IV B.

Tech I Semester (R14)

(Supplementary)

Name of the Subject: Biomedical Instrumentation Subject Code: 14AEC41

Branch: ECE Max. Marks: 70

SCHEME OF VALUATION

Marks Total
Q. No Key Points for Valuation
Allocation Marks

PART- A
Types of surface electrodes

Metal Plate Electrodes

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Suction Cup Electrodes
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Adhesive Type Electrodes

Floating Electrodes

EEG
Physiological method of choice to record the electrical activity 2M
generated by the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp surface

EEG Frequency Bands

2
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Delta (d) 0.5–4 Hz
Theta (q) 4–8 Hz 2M
Alpha (a) 8–13 Hz
Beta (b) 13–22 Hz
Gamma (g) 22–30 Hz

Electrical Conduction system of heart

The heart has its own system for generating and conducting action
potentials through a complex change of ionic concentration across
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the cell membrane. Located in the top right atrium near the entry of
the vena cava, are a group of cells known as the sino-atrial node
(SA node) that initiate the heart activity and act as the primary pace
maker of the heart

(i) A patient may not be usually able to react in the normal

way. He is either ill, unconscious, anaesthetized or strapped on
4 the operating table. He may not be able to withdraw himself 4M 4M
from the electrified object, when feeling a tingling in his skin,
before any danger of electrocution
 occurs.

(ii) The patient or the operator may not realize that a potential
hazard exists. This is because potential differences are small
and high frequency and ionizing radiations are not directly
indicated.
Characteristics Impedance

Wavelength and frequency

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Velocity of Propagation

Absorption

PART-B

Static Characteristic

 Accuracy: This term describes the algebraic difference

between the indicated value and the true or theoretical value
of the measurand. In practice, accuracy is usually expressed
as a percentage of full scale output or percent of reading or
± number of digits for digital readouts.
 Precision: It refers to the degree of repeatability of a
measurement. Precision should not be confused with
accuracy. For example: an uncompensated offset voltage in
an operational amplifier may give very reproducible results
(high precision), but they may not be accurate.
 Resolution: The resolution of a transducer indicates the
smallest measureable input increment.
6(a)  Sensitivity: It describes transfer ratio of output to input. 5M 10 M
 Drift: It indicates a change of baseline (output when input is
zero) or of sensitivity with time, temperature etc. It may be
noted that the sensitivity of the device does not change the
calibration curve if shifted up or down.
 Linearity: It shows closeness of a transducer’s calibration
curve to a specified straight line with in a given percentage
of full scale output. Basically, it reflects that the output is in
some way proportional to the input.
 Threshold: The threshold of the transducer is the smallest
change in the measurand that will result in a measureable
change in the transducer output. It sets a lower limit on the
measurement capability of a transducer.
 Noise: This is an unwanted signal at the output due either to
internal source or to interference.
 Dynamic Characteristic
 Only a few signals of interest in the field of medical
instrumentation, such as body temperature, are of constant
or slowly varying type. Most of the signals are function of
time and therefore, it is the time varying property of
biomedical signals that is required to consider the
dynamic characteristics of the measurement system.
Obviously, when a measurement system is subjected to
varying inputs, the input-output relation becomes quite
different form that in the static case.
 Most medical instrumentation systems can be classified
into zero-, first-, second-, and higher-order systems.
 Azero-order system has an ideal dynamic performance, 5M
because the output is proportional to the input for all
frequencies and there is no amplitude or phase distortion.
 A linear potentiometer used as a displacement trasduser is
a good example of a zero-order transducer.
 The first-order transducer or instrument is characterized
by a linear differential equation. The temperature
transducers are typical examples of first order measuring
devices since they can be characterized by a single
parameter, i.e. time constant ‘T’
 Another important parameter to describe the dynamic
performance of a transducer is the response time. It
characterizes the response of a transducer to a step change
in the input (measurand) and includes rise time, decay
time and time constant.
Specification of EEG Equipment
1Should be a 32 Channel digital EEG Machine, where 24 Channels
for acquisition and storage, 5 Polygraph Channels and 3 DC
Channels.
2. Frequency response should be 0.05 Hz to 70Hz.
3. Should have facility to view all channels in different montages
during acquisition
and review.
4. Should have split screen facility to study and even carefully
during acquisition,
where data storage should be on going in hard disk.
5. Should have split screen facility in analysis to compare the data
6b of same time or 5M
different times with individual selection of filters, sensitivity,
montages etc.
6. Should have the facility for simultaneous acquisition and review
of same record.
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7. Should have the facility to mark pages / important events for
printing in review.
8. Should have user definable photic stimulator protocol execution
with display of
photic marks on screen using LED or Xenon flash lights
9. Should have unlimited Montage Reformatting.
10.Should have HLF (15, 35, 70 Hz) and LLF (0.1, 0.3, 1.5, 3, 5
Hz) filters for each channel as well as for all channels for display.
 Specification of EMG Equipment

