Unit – 1: Fundamentals of Computer

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Computer as a revolution left no area of life untouched in the present world. It is of tremendous
help in all field of life. Hence, the knowledge of computer is a necessity for existence of
everybody in this global village. The invention of computer has transformed our simple manual
works to sophisticated life of automated works to meet the global demand for the higher
productivity and increased efficiency with high precision.

Computer is increasingly becoming compulsory in nearly all fields of studies, not because of
anything but its accuracy and versatility in processing data. Many tasks at home or office are
being automated rapidly with computer. Thus it is becoming apparent that in whatever discipline
or working sector, the computer is now a very vital tool for efficiency improvement and
precision of job or task execution.

This is designed to meet the prerequisite need of everybody that are interested and wish to know
about computers science and computing in general.

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory. These instructions tell the machine what to do. The computer is capable of accepting
data (input), processing data arithmetically and logically, producing output from the processing,
and storing the results for future use. Most computers that sit on a desktop are called Personal
Computers (PCs).

The "computer" is an ensemble of different machines that you will be using to get your job done.
A computer is primarily made of the Central Processing Unit (usually referred to as the
computer), the monitor, the keyboard, and the mouse. Other pieces of hardware are commonly
referred to as peripherals.

In everyday life activities, we process data or encounter cases of data processing. A typical
example of data processing is the generation of statement of student result from the marks score
in an examination and continuous assessment. It is essential to know that information is as good
as the data from which it is derived, and the transformation process which they are subjected to.
Meaningless data or inappropriate processing produces wrong information. Thus computer gives
you results corresponding to what data you supply and how you process it (i.e. ‘ gabbage- in,
gabbage-out’ ).

Summarily, the intelligent performance of a computer depends on correctness of input data and
the intelligence performance of the human being that drives it.

1.2. HISTORY OF COMPUTING

Since the creation of man, a significant amount of human activities has been ascribed to
organizing and processing information so that it could be more easily presented for easy
comprehension. Many devices have been used in the past before the advert of computer. It is
then necessary to vividly look into their evolution.

Early computing machines:

1. Abacus (-2500BC): This is a hand- held device made of
beads stung on rods in a frame. The rods correspond to
positions of the digits while the beads correspond to the
digits.

2. Napier’s Bone (2500BC): This was invented by John Napier’s (1550 - 1617). This
consists of small rods with appropriate markings on them. It is a mechanical aid to
computation that consists of nine such rods (called bones) with one for each digit 1
through 9. He also invented logarithms which made possible to do division and
multiplication by performing addition and subtraction.

3. Slide Rule (1600AD) by William Oughtred (1575 - 660): He invented it in 1622 but
announced it in 1632 this consist of rules on which markings represent logarithms of
numbers and also permits calculation involving exponents, trigonometric functions, etc.

4. Pascal mechanical calculator (1600) or

Numerical wheel calculator:-Blaise Pascal
(1623 -1664) in 1642 invented the first adding
machine called Pascaline. The brass rectangular
box used eight moveable dials to add and sum
up of eight figures long using base 10. It can
perform all the four arithmetic operation with
previous unheard speed.

5. Leibnitz mechanical multiplier (1600): In 1694

Gottfried Wilhem Von Leibnitz (1646 -1716)
improved upon the pascaline by creating a machine
that can also multiply using a system of dials and gear.

6. Colmar’s Calculator (1820) by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar: This presented a

more practical approach to computing.
7. Punched-Card machine (Jacquard’s loom) (1801): Joseph Marie Jacquard.
8. Mechanical computer: Charles Gabbage (1792-1871) Father of the computer.
Difference engine powered by steam and large as locomotive the machine has a stored
 program and could perform calculations and print the result automatically. We also have
Analytical engine credited to him.

9. Hermann Hollerith (1860-1929)

a. Hollerith’s system punch-card reader machine:-for counting census result in 1890
in US.
b. formed tabulating machine company in 1896(TMC)
c. Automatic Tabulating Machine (ATM)-1900
d. TMC was renamed to International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in
1924 after series of mergers.

In summary, the history of computing began with an analog machine. In 1623 German scientist
Wilhelm Schikard invented a machine that could add, and with the aid of logarithm tables,
multiply and divide. Since then the development has pass through a lot of stages such as the
invention of punched cards to program patterns to create woven fabrics by Joseph-Marie
Jacquard a French inventor in 19th century. Another early mechanical computer was the
Difference Engine, designed in the early 1820s by British mathematician and scientist Charles
Babbage. In the 1930s American mathematician Howard Aiken developed the Mark I calculating
machine, which was built by IBM. This electronic calculating machine used relays and
electromagnetic components to replace mechanical components.

To be sincere, the world has left the era of hearing stories about computer. We are now in the
world of what you can use it for to serve its desired purposes.

