MODERN ELECTRIC TRACTION

Unit 01 : Power Supply Arrangements

PREPARED BY-
PARNEET KAUR CHOWDHARY
LECTURER (GGSP)
What is Traction?
 The action of drawing or pulling something over a surface,
especially a road or track is called Traction.
 Driving forward of a vehicle is traction and the system
which employs this mechanism is called traction system.
 A system which causes the propulsion of vehicle in which
tractive or driving force is obtained from various devices
such as diesel engine drives, steam engine drives, electric
motors, etc. is called as traction system.
 It can also be defined as the railway vehicle that provides
the necessary traction power to move the train is referred
as the traction or locomotive. This traction power can be
diesel, steam or electric power.
Traction systems can be classified as follows

TRACTION
SYSTEMS

NON-ELECTRIC ELECTRIC
TRACTION TRACTION
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
NON-ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEM-
 A traction system that doesn’t use electrical energy for the movement of
vehicle at any stage is referred as non-electric traction system.
 The steam engine drive is the best example of a non electric traction system
and it is the first locomotive system used before the invention of actual
electric traction systems.
 The steam locomotive system uses the superheated steam to
produce mechanical energy for the movement of vehicle.
 This may use coal or petroleum as fuel, liberates thermal energy to
produce the steam pressure and then it is converted into kinetic
energy so that mechanical movement of the vehicle is produced.
The disadvantages of steam locomotive systems , such as , low fuel
efficiency, poor technical performance, maintenance of a large
number of water supply facilities, and high maintenance cost makes
them to be replaced by alternative traction systems and hence the
electric traction.
 The following are the two types of non electric traction systems.
1. Steam engine drive based vehicles (used for railways)
2. Internal combustion (IC) engine drive based vehicles (used for road
transport)
 ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEM-
 Electric traction involves the use of electricity at some stage or all the stages
of locomotive movement. This system includes straight electrical drive,
diesel electric drive and battery operated electric drive vehicles.
 In this, electrical motors are used for producing the vehicle movement and
are powered by drawing electricity from utilities or diesel generators or
batteries.
 It has many advantages over non-electric traction systems such as more
clean and easy to handle, no need of coal and water, easy speed control,
high efficiency, low maintenance and running costs, etc.
 As mentioned above, electric traction systems can be self contained
locomotives or vehicles that receive power from electric distribution system
(substations). Self contained locomotives includes
• Battery operated electrical drives
• Diesel operated electrical drives
 Vehicles that receives the power from substation is also referred as a third
rail systems which includes
• Railway electric vehicles fed from overhead AC or DC supply
• Trolley buses or tramways supplied with DC supply (i.e., battery electric
drives)
 However, the electric drive system has certain advantages over other systems. So,
electric drive system is widely used in rail traction.
 Advantages of Electric Traction system:
1. Cleanliness: This is the most important advantage of electric traction. There is
no involvement of burning fossil fuels and hence there is no smoke and ash. Due
to this reason it is mostly used in underground and tube railways.
2. Maintenance: The maintenance time required by the electric locomotive is less
as compared to steam or diesel locomotive. Also the maintenance cost required
for electric locomotive is 50% that of steam or diesel locomotive.
3. No vibrations: The vibrations exerted by electric locomotives are less because
the torque produced by the electric motors is continuous without any jerk.
4. High starting torque: electric locomotives have high starting torque as compared
to other locomotives. Due to this it is also possible to achieve high rate of
acceleration of about 2.5kmphps. Because of this it is possible to achieve high
speed.
5. Economical in use: electric traction transportation is four times
economical as well as six times energy efficient as compared to road
transportation.
6. Starting time: electric locomotives are not having any starting period;
rather it can be started as and when required whereas other locomotives
take 1-2 hours for starting.
7. Less noise operation: An electric locomotive has quiet operation as
compared to steam or diesel locomotives. It will cause lesser noise
pollution.
8. Zero consumption of fossil fuel: There is no dependency on fossil fuels.
So, the necessity of storage for these fuels is not required. Electricity is
acting as fuel and it can be taken directly from overhead lines running
over the locomotives.
 Supply Systems of Electric Traction
 The track electrification refers to the type of source supply system that is used
while powering the electric locomotive systems. It can be AC or DC or a
composite supply.
 Selecting the type of electrification depends on several factors like availability of
supply, type of an application area, or on the services like urban, suburban and
main line services, etc.
 The three main types of electric traction systems that exist are as follows:
1. Direct Current (DC) electrification system: 600 V, 750 V, 1500 V.
2. Alternating Current (AC) electrification system:
i) Single phase AC system: 15-25 kV, 16.67, 25 and 50 Hz
ii) Three phase AC system: 3000-3500 V at 16.67 Hz
3. Composite system:
i) Single phase to three phase system called as Kando system
ii) Single phase to DC system
1) Direct Current (DC) electrification system
 The choice of selecting DC electrification system encompasses many
advantages, such as space and weight considerations, rapid acceleration and
braking of DC electric motors, less cost compared to AC systems, less
energy consumption and so on.

Fig. (a)
 In this type of system, three-phase power received from the power grids is
de-escalated to low voltage and converted into DC by the rectifiers
and power-electronic converters.
 This type of DC supply is supplied to the vehicle through two different ways:
the first way is through the 3rd rail system (side running and under running
electrified track and providing return path through running rails), and the
second way is through the overhead line DC system.
 This DC is fed to the traction motor like the DC series or compound motors
to drive the locomotive, as shown in the above figure(a)
 The supply systems of DC electrification include 300-500V supply for the
special systems like battery systems (600-1200V) for urban railways like
tramways and light metros, and the 1500-3000V for suburban and mainline
services like light metros and heavy metro trains. The 3rd (conductor rail)
and 4th rail systems operate at low voltages (600-1200V) and high currents,
whereas the overhead rail systems use high voltages (1500-3000V) and low
currents.
 Due to high starting torque and moderate speed control, the DC series motors
are extensively employed in the DC traction systems. They provide high
torque at low speeds and low torque at high speeds.
 An electric motor speed controller is used by varying the voltage applied to it.
The Special drive systems that are used to control these electric motors
include tap changer, thyristor control, chopper control and micro processor
control drives.
 The disadvantages of this system include difficulty in interruption of currents
at high voltages when fault condition is raised, and the need for locating DC
substations between short distances.
TRAMWAYS
THIRD RAIL SYSTEM
Alternating Current (AC) electrification system
 An AC traction system has become very popular nowadays, and it is more
often used in most of the traction systems due to several advantages, such as
quick availability and generation of AC that can be easily stepped up or down,
easy controlling of AC motors, less number of substations requirement, and
the presence of light overhead catenaries that transfer low currents at high
voltages, and so on.
 The supply systems of AC electrification include single, three phase, and
composite systems. The Single phase systems consist of 11 to 15 KV supply
at 16.7Hz, and 25Hz to facilitate variable speed to AC commutation motors.
It uses step down transformer and frequency converters to convert from the
high voltages and fixed industrial frequency.
 The Single phase 25KV at 50Hz is the most commonly used configuration for AC
electrification. It is used for heavy haul systems and main line services since it
doesn’t require frequency conversion. This is one of the widely used types of
composite systems wherein the supply is converted to DC to drive DC traction
motors.

Fig. (b)
 Three phase system uses three phase induction motor to drive the locomotive,
and it is rated at 3.3.KV, 16.7Hz. The high-voltage distribution system at 50
Hz supply is converted to this electric motor rating by transformers and
frequency converters.
 This system employs two overhead lines, and the track rail forms another
phase, but this raises many problems at crossings and junctions.
 The above figure shows AC electric locomotive operation wherein the catenary
system receives single-phase power from the overhead system.
 The supply is stepped up by the transformer, and then converted to DC by a
rectifier.
 A smoothening reactor or a DC link, filters and smoothens DC to reduce the
ripples, and then the DC is converted to AC by an inverter that varies
frequency to get variable speed of the traction motor
Composite system
 This system incorporates the advantages of both DC and AC systems.
 These systems are of mainly two types: a single phase to three phases or
Kando system, and the other single phase to DC system.