Operating Features from Shock Simulator itself like Current

adjustment, Start/Stop, Save, Live/Averaging and Current Display
on it.
Capable to perform EMG/EP/NCS/AUTONOMIC studies (More
than 15 test).
Patient isolation in Machine for patient safety which provides 5M
optical isolating acquisition module from input box.
Individual sensitivities & Sweep Speed, it can be changed even
after acquisition.
Simultaneous display of 2/4 channel EMG acquisition.
EMG data can be stored, reviewed and replayed with audio.
More than 80 pre-stored muscle site and capable of displaying upto
20 Raster

ECG Recorder diagram(2) and Explanation (3)

7(a) 5M 10M

EEG Recorder diagram(2) and Explanation (3)

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Strip chart Recorder diagram and explanation

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7(b) 10M
Galvanometric Recorder diagram and explanation
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 Electrical activity of heart
The recording of the electrical activity associated with the
functioning of the heart is known as electrocardiogram. ECG is a
quasi-periodical, rhythmically repeating signal synchronized by the
function of the heart, which acts as a generator of bioelectric
events. This generated signal can be described by means of a
simple electric dipole (pole consisting of a positive and negative
pair of charge). The dipole generates a field vector, changing nearly
periodically in time and space and its effects are measured on the
surface. The waveforms thus recorded have been standardized in
terms of amplitude and phase relationships and any deviation from
this would reflect the presence of an abnormality. Therefore, it is
important to understand the electrical activity and the associated 7M
mechanical sequences performed by the heart in providing the
driving force for the circulation of blood.
The heart has its own system for generating and conducting action
potentials through a complex change of ionic concentration across
the cell membrane. Located in the top right atrium near the entry of
the vena cava, are a group of cells known as the sino-atrial node
(SA node) that initiate the heart activity and act as the primary pace
8(a) maker of the heart . The SA node is 25 to 30 mm in length and 2 to 10M
5 mm thick. It generates impulses at the normal rate of the heart,

Waveform

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Defibrillator circuit

8(b) 4M 10M
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Explanation
 Ventricular fibrillation can be converted into a more
efficient rhythm by applying a high energy shock to the
heart. This sudden surge across the heart causes all muscle
fibers to contract simultaneously. Possibly, the fibers may
then respond to normal physiological pacemaking pulses.
The instrument for administering the shock is called a
defibrillator.
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 During transthoracic defibrillation, the energy stored in the
capacitor is then delivered at a relatively rapid rate (in the
order of milliseconds) to the chest of the subject. For
effective defibrillation,it is advantageous to adopt some
shaping of the discharge current pulse. The simplest
arrangement involves the discharge of capacitor energy
through the patient’s own resistance (R). This yields an
exponential discharge typical of an RC circuit.
Gross Shock or macro shock
Gross shock is experienced by the subject by an accidental contact
with the electric wiring at any point on the surface of the body. The
majority of electric accidents involve a current pathway through the 5M
victim from one upper limb to the feet or to the opposite upper limb
and they generally occur through intact skin surfaces. In all these
cases, the body acts as a volume conductor at the mains frequency.
9(a) 10M
Micro Shock
The threshold of sensation of electric currents differs widely
between currents applied arm to arm and currents applied internally
to the body. In the latter case, a far greater percentage of the current 5M
may flow via the arterial system directly through the heart, thereby
requiring much less current to produce ventricular fibrillation. Such
situations are commonly encountered in hospitals equipments
Safety measures for patients

