustal exploration across the central sector

of the/kips is discussed here. The main differ-
ence between the ECORS-CROP crossing of the Mdano/ c ~a~da erona.

Western Alps and the exploration in Central I'

Alps is that in the former case the wide angle B 2 ,L 45

reflections were obtained along fans, while in

the latter experiment the NVR profile is con- /
5<) ~m
i'
nected to a Refr-WAR line (European Geotrav-
erse, EGT ) controlled by several reversed shots O B2,D Shot points • °e • • • FANS {Geophones)

and to other less detailed profiles, some of them
parallel to the Alpine range (ALe, SUDALP, see
Miller, 1976; Ital. Explosion Seismol. Group
and Inst. Geophys. ETH Zurich, 1981; Deich-
m a n n et al., 1986). In the Western Alps, the
deep WAR gave a good picture of the deep crus-
tal structure but, owing to the lack of refrac-
tion profiles, very little information about ve-
locity was available. Another difference was
that in the Central Alps, besides the vibrators,
large single shots were employed in NVR pro-
files. This proved very efficient.
In Fig. 6, a map of seismic profiles recorded
in the Central Alps at different times and with
different techniques is shown. The last phase
of the exploration is represented by a sector of
the EGT and by the NVR lines of the Swiss pro-
gramme NFP-20 and Italian programme CROP-
Deep Crust. The best controlled model of the
crustal structure is shown in Fig. 7; the cross-
section represents the seismic model along the
EGT from the Po valley to the Swiss Molasse
basin. While in the northern portion of the
cross-section the NVR line follows almost the
trace of the EGT, in the southern part the ver-
" Refr WAR profiles :
() FANS (Mirrors)
N V R profiles
Fig. 6. Position map of seismic profiles in the central sec-
tor of the Alps.
tical reflections are recorded on fragments of
profiles with lateral offsets of up to 40 km from
the EGT, and are projected on this line. This is
but one of the reasons why the NVR results,
across and south of the Insubric line, are poor
and very confused.
The effectiveness of the combination of the
two seismic techniques is clear if one considers
the peculiarities of both models of Fig. 7. The
geometry, especially of the upper crust, is es-
sentially given by NVR (Valasek, 1990; Holli-
ger and Kissling, 1991 ) while the velocity dis-
tribution is derived from Refr-WAR data (Ye
and Ansorge, 1990), except for the first 2-2.5
s of xwx, where the velocity analysis from NVR
is reliable.
Vertical reflections at higher times were mi-
grated using the average velocities computed
GEOPHYSICAL ASPECTS OF AREAS OF COMPLEX GEOLOGY - - AN INTRODUCTION 2 35

HELVETIC PENNINIC SOUTHERN

A A R MASSIF INSUBRIC LINE
NAPPES NAPPES
5.7 5.2
ALPS
a)
~.8 5.2 ~_9 . . . . ~- ~-- ~ -- 6 , 2 - - - - 5.9

10
c~.u ~ 6.0 ~-.~..~. 8
6,2
20-

30- 6,2 6.2 "~ ~--~

40-

50- •,~ 6,5 •

60-
8,2"
70-

t
0
510 100
~ 150 s
N DISTANCE (km)
HELVETIC SOUTHERN ALPS
NAPPES ~ .~

~
~-~.~..
. - -
= ,~,, ~-~..
: - ~ - - - "~ - ~ . ' - v ~ :
~ .~. ~.....
~ m ~
"~.=..~ --.-~-~.
.~: : ' - ~'~. ~ . - ~ : ~ . . .~.
b)
10

2O
- _-,.._. ~ _ ~ . ~m=¢'.-.,E.~.: "~/~;.- . -..': . • . .
- _~_-.-.~--:.::..._i._~.~ - . • .,,~.,~.... ~ / ~ ,;- _-_-, . . . .
v 30 ~_~..~--.~C., ......
TM . --- ] ; ~.~, =- _ -~.
~--~.-~ r~,. - - - ~ < . ' ~ . " " . . . . " - ~.*,"X_~ • " -~ - - - " • -
. ,..-,.<.:-.>_-~,:..~%.g~_a.a..~< + + -. . . . . #= -. _-~ .-.. : . ~ . . . . . : -... ,
40 - _ ~ ., -.. ~ - ~ - " . ~ . -.. ;,-, , ...