Fig. (c)
 In a Kando system, a single overhead line carries the single-phase supply of
16KV, 50Hz.
 This high voltage is stepped down and converted to three-phase supply of same
frequency in the locomotive itself through the transformer and converters.
 This three-phase supply is further supplied to the three-phase induction motor
that drives the locomotive. Since the two-overhead line system of the three-
phase system is replaced by a single overhead line by this system, it is
economical.
 As we have already discussed in the AC electrification that a single-phase to
DC system is highly popular, it is the most economical way of single overhead
line and has wide variety of DC series motor characteristics.
 In this particular system, a single-phase 25KV, 50Hz supply of overhead line
system is stepped down by transformer inside the locomotive, and then
converted to DC by rectifiers.
 The DC is fed to the DC-drive system to drive the series motor and to control
its speed and braking systems.
Fig. (d)
CONSTITUENTS OF SUPPLY SYSTEM-

Various elements of power supply system are:

1. Substations
2. Feeding posts
3. Sectioning and paralleling posts
4. Sub-sectioning and paralleling posts
5. Sub-sectioning posts
6. Elementary sections
1) SUBSTATION:

Fig.(a)
 Layout diagram of a typical traction substation is as shown in fig(a) above.
 Continuity of supply to the substation has to be ensured under all conditions.
 For this purpose high voltage feed to the substations is always arranged from
two sources of supply or by double circuit 132 kV 50 Hz 3-phase transmission
line.
 In the event of failure of one source of supply, the other remains intact to render
service.
 In order to maintain power supply under all conditions, rapid isolation of fault
in the transmission line and substation is ensured by the provision of suitable
protective equipment.
 At each substation are provided two sets of 132 kV busbars- one called the main
busbar and the other maintenance or transfer busbar.
 Both of these busbars are connected through bus coupler circuit breaker.
 The incoming and outgoing transmission lines are connected to both the busbars
as shown in fig.(a).
 Isolators on both sides of circuit breakers and provision of transfer busbar and
bus coupler enable maintenance of circuit breakers and busbars possible while
maintaining the continuity of supply.
 Normally two single phase transformers each of 10 or 12.5 MVA 132/25 kV
are employed.
 Of the two transformers only one will be on operation normally, the other one
acting as a standby.
 The function of the transformers is to step down the voltage from 132 kV to 25
kV.
 The power from the substation is carried by two 25 kV feeders to the feeding
posts located near the tracks.
2) FEEDING POST:

Fig(b)
 Layout of feeding post is as shown in fig.(b).
 Normally there are two feeders running in between substation and feeding
posts.
 Each feeder has two conductors, one insulated for 25 kV connection to the
busbar and the other for 3 kV for connection to the track for return current.
 Cross section of the conductors is 20 sq. mm. of copper of 400 sq. mm. of
A.C.S.R.
 These feeders are connected to two sets of busbars of feeding post through two
oil circuit breakers.
 These two sets of busbars are connected together through bus coupler which
along with input circuit breakers enable OHE to be fed even if one of the
feeders is out of action for maintenance purpose or due to fault.
 Feeding posts are located as close to the substation as possible, maximum
distance being 2 km.
 Usually 25 kV circuit breakers of feeding post are controlled from a remote
control centre of the railway.
 Interlocked double pole isolating switches are provided on both sides of every
C.B. to enable its complete isolation and to ensure full safety for maintenance
staff.
 In the case of two track lines there are four interrupters, two for each feeder
and supplying two tracks on one side of feeding post only.
 Interruptor is supposed to close or open for normal load conditions only.
 Since it is not equipped with any protective relays to trip it automatically in the
event of fault as in the case of circuit breaker, it is not meant for automatic
breaking of fault currents.
 Interruptors are normally arranged for remote control operation but they have
provision for manual operation if required.
3) FEEDING AND SECTIONING
ARRANGEMENTS:

Fig.(c)
 Power generation and transmission systems of supply authorities are of 3
phase type. Electric traction on the other hand needs single phase supply.
 If all the traction load is put on one phase only, it would bring about
unbalanced conditions.
 This, besides causing inconvenience to other consumers due to phase shift, is
very harmful to the alternator as it produces lot of rotor heating due to double
frequency currents induced in the rotor by rotating magnetic field produced by
negative phase sequence currents.
 As such unbalanced conditions beyond certain limit are not permitted to exist,
effort is therefore made to supply power to the consecutive substations from
different phases in in rotation as shown in fig.(c).
 Zones fed by adjacent substations will, therefore, be across different phases,
each acting as a separate independent unit and never working in parallel.
 In order to separate the two sections of OHE fed from two adjacent
substations, neutral section is provided approximately in between two adjacent
substations.
 The purpose of providing neutral section is to separate the zones fed by two
adjacent substations so that it is not possible for a pantograph of electric train
to bridge two different live phases of 25 kV supply while passing from the
zone fed from preceeding substation to the zone fed by next substation.
 Since neutral section is dead, it becomes necessary for the driver of an electric
train to switch off power before approaching neutral section and coast through
it to the other zone.
 For this, warning boards are provided to draw the attention of driver.
4) SECTIONING AND PARALLELING POST:

Fig. d
 Fig. d depicts the power supply arrangement for a two track line in between a feeding post and
a neutral section.
 As shown in the figure sectioning and paralleling post consists of two paralleling interruptors
to parallel OHE of up and down tracks, one on the each side of neutral section.
 Two bridging interruptors, provided with under volt relay, are installed with a view to permit
feeding of section, normally supplied by the adjacent feeding post, in case of an emergency
when its 25 kV supply is interrupted for some reason.
 Bridging interruptors are normally kept open except when an emergency feed is required.
 It should only be closed after taking special precautions to warn the drivers to drop their
pantograph when passing the feeding post up to which feed is extended.
 This is necessary because no neutral section is provided in front of a feeding post except only
an insulated overlap.
 Each substation has to feed two sections, each section comprising of up and down tracks
between feeding post and neutral section on one side.
 Providing a circuit breaker, supply to each section is controlled.
 5) SUBSECTIONING AND PARALLELING POST:
 As shown in fig. d each section is subdivided by the provision of one or more
subsectioning and paralleling posts normally at a distance of every 10 to 15
Km.
 The purpose of this is mainly to isolate the faulty part from the healthy part.
 Each subsectioning and paralleling post consists of two interrupters usually 600
Ampere capacity, bridging adjacent substations and one interruptor for
paralleling the up and down tracks.
 At some stations with large yards, change over switches are sometimes
provided so that supply may be derived either from OHE of one subsection or
the other.
 Normally it is locked in one position but in an emergency it an be changed over
after taking necessary precautions.
 6) SUBSECTIONING POST:

 This is same as subsectioning and paralleling post except that there is no

interruptor for paralleling up and down tracks. This is provided very rarely.