Any five points

 In the vicinity of the patient, use only apparatus or

appliances with three-wire power cords.
• Provide isolated input circuits on monitoring equipment.
9(b) • Have periodic checks of ground wire continuity of all equipment. 10M
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• No other apparatus should be put where the patient monitoring
equipment is connected.
• Staff should be trained to recognize potentially hazardous
conditions.
• Connectors for probes and leads should be standardized so that
currents intended for
powering transducers are not given to the leads applied to pick up
physiologic electric impulses.
• The functional controls should be clearly marked and the
operating instructions be permanently
and prominently displayed so that they can be easily familiarized.
• Many of the portable medical equipment such as dialysis units,
hypothermia units, physiotherapy apparatus, respirators and
humidifiers are used with adapter plugs that do not ensure a proper
grounding circuit. Particular care should be taken in such cases.
• The operating instructions should give directions on the proper
use of the equipment. In fact, for electromedical equipment, the
operating instructions should be regarded as an integral part of the
unit.
• The mechanical construction of the equipment must be such that
the patient or operator
cannot be injured by the mechanical system of the equipment, if
properly operated.
• A potential difference of not more than 5 mV should exist
between the ground point at the outlet and the ground points at any
of the other outlets and any conductive surface in the
same area.
• The patient equipment grounding point should be connected
individually to all receptacle grounds, metal beds and any other
conductive services. The resistance of these connections
individually should not exceed 0.15 W.

Safety measures for Equipments

 EC 601 (General Requirements for the Safety of Medical

Electrical Equipment), to provide a universal standard for
manufacturers of electromedical equipment as well as a
reference manual on good safety practice.
 The IEC comprises over 40 countries: East and West
European, Canada, New Zealand, Japan, Russia as well as
USA.
 The intention of the common standard is that any
electromedical equipment built to the standard should be
completely acceptable in all IEC countries.
 This standard has been adopted in many countries.
Adopting a common standard implies that construction of
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equipment shall be universally acceptable, the leakage and
earth resistance paths will be assessed in identical manners
and the mains leads will be coloured to the same code, etc.
 Based on the IEC Document, the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) has issued the IS:8607 standard to cover
general and safety requirements of electromedical
equipment.
The standard issued in eight parts, covers the following aspects:
Part I General
Part II Protection against electric shock
Part Ill Protection against mechanical hazards
Part IV Protection against unwanted or excessive radiation
Part V Protection against explosion hazards
Part VI Protection against excessive temperature, fire and other
hazards
 Part VII Construction
Part VIII Behaviour and reliability
Some of the important standards issued are: Radiofrequency
diathermy apparatus (IS:7583),Electrocardiograph (IS:8048),
Cardiac Defibrillators (IS:9286), Diagnostic medical X-ray
equipment (IS:7620), and Electromyograph (IS:8885).
In computed tomography, X-rays from a finely collimated source
are made to pass through a slice of the object or patient from a
variety of directions.
For directions along which the path lengththrough-tissue is longer,
fewer X-rays are transmitted as compared to directions where there
is less tissue attenuating the X-ray beam. In addition to the length
of the tissue traversed, structures in the patient such as bone, may
attenuate X-rays more than a similar volume of less dense soft 5M
tissue.
In principle, computed tomography involves the determination of
attenuation characteristics for each small volume of tissue in the
patient slice, which constitute the transmitted radiation
intensity recorded from various irradiation directions. It is these
calculated tissue attenuation characteristics that actually compose
10(a) the CT image. 10M

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What is ultra sound imaging

Diagnostic ultrasound is applied for obtaining images of almost the
entire range of internal organs in the abdomen. These include the
kidney, liver, spleen, pancreas, bladder, major blood vessels and of
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course, the foetus during pregnancy.
It has also been usefully employed to present pictures of the
thyroid gland, the eyes, the breasts and a variety of other superficial
structures.
Compare ultrasound diagonosis with X Ray
10(b)  Ultrasound has become increasingly important in medicine 10M
and has taken its place along with X-ray and nuclear
medicine as a diagnostic tool.
 Its main attraction as an imaging modality lies in
 its non-invasive character and ability to distinguish 7M
interfaces between soft tissues.
 In contrast, X-rays only respond to atomic weight
differences and often require the injection of a more dense
contrast medium for visualization of non-bony tissues.
 Similarly, nuclear medicine techniques measure the
 selective uptake of radioactive isotopes in specific organs to
produce information concerning organ function.
Radioactive isotopes and X-rays are, thus, clearly invasive.
 Ultrasound is not only non-invasive, externally applied and
non-traumatic but also apparently safe at the acoustical
intensities and duty cycles presently used in diagnostic
equipment.
 In a number of medically meaningful cases, ultrasonic
diagnostics has made possible the detection of cysts,
tumours or cancer in these organs.
 Ultrasonic studies which do not involve image formation
have also been extensively developed to allow the dynamics
of blood flow in the cardiovascular system to be
investigated with a precision not previously possible.
 The main limitation of ultrasound, however, is that it is
almost completely reflected at boundaries with gas and is a
serious restriction in investigation of and through gas-
containing structures.

Prepared by, Dr V.Govindadaraj

Assistant Professor, Department of ECE,
SVCET(78), Chittoor, Mob:. 9952717543