50

60
.......................................................................... 9.!.S.T.AN%!,~m) ...................................................................................
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

ET $3 55
$1

Fig. 7. (a) Seismic model (Refr-WAR) along the EGT (modified from Ye and Ansorge, 1 9 9 0 ) . ( b ) N V R profile (Holliger
and Kissling, 1 9 9 1 ) T h e N V reflections are migrated using the average velocities obtained by R e f r - - W A R .

according to the model of Fig. 7a. In the north- On the EGT (Fig. 7a), the Moho disconti-
ern part of the NVR line (Fig. 7b) the crust- nuity can be followed even beneath the Pen-
mantle transition is shown by a thick and con- ninic "nappes". The crust mantle boundary is
tinuous group of reverberations regularly dip- shown only by PMP reflections on the N-~S
ping southwards. These reflections stop ab- time-distance curve, while on the reversed
ruptly beneath the northern boundary of the time-distance curve, refracted Pn were also re-
Penninic folds. Southwards, before reaching corded (Buness and Giese, 1990) with an ap-
the Insubric line, at a depth of about 60 kin, parent (up-dip) velocity corresponding to a
another group of reflections appears after a long dip of 11-12 o, thus in good agreement with the
gap. Correlation with the former reflections vertical reflections.
and, therefore, the continuity of the European It seems that the lack of reflections in the
Moho, seems quite reasonable (Holliger and "Penninic gap" could be attributed to the poor
Kissling, 1991 ). penetration of high frequencies beneath the
236 R. CASSINIS A N D A. MAZZOTTI

scattering Penninic nappes and not to a change M A I N PROFILE 1

of reflectivity of the " M " boundary. It has to
be pointed out that a similar "gap" was found
on the transect of western Alps, also beneath
the Penninic "nappes". b

A main feature that was observed by the early

Refr--WAR surveys, and was confirmed later by 2(J SP D , SP B l

the combination of the two seismic tech-

. . . . . . . . .
niques, is the sharp step in the " M " disconti-
•

nuity beneath the Insubric line. However, the

mechanism of the continental collision re- ,~ ~ . . " . . • . . " . . • . ~ - - .r ~ - :-. . .~. , _ " - - - - : . . . . . . . . [~15

mained debatable till the end of the EGT and

NFP-20 programmes. It is not easy to prove the
Olstance (kin)
existence of a subducted European slab be- B I ,
5(3 ~ - i ?

neath the "Adria promontory" especially be- N ~ S]i '~

32 :~
cause of the absence of deep earthquakes.
Since 1987, i.e. when the early seismic
models along the EGT became available, the c :

gravity anomalies were revisited and the inter-

:,r.,.u sPc, ~'~'/" ~,c .'-' spa '~' :,19!
pretation through modelling became a useful
o 10
tool for the control of seismic results, espe-
cially for the deep structure. This is true only
when adequate information on the shallow
bodies (the largest ones) are available to cal- f)(} - . , . _ . .... ~ , ] ;:!