7) ELEMENTARY SECTION:

 Subsection distance of 10 to 15 Km is also too long in case of fault requiring

repairs and maintenance of long duration.
 Therefore with a view to ensure rapid isolation of fault on OHE and to facilitate
maintenance work, each subsection is further divided into elementary sections.
 Two adjacent elementary sections are separated by insulated overlap bridged by
isolators which are manually operated on no load.
 Miscellaneous Equipments at Control Posts or
Switching Stations:
1. Lightening Arrestors: Lightening Arrestors are provided at control posts to
protect every subsection against voltage surges. Earth connection to
Lightening Arrestor should have copper equivalent area of 50 sq. mm.
2. Auxiliary Transformer: Auxiliary Transformer of 25 kV / 230 V,10 kVA
capacity is installed to provide 230 V, 50 Hz supply required for the
operation of remote control equipment, charging the batteries, signaling and
lighting installations.
3. Potential Transformers: Potential Transformers provide continuous
indication regarding the condition of supply to each subsector at remote
control centre.
4. Battery Charging unit: For the operation of remote control equipment and
interruptors, batteries are needed. Therefore, battery charging arrangements
are provided at each control post.
 MAJOR EQUIPMENTS AT SUBSTATIONS:
1. Transformer:
 Transformer is the major component of traction substation. Normally step
down transformer is used to step down the high voltage level from 220 kV
– 132 kV to a working voltage level of 25 kV. The capacity of the
transformer is normally from 15MVA – 32.5MVA.
 These transformers are oil immersed. This not only provides cooling but
also insulation. Traction transformers are specially designed to endure
severe working conditions as compared to ordinary transformer.
 Since transformer is oil immersed it is provided with buchholz relay along
with standard accessories such as breather, oil level indicator, drain valve,
filtering valve, conservator tank.
 Traction transformer is specially designed to withstand severe short circuit
conditions. They are required to have short time peak capacity.
 In order to meet this requirement, traction transformer has A class type
insulation, so as to withstand the short circuit of 25 kV over head lines. They
can tolerate the temperature as much as 110-120% instantaneous of their rated
value.
 Traction transformers are generally provided with off load tap changer instead
of on load tap changer since the primary is connected to the grid network
where voltage is maintained within permissible limits.
 Off load tappings are provided on the primary side at -10%, -5%, 0% and 10%
of rated voltage.
 These transformers are provided with other standard accessories such as oil
level indicator, drain valve, filtering valve, conservator tank, dial gauge
thermometer, relief tank and thermometers to indicate the rise in oil
temperature.
2. Circuit Breaker:
 Circuit Breaker is a switch which operates automatically under faulty
conditions such as overload or short circuit to protect an electrical circuit from
damage. Its basic function is to identify faulty condition and break off the
current flow.
 It can be observed that there are two sets of circuit breakers, namely
Transformer Circuit Breakers and Feeder Circuit Breakers.
 Transformer Circuit Breaker on 25 kV side usually remains closed and is
intended to trip only on the occurrence of internal fault on the transformer.
 Feeder Circuit Breaker on the other hand operates on the occurrence of fault in
the OHE.
 The Circuit Breaker has rated capacity of 750 Amps, at 25 kV and rupturing
capacity of 500 MVA.
 There are various types of Circuit Breakers available according to the type of
arc extinguishing media.
 But mostly Minimum oil Circuit Breaker is preferred to the substation
application.
 Overall tripping time of minimum oil circuit breaker is 0.14 seconds
composed of 0.04 second for relay operation and 0.1 second for opening of
breaker contacts.
3. Interruptor:
 Interruptor is a non-automatic type circuit breaker installed at feeding,
subsectioning and paralleling posts and sub-sectioning posts.
 It is not provided with protective relays and as such cannot operate
automatically in the event of any fault being developed in the system.
 It is however capable of opening and closing the OHE by remote control
from remote control centre by traction power controller.
 Circuit breakers and Interruptors are provided with following interlocks:
i. It should not be possible to operate double pole switches unless the
interruptor or circuit breaker is in open position. This is to avoid sparking at
the switches.
ii. It should not be possible to open the door, if any, into the bay of circuit
breaker or interruptor unless double pole switch is locked in open position.
iii. When the key of circuit breaker or interruptor has been placed for operation
locally, it should not be possible to operate it on remote control.
 PROTECTIVE SYSTEM FOR AC TRACTION:
1) TRANSFORMER PROTECTION:

Fig. e
 As shown in fig.(e) following protective arrangement is adopted for transformer.
a) An inverse time over current induction relay is provided as a back up protection on
the primary side which is arranged to trip the circuit breaker on the H.V. side. One
over current induction relay is also provided on the L.V. side which will trip 25 kV
transformer circuit breaker.
b) One overload thermal relay is also provided on the secondary side for protection
against sustained overloads. With the use of this relay full benefit of allowable
overload for specified time can easily be obtained as it is made to operate
corresponding to thermal characteristic of the transformer.
c) Tank of the transformer which is mounted on concrete foundation is connected by
ground lead to the main earthing system of substation through a series current
transformer. Instantaneous earth fault relay operates from the series connected
transformer. This protection will be ineffective if there exists any parallel path
between transformer tank and main earthing system.
d) As the transformer is oil immersed, Buchholz relay is very much applicable to protect
the transformer by providing alarms on incipient faults and trip command on severe
faults.
2) 25 kV CATENARY PROTECTION
 It is very much necessary that railway catenary remains in the exact desired
position to the tracks. This will ensure the good current collection by the
train pantographs.
 The catenary is designed to operate constantly at a temperature
corresponding to its rated full load conditions, where heat generation is
balanced with heat dissipated radiated etc.
 Protection scheme of 25 kV catenary is somewhat different since the
maximum load current is more than the short circuit current if it takes place
at the farthest point.
 Therefore normal over current protection does not discriminate between load
current and fault current.
 Following protections are provided to the 25 kV Catenary:
Fig. f: Range of operation of different types of relays
1) Over Current Relay: When the fault takes place near to the substation,
fault current magnitude is sufficiently large than full load current. Therefore
normal over current relay is used to serve this purpose for faults near to
substation.
2) Under Voltage Relay: Under voltage relay is used to provide protection
against faults away from the substation. Fig (f) shows the range of operation
of various relays which has to be overlapping.
3) MHO relay: This provides protection against inadvertent coupling of two
adjacent sections of OHE fed from different phases.
 UNIT 2:
OVERHEAD AND CURRENT
COLLECTING EQUIPMENT
Contents:

1. Introduction
2. Overhead Equipments (OHE)
3. Principles of Design of OHE:
i. Composition of OHE
ii. Height of Contact Wire
iii. Contact Wire Gradient
iv. Encumbrances
v. Span Length
4. Automatic Weight Tension and Temperature Compensation
5. Un-insulated and Insulated Overlaps
6. Neutral Section and Section Insulator
7. Polygonal OHE:
i. Single Catenary Construction
ii. Compound Catenary Construction
iii. Stitched Catenary Construction
iv. Modified Y Compound Catenary
8. Effect of Speed on OHE
9. Different types of signal boards of OHE
10. Current Collecting Equipment Systems of Supplying Power in Electric Traction
11. Third Rail or Conductor Rail System Overhead System
12. Current Collectors for Overhead System
a) Trolley Collector or Pole Collector
b) Bow Collector
c) Pantograph Collector and Types of Pantographs
d) Diamond Type Pantograph
e) Faiveley Type Pantograph
13. Methods of Raising and Lowering of Pantograph
INTRODUCTION:

• In last chapter we have studied various sections of power supply arrangements. AC

supply systems and DC supply systems are used for Track electrification.
• The first and foremost function in electric traction is to keep the traction unit fed with
the energy that it needs.
• For this purpose, there are two systems of current collection, namely- from third rail
and from overhead wire.
• The overhead system has more advantages over the third rail system, therefore it is
more widely used.
• Hence power collection from an overhead wire by means of pantograph is exclusively
adopted in the present practice of high speed traction
OVERHEAD EQUIPMENTS (OHE):
OVERHEAD EQUIPMENTS (OHE):
• Simplest type of overhead equipment consists of single contact wire supported
at two ends at each span with the help of bracket.
• The standard length of span is adjusted to 72 m.
• The current collecting equipment i.e. Pantograph makes sliding contact with the
overhead contact wire.
• As speed pf the train increases, pantograph may tend to leave the contact of
contact wire due to inertia action which may result in arcing therefore spoiling
the pantograph.
• Therefore it is necessary to maintain the overhead contact wire perfectly in
horizontal position.
• For this purpose, OHE system consists of one catenary wire (or messenger
wire) made up of steel or stranded cadmium copper with sufficient sag to
minimize the tension on contact wire.
• The other contact wire is supported from messenger wire by means of droppers
which are clipped to both the messenger and contact wires.
• The droppers made of solid copper are spaced at 9 m distance from one another.
 Fig (2.a) Overhead Equipment
• The length of droppers is so adjusted that though there is a sag in catenary
wire, contact wire remains in Horizontal position.
• Generally the height of contact wire is kept up to 5.5 m from the track level.
• There are various types of overhead equipments used in electric traction and
depending upon the requirement, supply system, locations, spacing etc these
overhead equipments are used.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN OF OHE:

The traction overhead equipment is one of the most expensive items in an electrification
scheme. Simplicity and standardization of the equipment are kept in mind to keep the cost
low. Following are the various design consideration for OHE:

1. Composition of OHE
2. Height of Contact wire
3. Contact wire Gradient
4. Encumbrances
5. Span Length
1) Composition of OHE:

• The term OHE in restricted sense includes only catenary and contact wire.
• The material for contact wire is mainly Cadmium Copper, Hard drawn Copper or Tin bearing
Copper.
• The cross section area of the contact wire mainly depends on the load current flowing through
contact wire, traffic density, train loading time schedules and track gradients.
• Cross sectional area of the contact wire also depends upon the permissible voltage drop and
temperature rise which happens in the wire.
• Material selected for contact wire should be of good mechanical strength.
• In order to increase the tensile strength of the OHE, Bronze or cadmium copper catenary is used
even though conductivity of these metals is as low as 60% and 80% for Bronze and cadmium
copper respectively.
• Maximum tensile strength of the various materials used for OHE is given below:
Annealed Copper: 25 kg/mm²
Hard drawn Copper: 42 kg/mm²
Cadmium Copper: 63 kg/mm²
• Contact wire is supported from catenary wire by means of 5mm diameter droppers spaced at not
more than 9 metres apart.
2) Height of Contact Wire:

• Height of the contact wire mainly depends on the system voltage at which the electric
locomotive is to be fed.
• In case of under bridges and tunnels, the overhead wire is to be replaced by rigid overhead
conductor or rail. It is nothing but a rigid conductor instead of normal contact wire.
• It may also be used where the tensioning of wire is too high or impractical.
• Height of the contact wire depends on various factors such as contact wire sag, height of
level crossing, temperature, working clearance etc.
• Normally mid span height of contact wire above rail level is 5.50 m under worst
conditions.
• Therefore normal height of the contact wire at suspension points is maintained at higher
level depending upon type of equipment used whether regulated or unregulated and on the
temperature range of operation of the equipment.
• The normal height at the suspension point will be 5.55 m above rail level.
• In case of unregulated OHE, its value is 5.75 m for temperature range of 4⁰C to 65⁰C and
5.65 m for temperature range of 16⁰C to 65 ⁰C.
3) Contact Wire Gradient:

• Whenever OHE passes under an over line structure, the height of contact wire is reduced if
necessary. Height of OHE is increased at level crossings.
• This change over of the height from normal value to the reduced value under over bridges
and increased value at level crossings has to be achieved very gradually depending upon
the speed or else pantograph may loose contact or exert excessive pressure on the contact
wire.
• Contact wire gradient is inversely proportional to the speed of the locomotive. For higher
speed the gradient should be less.
• Maximum permissible slope of 3 mm per metre is allowed in the case of tracks where
maximum permissible train speed is more than 100 kmph and slope of 4 mm per metre is
allowed in the case of tracks where permissible train speed is 100 kmph or less.
• The permissible change in the contact wire gradient is about 1.5 mm per meter.
4) Encumbrances:

• The axial distance between the catenary and contact wire is called Encumbrance.
• In general, encumbrance is maintained normally at 1.40 meter except at turn outs, overlaps and in the vicinity
of overline structures.

5) Span Length:
• The maximum span length between traction masts or supports is governed by the consideration of contact
wire being blown off the pantograph pan under maximum wind conditions.
• Contact wire may swing due to wind blow. The amplitude of the swing depends on the wind pressure.
• Conductor swing depends on the length of the span. More the span more will be the swing.
• The span shall be as large as practicable, but should enable the contact wire to be erected with allowable
stagger.
• Span lengths have been standardized in the multiples of 4.5 m varying from 72 m to 27 m. this facilitates the
erection of OHE with standard dropper lengths and avoids mistakes in erection.
• From current collection point of view, however, small span lengths are better. This is because with reduced
span, elasticity of OHE is not only reduced but it becomes more uniform all along the length. This improves
the current collection.
AUTOMATIC WEIGHT TENSION AND TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION:

Fig(2.b): Automatic weight tensioning and temperature compensation

1. The tension in overhead lines in traction systems depends on the temperature. Higher temperatures lead to
expansion of conductors and hence sag.
2. It is therefore necessary to minimize the sag to least by giving more tension to the conductors.
3. This adjustment of tension and sag is done automatically to facilitate sparkless collection of current from
the overhead lines by the current collectors mounted on the top of high speed loco. It works as follows.
4. The tensioning device consists of pulley block or a winch with suitable reduction ratio.
5. This arrangement is made on the two sides of the tensioned catenary and contact wire.
6. With variations in the temperature the tension in the contact wire and catenary are maintained due to the
pull of the counter weights of around 400 kg shown in the figure.
7. The tension in the contact wire and catenary is around 1000 kg. Increase in tension reduces sag.

Advantages of automatic weight tensioning and temperature compensation:

1. Sparkless current collection at higher speeds.
2. OHE becomes more dynamically stable under all atmospheric conditions.
3. Reduction in wear of both contact wire and pantograph collecting strips.
4. Creep of conductors with passage of time is automatically taken up by the tensioning device.
5. Only one critical velocity of propagation of waves in contact wire which is greater than that of unregulated
OHE.
6. Because of fixed tension, fluctuations in the height are minimized.
Actual Location and adjustment of automatic weight tensioning and temperature compensation
Un-insulated and Insulated Overlaps:

• If OHE were made continuous long lengths of it would be affected when ever any fault or damage occurs. It
would require long time for rectifying the damage.
• It therefore becomes essential to divide the length of elementary section into a number of sections separated
by means of overlaps.
• Overlap is defined as an arrangement where two set of contact wire runs together in parallel for a short
distance without any mechanical or electrical connectivity but facilitating smooth movement of pantograph
over it.
• The need for the overlaps arises because of:
1. Restriction on the length of the conductor due to handling of weight, drum size, tension to restrict the sag and
elongation due to temperature variation depends on length.
2. Maintenance management of higher length is difficult for schedule replacement, kink attention etc.
3. Separate tension length of loop line, yard lines, loco maintenance lines, etc.
4. Segregation of section to minimize the faulty section to minimize the impact of fault on the running of trains.
• The two contact wires are either connected firmly by a jumper or an isolator/ interrupter. It is called un-
insulated overlap when connected firmly and insulated overlap when connected through a switch like
isolator or interrupter.
Un-insulated overlap:
1. Un-insulated overlap is required when continuity of current flow is required between two conductors whose
length is limited due to design considerations.
2. The contact wire cannot be indefinitely long and a standard length of 1.6 Km is designed taking into
consideration the thermal expansion, tension, weight, etc. This length is also called one tension length.
3. Two sets of conductors are separated by 200 mm & connected by a large jumper of 105 sq.mm. cross-
section.
4. The overlap is either 3 or 4 span length.
5. Three span length overlap is used when radius of curvature is more than 5000 m with span length more than
54 m and four spans with radius of curvature less than 5000 m with span length less than 54 m.
Insulated Overlaps:

• In Insulated Overlaps, the two sets of Conductors are separated by 500 mm in air.
• The gap is decided requiring the minimum air clearance for 25 kV.
• With this clearance, it is possible to make one length dead keeping the other energized by
opening the switch that normally connects the two lines.
• The two contact wires are either connected by a switch which is either an isolator or
interrupter.
• Isolator is operated manually where as interrupter by a command from remote center
through SCADA.
• Insulated overlaps are preferred at the following locations
1. At sub-sectioning and paralleling post (SSP) where two tension lengths are connected by
an interrupter.
2. OHE is sub-divided into different elementary sections between two SSP to facilitate
minimum OHE isolation during fault condition.
3. Yard, loop and maintenance lines
4. Neutral Section
Neutral Section:

Fig(2.c)
Neutral Section:
• Electrical power is generated in three phases with each phase having a phase shift of 1200. The utility power
supply system also expects equal loading on all phases.
• Traction power system works on single phase 25kV traction system. It now becomes important to use all the
three phases equally and convert them into one phase traction supply.
• This is achieved by feeding single phase supply to the adjacent traction substation which is separated by a
neutral section.
• Each feed covers a distance of about 30-40Km feeding all the trains in that zone. By the theory of probability,
equal numbers of trains in feed zone are expected, drawing same load current.
• In this way un-balancing on utility power supply system is avoided. Neutral Section is defined as short
insulated dead overhead equipment separating sectors fed by two adjacent substations which are normally
connected to different phases.
• The neutral section is a dead zone and therefore, the locomotive has to negotiate the section in momentum.
• The locomotive is switched off while negotiating the neutral section to avoid flash over at the time of exit and
re-entering the live zone.
• For this, warning board at 500M, 250M and final board for switching OFF and ON are provided. The assistant
loco pilot speak out the approaching neutral section loudly to alert the loco pilot. Loco pilot also
acknowledges the voice by repeating the approaching neutral section and is in readiness to act so that he
should lower down the pantograph while negotiating the neutral section..
Location of Neutral Section:

The locomotive negotiates the neutral section in its own momentum. Therefore the location is always so chosen
that the physical terrain should not cause inconvenience in the momentum of the train. These are
(1) Away from stopping signal and level crossing
(2) Away from up gradient preferably on flat or down gradient
(3) Away from sharp curve as it will not provide sufficient straight length to accommodate the neutral section.
POLYGONAL OHE:

• Depending upon the speed of the locomotive, we have different types of construction of
polygonal system. The elasticity of OHE over the span between support varies.
• Maximum elasticity occurs at mid point of span and is proportional to the length of span.
On the other hand, minimum elasticity occurs in the vicinity of the supports and is
independent of span.
• An increase in the span length, causes the elasticity to become more uneven.
• But then less is the span, more is the number of supports and greater the cost.
• Also with irregular dropper spacing i.e. longer spacing at supports and shorter spacing at
mid span, a more even elasticity is obtained.
• The variation in the length of successive spans is kept as minimum as possible.
• The more uniform the elasticity, the less is the amplitude of vertical movement of OHE
from its mean position, the less is the contact interruption and better is the current
collection.
• Therefore uniformity in elasticity is achieved with different types of construction as the
range of operating speed increases.
1) Single Catenary Construction:

1. The Single Catenary Construction which is

employed on 25 kV single phase line is as
shown in fig(2.e).
2. It consists of a solid grooved copper or cadmium
copper wire 107 mm² in cross sectional area,
supported by catenary at intervals with the help
droppers.
3. Droppers are made up of Cadmium copper
having cross sectional area of 65 mm² and the
dropper spacing is 9 m except the first and
second droppers which are 2.25 m and 6.75 m
from support respectively.
4. This type of construction provides sufficient
flexibility for speeds upto 120 kmph without any
difficulty of current collection.
5. Besides this, it is relatively less costly, easy to
erect and does not call for heavy maintenance. Fig(2.e) Single Catenary Construction
2) Compound Catenary Construction:
1. It consists of three wires, the main catenary,
auxiliary catenary and contact wire, all in the
same vertical plane.
2. The contact wire is suspended from stranded
cadmium copper auxiliary catenary by solid wire
loop droppers which are free to slide vertically
on the auxiliary wire and fixed to the contact
wire.
3. Auxiliary wire is suspended from main catenary
wire by solid wire droppers.
4. The purpose of auxiliary catenary, besides
increasing the current carrying capacity, is to
provide more uniformity in elasticity.
5. This construction enables automatic tensioning to
be applied to the contact wire without causing
displacement of the supporting bracket assembly.
6. This construction provides very high speed in the
range of 190-225 kmph. Fig(2.f) Compond Catenary Construction
 3) Stitched Catenary Construction:
1. In this type, the contact wire is suspended
by one or more droppers from the short and
continuous auxiliary wire which is
connected to the main catenary at one
point one each on support of main
catenary.
2. The length of stitched wire is about 5-10
m.
3. The contact wire is actually stitched to the
catenary wire as shown in fig(2.g).
4. This type of construction provides better
current collection as the variation in the
flexibility of contact wire reduces.
5. But as compared to the compound catenary
construction, its overall cost is high and it
is very complicated and time consuming
process of stitching of contact wire to the
catenary wire. Fig(2.g) Stitched Catenary Construction
4) Modified Y Compound Catenary Construction:

1. This type of construction is the combination of compound type construction with a Y structure. This helps in
more improved current collection.
2. Fig(2.h) shows the construction of Modified Y Compound Catenary Construction.
3. This type of construction provides more mechanical strength as compared to normal Compound Catenary
Construction.
4. This type of construction has disadvantages such as tension balancing is difficult, installation is difficult due to
complicated construction, maintenance is difficult and wire deformity after some time.

Fig(2.h) Modified Y Compound Catenary Construction

EFFECT OF SPEED ON OHE:

• The type of the construction of OHE to be used is primarily determined by the train
speed.
• The effect of train speed on the current collection by the pantograph will be
understood when the behavior of OHE under the passage of pantograph is
followed.
• The pan of pantograph along the overhead wire pushes it up by a certain
amount of pushup.
• The contact wire after the passage of pantograph, suddenly sags and starts
vibrating vertically due to elasticity of the system.
• When the collecting speed exceeds 120 kmph, a contact break phenomenon is
likely to occur in the overhead wire system having simple catenary system.
• In order to have satisfactory current collection at various speeds, various
modifications in the construction of OHE are carried out.
• i) For speeds up to 100 kmph: Simple Catenary construction (for employing
regulation of mechanical tension)
• ii) For speeds up to 120 kmph: Simple Catenary construction
• iii) For speeds up to 160 kmph: Modified Y Simple Catenary construction
Different types of Signal Boards of OHE:

Following are some of the ways in which sign or signal boards are displayed to alert people about the
track and OHE systems:
• Boards placed high on catenary masts with (usually black on white) symbols such as a diamond
outline, a cross, and a vertical line with two breaks in it. These indicate the neutral sections.
• The diamond outline often has a distance ('500m') marking in it indicating the distance to the neutral
section.
• Usually one such sign is provided 500m before the neutral section and another 250m before the
neutral section.
• At the sign 500m before the neutral section, the loco is powered down by bringing the notch lever
down to 0. The driver is also supposed to start switching off the blowers and other auxiliary
equipment.
• By the time the sign 250m before the neutral section is reached (just 10-15 seconds later at typical
speeds), all the auxiliary equipment should be switched off, although this is not always true. The
older signs are black on white. Newer signs with reflective paint are now in use in some places.
• A cross figure (with the vertical bar broken and not touching the horizontal bar) is the sign just
before the neutral section advising the driver to open the main circuit breaker for the loco.
• This is mandatory if the sign is on a post with a white or yellow base. Older signs of this type black
on white; newer ones with reflective paint are white on blue.
• Immediately after the neutral section a sign with a vertical bar broken at two points is displayed. This
advises the driver to close the main circuit breaker and turn on the auxiliary equipment.
• Sometimes instead of explicit graphics depicting the pantograph being raised or lowered, three
vertical bars one above the other with the middle one displaced sideways from the other two are
shown as instructions to raise or lower pantographs before the neutral section.
• These caution boards are provided for warning the drivers as shown in fig (2.k).
• Some of the signal boards which are commonly used are shown in Fig (2.l) below.

