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Chapter 8
WATER TREATMENT

Environmental Chemistry, 9th Edition


Stanley E. Manahan
Taylor and Francis/CRC Press
2010

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Persistent Organic Pollutants

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8.1 Water Treatment and Water Use
Three Major Categories
• Purification for domestic use
• Treatment for specialized industrial applications
• Treatment of wastewater to make it acceptable for release
or reuse

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8.3 Treatment of Water for Industrial Use
Examples of industrial uses requiring water treatment
Cooling water
• Minimal treatment required
Boiler feed water
• Removal of corrosive and scale-forming substances
Food processing
• Must be free of pathogens and toxic substances

Improper industrial water treatment may cause problems


• Corrosion • Scale formation • Reduced heat transfer
• Reduced water flow with increased pumping costs
• Product deterioration and contamination
• Equipment failure or reduced performance
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External treatment of entire water supply by measures such
as aeration and filtration to remove gases and solids
Internal treatment for specialized applications
• Reaction of dissolved oxygen with hydrazine or sulfite
• Chelating agents to prevent CaCO3 deposition
• Addition of precipitants, such as phosphate for calcium
removal
• Dispersants to inhibit scale
• Inhibitors to prevent corrosion
• pH adjustment

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8.4 Sewage Treatment
Sewage contains many things such as organics, grit, grease
Three phases of treatment
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary or advanced
A major objective of all three levels of treatment is removal
of biochemical oxygen demand, BOD

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Wastewater Treatment Processes
Preliminary Primary Secondary
Treatment Treatment Treatment
Screening Sedimentation and Flotation Biological Treatment
Grit removal Sedimentation
Pre-Aeration
Flow Metering and Sampling

Tertiary (Advanced) Solids


Disinfection
Treatment Treatment
Chemical Phosphorous Digestion
Removal Disposal
Biological Nutrient Removal
Multimedia Filtration
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Primary sewage treatment
Removes constituents that are readily separated physically
• Larger solids • Grit • Grease • Scum
Several kinds of physical treatment
• Primary sedimentation (settling)
• Grit removal
• Surface skimming to remove grease
• Grinding to break up solids
• Filtration

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Rectangular tanks
• Rectangular sedimentation tanks may use 
either chain‐and‐flight solids collectors or 
traveling‐bridge‐type collectors 
• Both collector types scrape settled solids to 
collection hoppers located at the bottom of 
the tank
http://www.cee.vt.ed
/
http://www.city.london.on.ca
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Actiflo® Process Diagram (US Filter Kruger)
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Secondary Waste Treatment by Biological
Processes
Major objective is to remove BOD, {CH2O} that would
consume oxygen in receiving waters
Biochemical reaction is: {CH2O} + O2 CO2 + H2O
Devices with fixed films of active biomass
• Rotating biological contactors (rotating disks)
Figure 8.2 Trickling filter

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Figure 8.3 Activated Sludge Process

The membrane bioreactor is an alternative


to activated sludge in which water is
withdrawn through a membrane filter 21
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Anaerobic Digester to Treat Biosolids (Sewage
Sludge) from Secondary Waste Treatment

Methane generated can be used for power in treatment plant


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Figure 8.4 Pathways for the Removal of BOD in 23

Biological Wastewater Treatment

Problems with nitrification/denitrification


• Excessive aeration in secondary waste treatment can
produce nitrate which can undergo denitrification producing
N2 bubbles that prevent biosolids settling
4NO3- + 5{CH2O} + 4H+ 2N2(g) + 5CO2(g) + 7H2O

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Tertiary (Advanced) Waste Treatment
Performed on effluent from secondary waste treatment
Generally removes
1. Suspended solids
• Responsible for most BOD in effluent
2. Dissolved inorganics
• Generally algal nutrients, N and P
3. Dissolved organics
• Toxic substances • Personal care products
• Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites
Pathogens may require removal
See also reuse and recycling of wastewater on a later slide

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8.6 Removal of Solids
Relatively large particles removed by settling and filtration
Colloidal particles usually require coagulation.
Salts of Al&Fe are the coagulant that most often used in wastewater treatment.
• Filter alum, Al2(SO4)3•18H2O, most commonly used
• Forms gelatinous Al(OH)3 precipitate and carries suspended material
with it. Al(H2O)63+ + 3HCO3- Al(OH)3(s) + 3CO2(g) + 6H2O

Bridging species such as the


Al(III) dimer are likely involved
in coagulation
Iron salts that form Fe(OH)3 may also be used as coagulants
Natural and synthetic polyelectrolytes aid coagulation
Coagulation-filtration is very effective in removing solids
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Figure 8.6 Dissolved Air Flotation