culate their effect on the regional, longer wave-

lengths. In Fig. 8a, one of the possible regional
gravity models along the EGT is shown (Pizza-
relli, 1992 ). An alternative model of the "Eu-
ropean" subducting slab is shown in Fig. 8b. In
the latter model, the subduction slab is consid-
ered as partly eclogitic, while in the former a
lower crust of constant density was assumed.
The densities of the geologic formations, shown
in the figure captions, are derived from the re-
lationships between seismic velocity and den-
sity as well as taken according to the literature
data. The geological interpretation follows
mainly that of Butler (1990), which in turn was
based on the preliminary seismic model by Ye
and Ansorge (1990). New gravity models will
be calculated according to the final interpreta-
tion of the EGT seismic profile as soon as it is
published.
As already stated, areas of complex geology
are often characterized by strong horizontal
gradients. It is clear that in the profiles the sep-
D~star?ce 4~(n)
Fig. 8. (a) Gravity modelling along the EGT according to
the seismic interpretation of Fig. 3 (Pizzarelli, 1992, un-
puN. data) The European subducting slab is assumed to
be partly eclogitic. (b) The same as in (a) but assuming
a lower crust of constant density.
Geological formations (assumed densities in g-m-3):
l - T e r t i a r y deposits [ a - E u r o p e a n molasse (2.4),
b = Padan molasse (2.42) ]; 2 = Sedimentary overburden
[a = Helvetic nappes (2.55), b = South Alpine nappes
(2.55)]; 3=Flysch (2.52); 4=Austro-Alpine eastern
units (2.5-2.6); 5=Pennidic units (2.75) [a=upper
(2.7-2.73), b=iower (2.65-2.75) ]; 6=Ophiolitic units
(2.75); 7 = Periadriatic plutons (2.65-2.75);
8 = Basement units [ a = Helvetic (2.68-2.72), b = South
Alpine (2.65-2.75) ]; 9 = Lower crust [a= 2.81, b = 2.95 ];
10 = Fragment of high density (2.95 ); 11 = Upper mantle
(3.2-3.3); 12 =Observed anomaly; 13 =Computed
anomaly.
aration of local anomalies becomes difficult for
wavelengths shorter than about 15-20 km; on
the other hand, a more detailed density model
G E O P H Y S I C A L ASPECTS O F AREAS O F C O M P L E X G E O L O G Y - - AN I N T R O D U C T I O N 237

0 1 Km NIP.. ~ 0 1 Km
SE •

TME (S)
WE (S)
).0
0.0

1.0
1.0

LO
2.0

1.0
3.0

4.0
¢t=,

b
4.0

5.0
S.0

6.0
6.0

Fig. 9. Examples Of NVR time sections in the northwest Apennines (from Cassinis et al., 1990b).

of the shallow bodies is not available.
Despite these limitations, the contribution of
gravity modelling to the new interpretation is
important also in view of the contribution of
gravity modelling to the lateral extrapolation
of the regional deep structures where the se-
ismic data are uncertain. The main remark is
that, even if one changes the model of the up-
per crust according to the different existing se-
ismic models, one must admit the same
strongly asymmetrical structure of the lower
crust and the obduction of the Adriatic over
the European crust. This regional feature seems
to be a common character of the entire Alpine
range.
It is interesting to consider the evolution of
the structural and geodynamic models of the
Alpine range in the last ten years. It is clear that
they show fundamental changes. The hypoth-
esis of vertical subduction was gradually re-
placed by the concepts of the subduction slab
of the European crust below the overthrusting
Adriatic plate, the accretion wedges and the
backthrusting in the upper and intermediate
crustal levels (Buness and Giese, 1990; Butler,
1990; Pfiffner, 1990).
The example of the Central Alps clearly
shows the complementary role of each method:
NVR and Refr-WAR had the same weight in the
interpretation. The former describes the com-
plex structure of the upper crust in detail and
substantiates the geometry of the lower crust
givenby Refr--WAR. However, the model would
remain very uncertain without the informa-
tion on velocity and the proof of continuity of
the " M " boundary: this evidence came from
Refr--WAR. Gravity modelling has an impor-
tant role to extend the regional model laterally,
238 R. CASSINISAND A. MAZZOTTI

0 20 40 60 80 km
4 I ,~ I I L I I I

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Genova " C hiaVad :~!