Fig (2.l)
Fig (2.k)
Current Collecting Equipments:

• Current collectors are roof mounted devices used by electrical locomotives to carry electrical power
from overhead lines or third rails to the traction motors of the locomotive.
• The main condition for the current collection is that the equipment should not leave the contact wire
in any circumstances.
• There are various types of current collection equipments and the choice of these depends on the
construction of the OHE and the speed of the locomotive.
• Following are the types for supplying power to the traction motor:
1. Third rail or Conductor rail System.
2. Overhead System.
1) Third rail or Conductor rail System:

Fig (2.m)
Fig (2.n)
• A third rail is a method of providing electric power to a railway train, through a continuous rigid
conductor placed alongside or between the rails of a railway track.
• It is used typically in a mass transit or rapid transit system, which has alignments in its own
corridors, fully or almost fully segregated from the outside environment. In most cases, third rail
systems supply direct current electricity.
• Fig (2.m) and (2.n) shows the third rail system with all the necessary dimensions.
• Third rail systems are a means of providing electric traction power to railway trains, and they use an
additional rail (called a “conductor rail”) for the purpose.
• On most systems, the conductor rail is placed on the sleeper ends outside the running rails, but in
some cases a central conductor rail is used.
• The conductor rail is supported on ceramic insulators or insulated brackets, typically at intervals of
10 feet (3 metres) or so.
• The trains have metal contact blocks called “shoes” which make contact with the conductor rail.
• The traction current is returned to the generating station through the running rails. The conductor rail
is usually made of high conductivity steel, and the running rails have to be electrically connected
using wire bonds or other devices, to minimize resistance in the electric circuit.
• The conductor rails have to be interrupted at level crossings and at crossovers, and ramps are
provided at the ends of the sections to give a smooth transition to the train shoes.
• There is considerable diversity about the contact position between the train and the rail; some of the
earliest systems used top contact, but developments used side or bottom contact, which enabled the
conductor rail to be covered, protecting track workers from accidental contact and protecting the
conductor rail from snow and leaf fall.
• As third rail systems present the hazard of electric shock, higher system voltages (above 1500 v)
are not considered safe. Hence it is applicable only for low voltage below 1500 V.

Advantages:
1. It is cheaper.
2. It can be easily inspected and easy to maintain.

Disadvantages:
1. The shoe must be placed on both sides of the locomotive.
2. The shoe must be fixed properly.
2) Overhead System:

• Overhead systems are used where the requirement of high speed and high power is applicable.
• The drawbacks of third rail system are eliminated in this system. It can be used with high voltage
above 1500 V. The most commonly used voltage level is 25 kV AC.

• Following are the types of current collectors for overhead system:

1) Trolley Collector or Pole Collector

2) Bow Collector
3) Pantograph Collector
1) Trolley Collector or Pole Collector:

Contact Wire

Pole

Trolley Locomotive

Fig o: Trolley Collector

• For tramways grooved gun metal wheel trolley collector with carbon insert attached to the
end of long pole provided on the top of the car, is used.
• Collector is held in contact with the wire by means of spring the force of contact being 10
kg for wheel collector, 17 kg for carbon insert slider.
• The pole can swivel about its support so that it is not necessary for trolley wire to run
exactly in the centre of the track.
• The trolley collector has to operate in trailing position.
• The main drawback of this system is that it has to be rotated 180⁰ before operating tram
locomotive in reverse direction.
• Trolley Collector is suitable for low speeds upto 22 to 30 kmph beyond which it runs the
risk of jumping off the contact wire and current collection will interrupt.
• Another drawback particularly with trolley wheel pole collector is that there is poor contact
between the wheel and the trolley wire. This gives rise to high current density which results
in heavy arcing.
• Fig o shows the simple diagram of Trolley collector or Pole collector.
2) Bow Collector:

Fig p: Bow Collector

• A bow collector is a sliding current collector, consisting of a bow-shaped strip mounted on
a pivoted framework used on locomotives, to collect current from an overhead wire.
• The main advantage of bow collector is that it can be used for higher speed as compared to
pole collector.
• It consists of two trolley collector poles at the end which is placed a light weight metal
strip upto one meter long as shown in the Fig p.
• The bow collector should be mounted in such a way that the top edge of the collector plate
would rise several inches over the wire when the bow and bow poles standing straight up.
• Thus the collector usually inclines opposite to the direction of the travel.
• When it is to be travelled in opposite direction, the collector must be swung over. It is
normally achieved by ropes and pulleys. The collector is folded down to a horizontal
position when the locomotive is not working or not in use.
• They are having very less moving parts than trolley collector but are heavier and
sometimes difficult to construct.
• In this, the overhead wires are stretched more tightly as compared to trolley locomotive.
3) Pantograph Collector:

• A pantograph is a device mounted on the roof of an electric locomotive to collect power

through contact with an overhead catenary wire.
• It is commonly used current collector equipment.
• In this typically a single wire is used, with the return current running through the tracks.

Types of Pantograph:
There are mainly two types of pantographs which are commonly used by the electric
locomotive. They are as follows:
1. Diamond Type Pantograph
2. Faiveley Type Pantograph
1) Diamond Type Pantograph:

Fig q
• The main disadvantage of the above two collectors is that they are having irreversible
operation and low current collection. Both these disadvantages are eliminated in
pantograph type collector.
• Main function of the pantograph is to maintain a connection between the overhead wire and
the power circuit of the electric locomotive at different speed in different environmental
conditions.
• They consist of pressed steel channel sections fixed with collector strips and supported at
the top of the pantograph frame work as shown in the fig q.
• Collector strips are forced down towards the contact wire by the pantograph spring action
or by air pressure.
• Compressed air pressure is preferred for high speed operation.
• The pantograph is connected to a piston in a cylinder and air pressure in the cylinder
maintains the pantograph in the raised condition.
• The material of collector strips are such that minimum wear and tear takes place for the
contact wire.
2) Faiveley Type Pantograph

Fig r
Construction of Faiveley type pantograph collector:

• It consists of i) sub frame or base, ii) Articulated system, iii) Pneumatic control system including
throttle valve, iv) Two raising springs v) Four insulators.
• The base is made up of welded sections and houses two ball bearings on which is carried the
articulated system.
• Rubber stops are provided to limit the folding of the articulated system at the lower part.
• Articulated system consists of:
a) Horizontal spindle turning into two ball bearings which are part of the base.
b) Lower arm integral with horizontal spindle and supporting at the upper end bearing on which
are fitted two tubes of the upper frame.
c) Thrust rod articulated at lower end on fixed point of the base frame and on upper end on bearing
housed in the yoke casting at upper end of lower arm.
d) Transversal tube rotating in the sleeves fitted on the tube ends of upper frame.
e) Positioning rod articulated on a pin fitted on the thrust rod and on one side & on the crank pin
fitted to the shank as shown in the figure.
f) Bow consists of frame on which are bolted two connecting strips.
g) Whole pantograph is fitted on the roof of the vehicle by means of four insulators
Working of Faiveley type pantograph collector:

• When compressed air is admitted in the central cylinder, piston compresses the
holding down springs and slotted rod gets translatory motion which permits horizontal
spindle to rotate under the action of up springs.
• The pantograph then rises until collector touches the OHE.
• The articulated system then stops and piston complete its stroke.
• Piston remains stationary during normal operation.
• The pin of horizontal spindle is permitted to move freely in the slot of slotted rod &
pantograph is operated purely by the up springs.
Methods of Raising and Lowering of Pantograph:
Unit No:03- Signaling and Train Lighting
SIGNALING:

• Signaling is a very important parameter in Traction system. To achieve the proper co-
ordination amongst the electric locomotive signals are must.
• To run the locomotive faster and to handle the large volume of traffic in given time
signaling system plays a very important role.
• Signals are devices used to control the movement of the Electric locomotives.
• Greater Safety, Efficient and faster handling of mass transportation is possible only by
appropriate signaling.
• In earlier days manual signals were used which causes delay in providing accurate signals
and causes human errors leading to several mishaps.
• Now-a-days, modern signaling is provided which comprises of automatic signaling,
interlocking, automatic train control, centralized traffic control etc.
• These modern Signaling systems eliminated all the drawbacks of manual signals.
Signaling in Earlier Days
• In earlier days rail transport was done through horses, so a mounted flagman on the horse
used to give signal. Hand and arm signals were used to direct the “train drivers”.
• But this created many problems in foggy and poor-visibility conditions which gave rise to
flags and lanterns. Then, elevated flags or balls are used to see from a far distance.
• Later on, People worked out with a time table operation where in which trains may only run
on each section of track at their scheduled time, and no other train is permitted to use the
same section.
• When trains run in opposite directions on a single track, at meeting points each train must
wait for the other at a passing place. Neither train is permitted to move before the other has
arrived. In US the display of two green flags is an indication that another train is following
the first and the waiting train must wait for the next train to pass. In addition, the train
carrying the flags gives eight blasts on the whistle as it approaches. The waiting train must
return eight blasts before the flag carrying train may proceed.
• But this type of system created many drawbacks…
1. There is no positive confirmation that the track ahead is clear or not.
2. Trains cannot be added, delayed, or rescheduled without advance notice.
3. There is a lot of delay clearing the trains.
With the invention of telegraph, people felt that atleast this idea would work out.
Here messages could be transmitted to the crews for any timetable changes like
cancellation, rescheduling etc so that they would stop at the next station till other
train passes by to eradicate collisions. But even this type of system failed. All these
led to the development of signals.
TYPES OF SIGNALS:

1) Fixed Signals: These signals are installed permanently. They are normally fixed at the track
side.
2) Hand Signals: These signals are used when fixed signals go out of order and are not
working due to certain reasons.
3) Detonating Signals: Detonating signals are used in Foggy weather to indicate the position
or locality of a signal to the driver of approaching locomotive. These signals are placed on the
rails and explode when the engine passes over them, thereby attracting the attention of the
driver.
4) Semaphore signals: Semaphore signals are the older style signals seen widely throughout the country, where
each signal has an assembly with an arm mounted on a mast, where the arm can move through two or three
different positions at different angles, each position providing a distinct signaling aspect. Very early in India's
railway history, two-position lower-quadrant semaphore signals were the most prevalent. Around the 1930s,
however, the introduction of American style power signaling equipment in some areas resulted in three-position
upper-quadrant signaling being introduced as well, although both systems continued in use for many decades
afterwards. It is not clear when distant signals were introduced.
5) Colour Signals: Colour signals are assemblies of lamps that indicate different aspects by
means of different colours of lamps that are lit. Colour-light signals were introduced in 1928
but were slow to take off. In recent years many older semaphore signals have been replaced by
colour-light signals.
6) Position Light Signals: These signals are the assemblies of lamps where the signals not
only indicated by colour aspect but also provides certain combinations of the lamps that are
lighting up
6) Position Light Signals:
7) Disc Signals: Disc signals are in the form of a vertical disc with a pattern such as a bar
painted on it, which rotates about its centre to different positions to indicate different signal
aspects. These are usually mounted on poles but may be close to ground level.
COLOUR LIGHT SIGNALS:

• The Colour Light Signal is a signal which displays lights of different colours, depending
upon the aspect of the signal to be conveyed to the driver. It is a sleek equipment fitted on
a post.
• With increase in Railway Electrification and other modernization works, use of colour
light signals is increasing day by day on Indian Railways.
• Electric Light lamps made it possible to produce colour light signals which are bright
enough to be seen not only in the night time but also during the day time.
• Colour light signal displays the same aspect during day and night.
• Colour light signal gives information of next signal in advance to the driver
i.e. gives pre-warning to control the speed of train.
• The colour light signal is a signal which displays light of different colours, depending upon
the aspects of the signal to be conveyed to the train operator.
• Colour Light signals mainly consist of Red, Green and Yellow colours. Red colour for
Stop, Green colour for Proceed and Yellow colour for verge of starting or probably
slowing down the train.
Two Aspect Colour Light Signal Three Aspect Colour Light Signal

Four Aspect Colour Light Signal

• Colour light signals have multiple units, depending upon the aspects to be conveyed. Two
aspect signal has two unit , three aspect has three unit and four aspect has four unit.
• The colour light signal unit is painted in black colour. The post on which the signal is
mounted is painted in white colour except for second distant signal, where post is painted
with black and yellow strips alternatively at the interval of 300 mm.

ADVANTAGES OF COLOUR LIGHT SIGNAL :

1. It has No moving parts, hence it is virtually maintenance free.
2. Light weight structure, hence fast and easy installation.
3. It has Better visibility particularly during night and foggy weather.
4. Day and night aspects are same.
5. Colour light signals are easier to understand and easy to memorise.
Three Aspect Colour Light Signal:

• Three Aspects of colour light signals are Red, Green and Yellow as shown in fig below.

Fig 3.a-Three Aspect Colour Light Signal

• In this system, each signal has three electric lamps mounted vertically. The top one is
Green, the middle one is Yellow and the bottom one is Red.
• The Red lamp is for ‘STOP’, the Green lamp is for ‘Proceed’ and the
Yellow lamp is for ‘Caution’ indication.

Fig 3.b-Schematic diagram of 3-aspect signalled route

• The diagram above shows a line with 3-aspect signals.
• As per three aspect signaling Red signal indicates Stop, yellow signal means caution i.e.
prepare to stop at next signal and Green signal indicates proceed when both the sections
ahead are vacant.
• The block occupied by Train 1 is protected by the red signal at the entrance to the block.
• The block behind is clear of trains but a yellow signal provides advanced warning of the red
aspect ahead.
• This block provides the safe braking distance for Train 2.
• The next block in rear is also clear of trains and shows a green signal.
• The driver of Train 2 sees the green signal and knows he has at least two clear blocks ahead
of him and can maintain the maximum allowed speed over this line until he sees the yellow.
Four Aspect Colour Light Signal:

• This is also known as Multiple aspect colour light signaling (MACL). Four Aspects of
colour light signals has an additional Yellow lamp placed above the Green lamp in the three
aspect colour light signal system as shown in fig below.

Fig 3.c-Four Aspect Colour Light Signal

• In this case, if only one Yellow lamp is lighted then it indicates ‘Caution’ and if both the
Yellow lamps are lighted then it indicates ‘Attention’.
• In case of high speed locomotive, three aspect signals are considered to be unsafe. Hence
Four aspect of colour light signals are used for High speed locomotives.
• Four Aspects of colour light signals are Red, Green, Yellow and Yellow-Yellow.
• The Red lamp indicated ‘STOP’, the Green lamp indicates ‘Proceed’ the
Yellow lamp indicates ‘Caution’ and Yellow-Yellow lamp indicates two
Yellow lamps are on which means ‘Attention’.
• Fig below Schematic diagram of 4-aspect signalled route showing how the double-yellow
aspect works.
• The upper diagram shows four-aspect signals with a high speed train with three clear blocks
ahead of it and then, in the lower diagram, a slower train with two clear blocks ahead of it.
• The only care should be taken such that distance between the signals is half the breaking
distance for the maximum permissible speed.
Fig 3.d-Schematic diagram of 4-aspect signalled route
Difference between Three and Four aspects of colour light signals:
Sr.
Three aspects of colour light signals Four aspects of colour light signals
No
It consists of additional yellow colour
It consists of Red, Green and Yellow colour
1 light signals with Red, Green and
light signals.
Yellow signals.
Red means stop,
Red means stop,
Only Yellow means Caution
2 Yellow means Caution and
Two Yellow means Attention and
Green means Proceed.
Green means Proceed.