1.3 Definition of Computer

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these
data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and
saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical)
calculations.
(Another Definition of Computer)
A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input, processes the
data input, and generates the output in a required format. (Charles Babbage)
1.4 Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Input (Data): Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is
the collection of letters, numbers, images etc.
Process: Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the
computer system.
Output: Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also
called as Result. We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.

1.5 Block Diagram of a Computer

A computer is made up of a number of integrated elements like
 The central processing unit,
 The input and output devices and
 The storage devices.
Each of these units performs a specific task. However, none of them can function independently on their
own. They are logically related and controlled to achieve a specific goal. W hen they are thus integrated
they form a fully fledged computer system

The basic parts of computer system are:

1 Input Unit
2 The Central Processing Unit
3 Output Unit
1. The Input Unit:
Input dev ices are the dev ices which are used to feed programs and data to the computer. The
input system connects the external environment with the computer system. The input devices are
the means of communication between the user and the computer system. Typical input devices
include the keyboard, floppy disks, mouse, microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc.
The way in which the data is fed into the computer through each of these devices is different.
However, a computer can accept data only in a specific form. Therefore these input devices
transform the data fed to them, into a form which can be accepted by the computer. These devices
are a means of communication and inter1 station between the user and the computer systems.

Thus the functions of the input unit are:

 Accept information (data) and programs.
 Convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
 Provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.

2. The Central Processing Unit:

This is the brain of any computer system. The central processing unit or CPU is made of three
parts:
 The control unit.
 The arithmetic logic unit
 Te primary storage unit

The Control Unit:

The Control Unit controls the operations of the entire computer system. The control unit gets the
instructions from the programs stored in primary storage unit interprets these instruction an
subsequently directs the other units to execute the instructions. Thus it manages and coordinates
the entire computer system.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit:

 The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) actually executes the instructions and performs all the
calculations and decisions. The data is held in the primary storage unit and transferred to the ALU
whenever needed. Data can be moved from the primary storage to the arithmetic logic unit a
number of times before the entire processing is complete. After the completion, the results are
sent to the output storage section and the output devices.

The Primary Storage Unit:

This is also called as Main Memory. Before the actual processing starts the data and the
instructions fed to the computer through the input units are stored in this primary storage unit.
Similarly, the data which is to be output from the computer system is also temporarily stored in
the primary memory. It is also the area where intermediate results of calculations are stored. The
main memory has the storage section that holds the computer programs during execution. Thus
the primary unit:
 Stores data and programs during actual processing
 Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
 Stores results of execution temporarily

3. Output Unit:
The output devices give the results of the process and computations to the outside world. The
output units accept the results produced by the computer, convert them into a human readable
form and supply them to the users. The more common output devices are printers, plotters,
display screens, magnetic tape drives etc.
1.6. Characteristics of Computer
The computer is a name of accuracy, name of miracles and name of recent advance technology which
has shrunken the world on a palm.

The characteristics of computer are:

A. Efficiency: The computer processed data in nano second which is beyond of human capacity.
B. Speed: It is with very high processing speed. The computer can process more than 50 million
instructions in one second. Now a day, very high speed computers are available with Pentium IV
or Pentium v microprocessor chips.
C. Storage Capacity: It can stores vast amount of information in the form of books, graphics,
charts, animation, audio, video etc. Now a day, the hard disk of 1024 GB is common, and hard
disk of more than 1 TB is also available in market.
D. Versatility: It has capacity of multitasking. You can enjoy multimedia, word processing,
printing, and communicating jobs from one platform without closing other. This type of facilities
has made it versatile and popular.
E. Reliability: The computer is a reliable electronic multipurpose and multiprocessing machine. It
processes data with high accuracy without any mistakes.
F. Power of Remembering: Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data.
Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It
depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or
retrieve these data.
 G. Accuracy: The computer is applied in scientific and industrial calculation where long range data
is used for information.
H. No IQ: Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what
you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
I. No Feeling: It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does
not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
1.7. Basic Applications of Computer:
A. Business:
Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts are all the areas of
business and industry where computers are used to a great extent. Database management is one of
the major area where computers are used on a large scale. The areas of application here include
banking, airline reservations, etc. where large amounts of data need to be updated, edited, sorted,
and searched from large databases.

B. Scientific, Engineering and Research:

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are used in areas which
require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, weather forecasting, and complex
mathematical and engineering applications. Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Manufacturing (CAM) help in designing robotics, automobile manufacturing, automatic process
control devices etc.
C. Medicine:
Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient data like, pulse rate,
blood pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis. Modern day medical equipment is
highly computerized today. Computers are also widely used in medical research
D. Information:
This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet, networks are all
based on computers
E. Education:
The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students develop the habit of
thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving techniques. CDs on a variety of
subjects are available to impart education. On line training programs for students are also
becoming popular day by day. All the major encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now
available in the digital form and therefore are easily accessible to the student of today. Creativity
in drawing, painting, designing, decoration, music etc. can be well developed with computers.
F. Games and Entertainment:
Computer games are popular with children and adults alike. Computers are nowadays also used in
entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.
1.8. Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
  It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the Picoseconds.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it
may be playing a card game.

Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a
program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction
can control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work
and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance
of large number of paper files gets reduced.
  Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the
cost of each of its transaction.

1.9. Disadvantages of Computers

Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

1.10. Classification of Computers (Types of Computer)

Computers are broadly classified into two categories depending upon the logic used in their design as:

On the basis of working principle

A. Analog computers:
In analog computers, data is recognized as a continuous measurement of a physical property like
voltage, speed, pressure etc. Readings on a dial or graphs are obtained as the output, ex. Voltage,
temperature; pressure can be measured in this way.

B. Digital Computers:
These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are programmable. They process data by
way of mathematical calculations, comparison, sorting etc. (A computer that performs
 calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary
number system.)

C. Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing
complex simulations.

On the basis of size

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power:

S.No Type Specifications

1 Micro Computer It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful
microprocessor
2 Workstation It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer
however a more powerful microprocessor.
3 Mini Computer It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of
users simultaneously.
4 Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting thousands of
users simultaneously.
5 Supercomputer It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of
millions of instructions per second.

1. Micro Computer or PC (Personal Computer):

Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
 Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer

2. Workstation: A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is

just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or
"mainframe."

Workstations generally come with a large,

high-resolution graphics screen, large amount
of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a
graphical user interface. Most workstations
also have mass storage device such as a disk
drive, but a special type of workstation, called
disk-less workstation, comes without a disk
drive.

Common operating systems for workstations

are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC
but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used
as stand-alone systems.

3. Minicomputer: It is a midsize multi-processing system

capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

4. Mainframe: Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of

supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs
 5. Supercomputer : Supercomputers are
one of the fastest computers currently
available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for
specialized applications that require
immense amount of mathematical
calculations (number crunching).
For example, weather forecasting,
scientific simulations, (animated)
graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis
of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

1.11. Computer – Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire
computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date.

A. First Generation (1946-1959): The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as
the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These
tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently.
Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to afford it.

The first generation computers made use of:

 Vacuum tube technology,
 Punched cards for data input,
 Punched cards and paper tape for output,
 Machine Language for writing programs,
 Magnetic tapes and drums for external storage
 The main features of the first generation are −
 Vacuum tube technology, Supported machine language only
 Very costly, Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices, Huge size
 Need of AC, Non-portable and Consumed a lot of electricity

B. Second Generation (1959-1965)

In this generation, transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more
compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum
tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape
and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation, assembly language and
high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used
batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.

The main features of second generation are −

 Use of transistors, Reliable in comparison to first generation computers

 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly, AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were −

 IBM 1620, IBM 7094

  CDC 1604, CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

C. Third Generation (1965-1971)

The computers of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A
single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.

The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multiprogramming
operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are −

 These computers were cable of performing about one million instructions per second.
Thus, they were more powerful and faster than second generation computers.
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size and Generated less heat
 Faster , Lesser maintenance
 Costly, AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity, Supported high-level language

Some computers of this generation were −

 IBM-360 series, IBM-370/168
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)

D. Fourth Generation (1971-1980)

Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI
circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with their associated circuits
on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it
 gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real time
networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++,
DBASE etc., were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are −

 VLSI technology used and Very cheap, Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs, Very small size
 Pipeline processing, No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks, Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were −

 DEC 10
 CRAY-1(Super Computer), CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

E. Fifth Generation (1980-till date)

In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, which is more powerful and faster than microprocessors. During fifth generation,
optical disks have also been introduced which have emerged as a popular portable mass
storage medium. They are commonly known as Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (AD-
ROM) because they are mainly used for storing data which are only readable. In present
generation, communication has become faster due to the use of Electronic mail. This
generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.

AI includes −
 Robotics, Neural Networks, Game Playing

The main features of fifth generation are −

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Comparison between generations of computers:
First Generation Second Third Generation Fourth Fifth Generation
Generation Generation
Use of Vacuum Use of transistors Use of ICs Used of LSI, and Use of ICs with
tubes and diodes VLSI ULSI technology
Limited storage Increased storage More flexibility Increased storage Based on artificial
capacity capacity with input/output intelligence
Slow speed Faster speed Smaller in size and Considerably Very fast
better performance faster and smaller
Problems of over- Reduction in size Extensive use of Modular design, Larger capacity
heating and heat high-level versatility and storage(RAID,
generation languages compatibility optical disks)
High-level Remote processing Sophisticated Support for more
programming and time sharing programs and complex
languages languages for applications
(COBOL, special
FORTRAIN) applications

1.12. Exercise
1. Define the Computer? Explain functionality of computer? What are the functions of the different
units?
2. What are the Characteristics of the Computer
3. What are the classifications of the computer
4. Advantages and disadvantages of the Computer
5. Generations of the Computer?