, imlmj

1 ~ 4-5 7 8 9

Fig. 10. Position map of the surveyed area in the northwest Apennines showing the profiles where the interpretation was
carried out. 1 =Reflection lines and boreho!es in Po valley (from Pieri and Groppi, 1981 ); 2=Refr-wAR profiles (Cas-
sinis et al., 1990b); 3 = Frontal thrusts of Apennines; 4 = " V i l l a l v e r n i a - V a r z i " line; 5 ="Ottone-Levanto" line; 6 ="Voltri
group"; 7 = Windows of Subliguride and Toscanide units; 8 = Ophiolites; 9 = Liguride formations (from Laubscher et al.,
1992).

especially for p l a n n i n g other NVR profiles characteristics along the w h o l e range; h o w -

across the eastern A l p i n e range.
Apenninic range
T h e A p e n n i n i c range represents o n e o f the
m o s t challenging areas for g e o p h y s i c a l explo-
ration. There are s o m e c o m m o n geological
ever, s o m e differences exist a m o n g the north-
ern, central a n d southern sectors due to the
particular geological setting, and especially to
the lithology and structure o f the a l l o c h t o n o u s
overburden. There is a marked difference o f
response, in every m e t h o d but especially in
NVR, between the northwest A p e n n i n e s and the
G E O P H Y S I C A L ASPECTS O F AREAS O F C O M P L E X G E O L O G Y - - AN I N T R O D U C T I O N 239

3 2 1
A 5 Adriatic-Padan region (Pieri, 1983; Cassinis
L5.. .2 [ 50 i [ Profile 7
et al., 1990b). Two factors of deterioration of
the seismic signal are particularly severe: the
decollement tectonics and the lateral hetero-
20
geneity of the overburden. A good example of
B

~
,-~
5o

-50-
O-
o
oo
°o
°o
o o
°°
complex medium is represented by the Ligur-
ide formations. As far as the seismic response
is concerned, this allochtonous overburden of
variable, sometimes very large thickness (up
to several kin) can be considered as a cyclic
-100
-o o
medium, with alternating thin layers of marls
-150 i , .... i - -
o Oo ° o
and sands. The scattering due to the intense
C so1 folding should be added to the effect of fine
layering andto the high intrinsic attenuation of
.~-50
the medium. It is, therefore, extremely diffi-
cult to have coherent reflections from deeper
"1001 boundaries, even for high reflectivity contrasts
(Fig. 9). In this situation, for structural and
lithologic investigations down to the meta-
morphic basement, the combination of NVR,
Refr-WAR, gravity and magnetics is needed to
obtain reliable results.
In the map of Fig. 10 the surveyed area in
the northern Apennines is shown. The lines in
Distance eastern Liguria represent Refr--WAR profiles
which are extensions of the borehole con-
m o o o
trolled NVR profiles of the Pc valley.
2870
In Fig. 11 the interpretation of profile 7 is
shown. This profile is the one most intensively
2850 i o
surveyed. Refr-WAR was applied using several
NE
reverse shots illuminating the same portion of
i , , 1 1500 '
900 I200 850 600 400 650 J, 600 400 refractor-reflector viewed from different an-
gles. The spacing of shot points was 10 km
while the spacing ofgeophoncs was 1 kin. This
line, which is better controlled than the others,
Distance
was used as a reference for the entire area. In

computed anom. oOOOobserved anom. 5Gosusceptibiliri~ in

e.m.u, x 10

Fig. 11. Interpretation of the reference profile 7 (see po- Quaternary deposits (2.4); 2=Allochtonous units, Mio-
sition in Fig. 10). (a) Seismic model (derived mainly Pliocene units of Pc plain, ophiolitic "melanges" (2.43-
from Refr-WAR; Cassinis et al., 1990b), velocities in 2.56); 3 = Tuscan and Padan Oligo-Miocene units, deep
km-s-1. (b) Gravimetric model (contribution of the up- ophiolitic "melanges" (2.58-2.64); 4=Infra-sedimen-
per mantle to gravity anomalies). (c) Gravimetric model tary susceptive bodies, ophiolitic bodies (2.52-2.70);
(total effect). (d) Magnetic model. (Gualteri, 1992; Val- 5 = Oceanic type of crust (2.68-2.70); 6 = Continental
enti, 1992, unpubl, data). basement and Mesozoic carbonatic formations (2.67-
Geological formations (densities in g- c m - 3): 1 = Plio- 2.72); 7=Upper mantle (3.05).
240 R. CASSINIS AND A. MAZZOTTI