It is used for Low and Medium speed

3 It is used for High speed Locomotives.
Locomotives.
 Three aspects of colour light signals Four aspects of colour light signals

5
Track Circuits:

• A track circuit is a simple electrical device used to detect the absence of a train on rail
tracks, used to inform signallers and control relevant signals.
• When all the sections of the track are unoccupied or vacant by the train only then it is safe
to display the green aspect of signaling to proceed further.
• To indicate the presence of train on the particular sections of the track manual indications
may cause danger owing to obstruction in the line of sight due to bridges, curvature of line
etc.
• Therefore to provide automatic indication of the presence of train on particular sections of
the track, track circuits are used.
• There are various track circuits used in signaling systems. They are as follows:
1. DC Track Circuit
2. Coded Track Circuit
3. AC Track Circuit
4. Audio Frequency Track Circuit
5. High Frequency Track Circuit
1) DC Track Circuit:

Fig 3.e-DC Track Circuit

• Fig 3-e above shows DC Track Circuit. It consists of a portion of track which is insulated from the rest of the
track by means of specially insulated rail joints.
• These insulated rail joints are obtained by placing fibre pieces in between adjacent rail ends.
• In the insulated section, continuity between the adjacent rails is kept by bonds. This is done to keep down the
resistance of the track.
• The two rails of the insulated tracks are insulated from each other by the use of wooden sleepers.
• Track relay is connected across two rails of insulated track as shown in Fig 3-e.
• The DC source of supply along with regulating resistance is connected to the track as shown in fig 3-e.
• When the track is not occupied by train, the circuit is completed through the track relay and current flows. This
leads to energization of the relay and its armature being attracted, closes one or more contacts thereby
indicating the safe signal in the control room and working up the signal.
• When the track is occupied by a train, a circuit parallel to the relay coil is established by vehicle wheels and
axles. This circuit is called as ‘train shunt’.
• With this shunted connection, the track current is reduced and the relay is de-energized. This is indicated by
relay contacts and treated as danger.
• The train resistance should be small to cause less magnitude of current flow through relay circuit making relay
de-energized.
• Thus relay energization indicates safe conditions and relay de-energization indicates unsafe or dangerous
conditions.
Advantages of DC Track Circuit:
1. It is very simple to maintain.
2. It is highly reliable for effective and safe running of trains on tracks.
3) AC Track Circuit:

Fig 3.f-AC Track Circuit

• An AC track circuit uses the same principle as that of DC track circuit. The voltage used is
about 12V AC.
• The main advantage of using AC track circuit is that it is easy to install and is having easy
maintenance as compared to DC track circuit.
• Also the effect of stray currents is avoided in case of AC track circuits,
• One side of the track is applied with AC supply and at the other end, the relay is powered
with voltage present across the track.
• When the train is on the track, the circuit is shorted to the ground and the relay turns off.
• The ballast resistor or variable resistor is set such that the minimal current required to
energize the relay can pass along the track.
• Impedance bond is nothing but the two windings of low resistance mounted on the
laminated iron core and are wound in opposite direction.
• The main function of impedance bond is to provide a path of low resistance for traction
current and to provide a path of high impedance for AC signaling currents between the
tracks.
• The reason for using the AC track circuits is that alternating current can be used to encode a
small amount of data.
SUPERVISORY CONTROL:

• In any railway electrification scheme, there are large numbers of circuit breakers and
interrupters installed at various control posts.
• Since these devices are large in numbers and are spread out widely, their control by passing
telephonic messages to the operator at switching stations will be time consuming which will
definitely interfere with traffic operation.
• Thus the monitoring and control of these devices are done with the help of Remote control
systems instead of manual control which is time consuming and having certain limitations.
• Therefore these equipments are supervised and controlled from one common place called as
Remote Control Centre (RCC).
ADVANTAGES OF REMOTE CONTROL:

• The advantages of remote control are both of economical and operational nature.
• The economy results from the fact that substations and various control posts are unattended
and consequently are cheaper to maintain.
• From operational point of view, it is advantageous to supervise all functions of the individual
posts from a central control station as this makes it possible to obtain complete co-ordination
over the entire system.
• The element of human error which is otherwise possible when telephonic instructions are
given is thereby completely avoided.
• Further, the correct and rapid supervision about the execution of instructions will also be
possible.
• Remote control centre therefore, enables us to carry out switching operations quickly, safely,
positively and economically.
Remote Control System Equipment and Network:

Fig 3.g-Remote Control System

Remote control centre equipment consists
• Control panel with mimic diagram and control desk.
• Remote control switching equipments.
• FMVFT (Frequency modulated voice frequency telegraph.
• Power supply for control room.

Control desk for TPC:

This table is located centrally with respect to the whole of mimic diagram of the remote control
centre and is provided with various telecommunication facilities such as loud speaking,
telephone from TP circuit, traction loco control circuit and emergency control circuit and
interconnection to section centre and deputy controller with ringing facilities control dc is also
provided with two alarm cancellation keys or to acknowledge and cancel any alarm telesignal
arrive at the control centre and second for acknowledging alarm of low voltage condition of
the latterly of the control centre for which lazar is provided on the desk. In addition, two red
lamps are provided to the attention of TPC for above condition
Remote control switching Equipment:
FMVFT:This equipment provides 18 two way frequency modular voice frequency telegraph
signals for operation over for wire circuit. The send unit for each channel consists an oscillator
modulator, an amplifier and send filter on the output side of send filter, individual channel are
grouped together and connected to trans amplifier then to carrel lines through 150:1120 tapping
transform out of 4 wires, 2 are utilized for tele commands and for telesignals. Due to this
reasons same frequency employed in the taro circuits. This also encloses simultaneous
transmission of the command impulses of control room to various controlled stations over the
hair of wires and receiving the indication imp vises the controlled posts to the control room
over the receive pair of wires.

Power Supply:24 V dc supply is obtained from a battery provided with suitable battery
charger. This supply is requiring switching equipment, FMVFT equipment and all visual and
audible alarm indications of the remote control centre.
MIMIC DIAGRAM:
• Power Supply arrangement for the overhead 25 kV traction is shown in remote control centre on small scale
using a Mimic Diagram.
• Every equipment of the station which is to be remote controlled such as circuit breaker, interrupter etc is
represented on the mimic diagram by a control discrepancy switch(DS).
• The tele command for closing or tripping of circuit breaker or interrupter is transmitted by actuating the
discrepancy switches.
• When discrepancy switch is in line with the busbar, it represents closed position for circuit breaker and when
at right angles to it, it gives open position.
• There is in-built lamp inside the central indicator bar of every discrepancy switch. When the lamp of the
discrepancy switch glows it indicates discrepancy between the position of the discrepancy switch and the
actual position of apparatus it represents.
• Certain non-remote controlled apparatus like substation, isolators etc are represented by hand operated dummy
switches which are different from discrepancy switches.
• The electrified tracks are represented on the mimic diagram by milky white Perspex strips. Indication lamps
are provided for each section of catenary, so that when catenary voltage fails, the lamp provided in the
corresponding section on the mimic diagram light up and become fully illuminated.
• The mimic diagram however remains dark under normal working conditions. Such an arrangement draws the
attention of the operator much more prominently.
TRAIN LIGHTING:

• Train lighting is one of the most important amenities for passengers during their journey.
• The purpose of train lighting is to provide supply for lighting, fans, air conditioning along
with refrigerators and for cooking purposes in the kitchen boogies.

SYSTEMS OF TRAIN LIGHTING:

Power requirement of a train can be met with in following different ways.
a) By axle driven generators in conjunction with batteries or
b) By a separate generator driven either by steam turbine mounted on the locomotive or by
diesel prime mover installed either on the underframe of the coach or in separate power
van. Latter solution is adopted in case of heavy power requirement and is technically called
‘end on generation’.
Three systems are in general use with axle generation viz. single battery system,
double battery parallel block system and modified system.
Special requirements of Train Lighting:

1. D.C. dynamo is of totally enclosed and of robust construction so that road dust and jerks
have no effect on its working.
2. Since dynamo has to operate in parallel with battery, it is essential that its polarity should
not change with the change in direction of rotation of dynamo.
3. It should give constant output at varying speeds.
METHOD OF OBTAINING UNIDIRECTIONAL POLARITY:
As shown in fig h, dynamo has rocker arm mounted on the shaft, friction tight.

Fig 3.h-Method Of Obtaining Unidirectional Polarity

METHOD OF OBTAINING CONSTANT OUTPUT:
Various methods to achieve constant output irrespective of speed changes are discussed below:
Fig 3.i-Belt Driven Generator
Fig 3.j-Three Brush Generator
Fig 3.j-Rosenberg
Generator
Fig 3.k-Single Battery System
Fig 3.l-Double Battery Parallel
Block System