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Flotation
• Flotation is used to separate solid or liquid 
particles from a liquid phase
• Separation is brought about by introducing 
fine gas (usually air) bubbles into the liquid 
phase
• The bubbles attach to the particulate matter, 
and the buoyant force of the combined 
particle and gas bubble is great enough to 
float the particle
Applications
• Dissolved‐air flotation – injection of air while 
the liquid is under pressure, followed by 
release of the pressure
• Dispersed‐air flotation – aeration at 
atmospheric pressure
Dissolved‐air flotation
• In small pressure systems, the entire flow may 
be pressurized by means of a pump to 275 to 
350 kPa
• The entire flow is held in a retention tank 
under pressure for several minutes to allow 
time for the air to dissolve
• It is then admitted through a pressure 
reducing valve to the flotation tank
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Table 8.5 Membrane Processes in Water Treatment
Microfiltration, removes suspended solids, emulsified
Increasing pressure, decreasing size removed

components, bacteria, protozoa

Ultrafiltration, removes macromolecules above 5,000-


100,000 molecular mass (function of pore size)

Nanofiltration, removes molecules above 200-500


molecular mass (function of pore size)

Hyperfiltration , removes most solutes and ions, used


for desalination(reverse osmosis)

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8.7 Removal of Calcium and Other Metals
Ca2+ and Mg2+ are water hardness
• Form precipitates with soap making it ineffective
• Deterimental to synthetic detergents
• Produce scale in plumbing, hot water systems, boilers
Deposit formation in hard water
• Occurs when water is heated driving off CO2 gas
Ca2+ + 2HCO3- CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O

Softening water (removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+)


Lime softening Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O
Softening by addition of sodium carbonate when calcium is present as a salt
other than carbonate
• Ca2+ + 2Cl- + 2Na+ + CO32- CaCO3(s) + 2Cl- + 2Na+

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8.8 Removal of Dissolved Organics
Many kinds including
• Disinfection byproducts
• Humic substances
Standard removal process is with :
activated carbon
• Activated by high-temperature reaction with H2O (steam)
or CO2
Some organic resins remove dissolved organics
Oxidation
• Oxidizing agents such as ozone, O3
• May be augmented photochemically with ultraviolet
radiation, h

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Reverse Osmosis, Figure 8.10

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8.10 Sludge
Sludge consists of solids left over from water treatment
• Biosolids is a term given to sludge from biological
treatment
• High water content (typically 85%)
• Disposal is a problem
• Secondary wastewater treatment sludge usually treated
by anoxic biodegradation, which generates methane used
for fuel
• Sometimes pathogens in sludge cause problems
Chemical sludges contain residues from the addition of
Ca(OH)2 (lime) and also contain Al(OH)3 or Fe(OH)3 added as
precipitants

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8.11 Water Disinfection
1. Most common : chlorine or hypochlorite salts such as Ca(ClO)2

• Cl2 in water produces HClO and ClO- ion• Free available chlorine = HClO + ClO-
• Combined available chlorine consists of chloramines produced by reaction of Cl2
and hypochlorite with NH4+: NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3
• A drawback of water chlorination is the formation of low molecular wt
chlorohydrocarbon such as CH2Cl2 & CH Cl3(Not easy to remove with activated carbon).
2. Chlorine dioxide, ClO2, used for water treatment to avoid formation of toxic
trihalomethanes, such as HCCl3
•(very reactive) ,produced on-site by reaction
2NaClO2(s) + Cl2(g) → ClO2(g) + 2NaCl

3.Ozone,O3,Typically produced on-site by electrical discharge into high pressure O2


vessels
• O3 is a better disinfectant than chlorine and does not produce halocarbons, but it
is expensive and fairly inefficient because O3 will also spontaneously decompose
back to O2 soon after production.
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8.12 Natural Water Purification Processes
Soil is a natural filter for wastes and wastewater
Physical, chemical, biological characteristics of soil enable
waste water treatment
• Detoxification • Biodegradation
• Chemical decomposition • Physical and chemical fixation
Bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi in biodegradation
Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil
• Acclimated microorganisms
• Very effective for petroleum wastes

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8.13 Green Water
Much of the world suffers from water deficiency
Water may be available from desalination of sea water or
brackish groundwater
• 70% of Saudi Arabia water
• Multistage flash evaporation
• Reverse osmosis
Water reuse and recycling
• Recycling before water is ever discharged
• Reuse when another consumer uses discharged water
Current major systems for water reuse
• Irrigation
• Cooling water
• Groundwater recharge
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Figure 8.13 Injection of reclaimed water to underground
aquifers to prevent seawater intrusion

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