b
50 Coast line
,eTe .e;,,o
2O
~o
20

5O

lOOkm
5o ~_~ Uccellina Perugia Ancona
a

( , 20 150 200 235km

7:

i!
50 ~ Argentarlo Tevefe Spoleto San Benedetto

2 o ~ ~

E 20o ............ . - 200 235kri

oo t

Fig. 12. (a) Bouguer anomalies in central Italy. The traces of the three interpretation profiles are shown. (b) Gravity
profiles across Tuscany, Umbria and Marche (observed and regional, after the application of a short wavelength cut filter
of about 80 km). Solid lines=observed anomaly; dotted lines=filtered anomaly.

Fig. 11a, the seismic model is shown. Some un-
certain vertical reflections, gathered by the ex-
isting NVR lines and projected on profile 7, were
migrated using constant average velocities de-
rived from the Refr--WAR profile. They con-
firmed the deeper markers seen by wide-angle
reflections. The geological interpretation of the
major boundaries is indicated. In Fig. 11b, c,
d, the corresponding gravity and magnetic
models are also shown (Gualteri, 1992; Val-
enti, 1992). One major problem of gravity
interpretation is the very strong regional hori-
zontal gradient. Therefore, the resolving power
of gravity anomalies is low as far as the struc-
ture of the upper crust is concerned. With the
structure of the "M" boundary as interpreted
along the EGT (Buness and Giese, 1990), the
stripping shows that about the 85% of the neg-
ative difference in the Bouguer anomaly trom
the Ligurian sea to the Po valley's southern
boundary, is produced by the upper mantle
structure. The magnetic anomalies (Fig. 11d )
are effective to model shallow susceptive bod-
ies (ophiolites, ophiolitic "mrlange") as well
as the basement. The susceptibility of the base-
ment is, of course, problematic.
In the area of the survey the combination of
several methods raised some hypotheses of
geodynamic importance, including the prob-
lem of the termination of the continental type
of crust, that of the Alps-Apennines boundary
and the position of the "pivot" of the anti-
clockwise rotation of the Italian peninsula
(Laubscher et al., 1992 ). If one tries to assign
a role to each method, it seems that, because of
the difficulties experienced by NVR, only a well
G E O P H Y S I C A L A S P E C T S O F AREAS O F C O M P L E X G E O L O G Y -- AN I N T R O D U C T I O N
241

Upl~r and / n ~ t e Crust ] 1 . Firenze AnC.Ona

V, >,.0',,,,./,
Anommlo,.w low-.¢ C r u s t
4.5~;V m ~ 4 S . O I m ~ . / =
\
Up1~r ]I/anUe
7.6.<~S.Okm./, Roma

SPN SPB

• - • 6.Okm/s -- • @ ~0 ..-~'.T=~.,.,- - •
10 . . . . . . . . " . . . . . 6.2 ; ......... 6.5 . . . . _

. . . . . ,,~--,.-2- "--- ~--- 7.2km/s--"" ' ~ 7 . 3 . . . .

20 . . . . . --~_----_---_~_~_-~ --6.0 5.5-~----- -----~ ~-=~.~-~ . . . . . --
. . . . . -7.7 7.5 ~ ~ * _ E-- " • • • " •

-~ _~-__7.8 78

a + + ~ + + + + + + ~ ÷+ +
*8.0

SPC SPB SPA

2 ~b q~ ~3

• • . • ..- ~.o -~-7--~. . . ~.;,~-~."-~:5.o ~ --- ==-=~-'- £ . 3 ~ ~ .

10- , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~-2-Z.£-7=~'_ _'_ ~._ ' " . 6.2 . . . . . . . 6"~ . . . . . .

20
--~.~r...~_.- -7.5 7.8 ~ . _ u --~.~__ . . . . . . . . . . . .
+ ~ ~ + + ~ + + + + + ~T--_z . . . . . . . . . . .
30 - + + + ÷ + + + + + - L- /
7.7 . . . .
+ + 4 + + . . . . . ~ ~ +
40kin + 4 + + + + 8.0 %''+ -- + + + +--
+ +

75

25
D 0
0
i

o ° ~ o
-25 0
DD
O D ~
i
SPC SP8 \ ~ . ~ S P A
-75
I
0

30-

50 I O0 150 20O
Distance (kin)
Fig. 13. (a, b) Seismic crustal models (Giese et al., 1981 ) along the profiles 1 and 2 shown in the enclosed map. (c)
Gravity model of profile 2.
242 R. CASSIN1SAND A. MAZZOTTI

planned Refr--WARsurvey can produce a coarse A 75~-~ - v F I T I

!
I
model, helping the interpretation of the frag- 1

mentary vertical reflection. Gravity modelling -- o i

!
can have only a role of control of deep and re- 2
J

gional structures, while magnetic modelling

contributes to the interpretation of the shallow -/
3
bodies and of the crystalline basement.
The survey in Tuscany and across the north- ~ 4
central Apennines is a good example to show ~ I÷ ~ +I
the capability of regional gravity anomalies ~ 2 i÷-~÷÷i
C3 5
(Fig. 12a) to implement the interpretation of 3
poorly controlled crustal Refr-WAR profiles
NN
6
0 50 100 150 200
and to help to plan more advanced investiga-
tions, in particular to suggest the objectives for
the deep NVR profiles. In this case the gravity
control led to an alternative proposal for the _

geodynamic model. The regional anomalies •= 5C~j'

obtained by low-pass filtering along sub-paral-
lel profiles normal to the Apenninic trend dis- --10- i
UCCELUNA
i ,
PERUGIA
~ ,
ANCONA
tributed in a wide strip (about 100 km in lati- 0

E
tude) show (Fig. 12b) a similar behaviour 2~ 10
+ + + + + * + ÷ + ÷ + + . + + + ÷ ÷ + ÷ ÷ +
÷+÷÷+÷+.+÷++÷+++++÷.++++*+*+÷++÷÷÷+++÷÷÷÷÷+++
2O 2
(asymmetric sinusoidal).
30-
The initial model for gravity interpretation
4o2
is given by the existing seismic crustal profiles 5o i
(Giese et al., 1981 ). The interpretation of two 0 50 100 150 200

of these profiles is shown in Fig. 13a, b. The Distance (kin)

seismic control is poor (only two end-shots).

On the Tuscan geothermal zone (Larderello
and other steam fields), the interpretation of
the time-distance curves led to the hypothesis
of a strong velocity inversion in the lower crust,
which is not easily transformed into a density
model. In Fig. 13c, a first attempt of a gravity
model along the seismic profile of Fig. 13b is
shown. The large regional misfit seems to in-
dicate the need of modifying the structure of
the "M" boundary.
The gravity model along the central profile
was recalculated (Fig. 14a) assuming the sed-
iments and the top of the basement after the
hypothesis of Bally et al. ( 1986, slightly modi-
fied), and considering a homogeneous inter-
mediate and lower crust. Finally, in Fig. 14b,
the model of the upper crust was maintained,
but the Moho geometry was modified (Broggi,
1992; Prosperi, 1992) in order to improve the
Fig. 14. Gravity modelling along the central profile. (a)
Assuming the sediments and the basement after Bally et
al. (1986), a homogeneous intermediate and lower crust
and the Moho as in Fig. 13c. (b) Mantaining the same
model of the upper crust but modifying the Moho geom-
etry (Broggi, 1992; Prosperi, 1992, unpubl, data).
Geological formations (densities in g-cm-a): l =Pliocene
(2.45); 2 = Flysch "macigno", Eocene and Cretaceous
formations (2.50-2.52); 3=Jurassic units (2.60-2.65);
4 = West of Perugia: Triassic and Jurassic Tuscan units,
"Verrucano", east of Perugia: Permian and Triassic of
Umbria-Marche (2.65-2.70); 5= Crystalline basement
and undifferentiated crust (2.78); 6=Upper mantle
(3.2); 7 = Calculatedanomaly;8= Observedanomaly.
fitting. The "stripping" of Fig. 15 shows that
the contribution of the upper mantle, as mo-
delled in Fig. 14b, reproduces the regional
anomaly obtained by the high-cut filter along
this profile fairly well (see Fig. 12b).
A similar regional pattern of anomalies along
GEOPHYSICALASPECTSOF AREASOF COMPLEXGEOLOGY-- AN INTRODUCTION 243

IO- 1 T f
A

t %Fo o ooo O-

d
g -
•-~-2c~ " \°° DD
~ -4o:
80
0- ~+÷.+++++÷+÷÷.++.++~++÷÷+*++++÷÷.++'+++++÷+
UCCELLINA PERUGIA ANCONA
o- IO-
E
E ~o- 20-
v JE
20- ~_ 3o-
40-
C3
40-
5oi
5O i j . . . . i . . . . r . . . . i . . . . i i , ,
0 50 100 150
0 50 1O0 150 200 o %
o o
50~ ~ ' i , i
B 40 ~o ~ ' ' ' '
a
B 1~ ° ~ ..... 4

u
20 ±

o-:
_-
°°e
\
.-~ _202
~-5
-40 a e
_70 UCC:LL2Nt +'+~ . . . . ;ERUGI.÷+,+.+ .+A~CO?,
a e
-60 e o

-lO ,o÷.:+:.:.:.:÷:.:.:.:..+.÷..÷.÷...v÷.÷..v. •
UCCELLINA PERUGIA ANCONA
o - ~ ~ ~ . e ~ ~
E
v = ~o . . . . . . . "2.1.1.1.2.2.
2 0 - ~
30-
n
40-
0 50 100 150 200
50
30. = e
0 50 1O0 150 200
C 10 ~
Distance (km)
-10-:
-6 i \
~ 3o: \
Fig. 15. "Stripping" of the model of Fig. 14b. (a) Contri-
bution of the upper mantle. (b) Contribution of the crust. ~ 50:
For legend, see Fig. 14. -7o i ARG.
+ I. + ÷ .
BOLSENA
+ ÷ ~. ÷ ' ÷
SPOLETO a v o
÷ ÷ * ÷r÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ % + + +
S.B
0-
"++÷++÷++++.++++÷,+.÷++÷*+* ++*÷*÷+.÷.++*+++*+*+÷
102 "÷+÷÷+++÷++÷*+÷+**++÷++÷÷+++++*+*÷+.+.+++.+,+.+++
;22121122112211~2L~2~2~222L22122~122~2~222
the three sub-parallel profiles is produced by ~_ 302
the Moho structure described in Fig. 16, con- 4o~
sidering a constant crust-mantle density con- 50
trast of 420 kg-m-3. Therefore, the results of 0 50 100 150

the gravity modelling would suggest that the Distance (km I

tectonic compressional phases prevail to de- Fig. 16. Geometry of the Moho, obtained by inversion of
termine the structure both of the upper crust the filtered gravity profiles of Fig. 12b, along the three
and of the upper mantle. Of course, this result profiles. 1 = U p p e r mantle; 2=Undifferentiated crust;
alone cannot demonstrate that the geometry of 3 = Observed anomaly; 4 = Computed anomaly.
the Moho interpreted after Refr--WAR data is
wrong, but it is worth while warning against the Acknowledgements
acceptation of old data without criticism and
further analysis of their reliability. Thanks are due to AGIP SpA for the permis-
244
sion of publish some results of NVR in difficult
areas. The gravity and magnetic models were
calculated by M. Broggi, L. Gualteri, S. Pizza-
relli, M. Prosperi and L. Valenti. Gratitude is
expressed to M. Prosperi who assembled and
modified most of the figures.
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