QUESTIONS FOR EXAM MODULE 1:

1. Proteins. Functions of the proteins. Structural organization. Protein folding.

Role of chaperones in protein folding. Classification of proteins. Biologically
important peptides.

2. Physical and chemical properties of proteins: ionization, hydration, solubility.

Isoelectric point of protein. Formation of the protein’s hydration shell.
Precipitation of proteins (reversible and irreversible). Salting out.

3. Protein denaturation. Factors of denaturation. Properties of denatured protein.

Renaturation (reversible denaturation). General techniques of separation,
purification and quantitation of proteins.

4. Chemical nature and structure of enzymes. Holo-enzymes. Structure.

Classification of the cofactors. Apo-enzymes, co-enzymes, prosthetic groups.
Isoenzymes. Zymogens. General properties of enzymes. Influence of pH and
temperature on enzymes’ activity.

5. Chemical nature and structure of enzymes. Specificity of enzymes. The types of

specificity. Enzymes in diagnostics and therapy. Principles of qualitative
estimation of enzymes. Immobilized Enzymes.

6. Nomenclature and classification of enzymes. Mechanism of enzyme action.

Factors affecting enzyme activity: enzyme concentration, substrate
concentration, product concentration. Michaelis constant.

7. Active center of enzymes. Structure and properties. Allosteric center of

enzymes. Allosteric enzymes. Key enzymes. Regulation of enzyme activity.
Activation of enzyme. Covalent modification.

8. Regulation of enzyme activity. Inhibition (reversible and irreversible,

competitive and non-competitive). Clinically useful competitive inhibitors of
enzyme activity.

9. Vitamins. General characteristics of vitamins. Nomenclature and classification

of vitamins. Comparison of two types of vitamins: water-soluble and lipid-
soluble. Vitamin deficient states. Vitamin B6. Biological functions. Clinical
manifestations of pyridoxine deficiency.

10. Vitamins as cofactors. Vitamin B1. Biological functions. Clinical manifestations

of thiamin deficiency. Vitamin B2. Structure of Riboflavin. Biological
functions. FAD and FMN. Structure and functions. Clinical manifestations of
riboflavin deficiency.
11. Vitamins as cofactors. Vitamin B3. Structure of Niacin. Biological functions.
NAD+ and NADP+. Structure and functions. Clinical manifestations of niacin
deficiency.

12. Vitamins. General characteristics of vitamins. Nomenclature and classification

of vitamins. Folic acid. Biological functions. Causes for Folate deficiency.
Clinical manifestations of folic acid deficiency. Folate antagonists.

13. Vitamins. General characteristics of vitamins. Nomenclature and classification

of vitamins. Structure and metabolism of Ascorbic acid. Biochemical functions.
Ascorbic acid as antioxidant. Clinical manifestations of ascorbic acid
deficiency.

14. Metabolism. The purposes of the metabolism. Catabolism and anabolism.

Metabolic pathways (central and specific, linear and cyclic). Stages of
catabolism and oxidation of foodstuffs. General characteristic of primary
metabolism (digestion). General characteristic of secondary (intermediary) and
tertiary (internal respiration) metabolism.

15. The definition and the stages of biological oxidation. The characteristics of the
enzymes’ class - oxidoreductases. Flavin- linked dehydrogenases. Organization
of electron transport chain II type.

16. The definition and the stages of biological oxidation. Niacin- linked
dehydrogenases. Organization of electron transport chain I type. Hypotheses for
coupling mechanism. Mitchell’s chemiosmotic theory.

17. The definition and the stages of biological oxidation. Organization of electron
transport chain. Co-enzyme Q. Cytochromes. Inhibitors of electron transport
chain.

18. The definition and the stages of biological oxidation. Organization of electron
transport chain. Oxidative phosphorylation (ATP synthesis). P/O ratio.
Inhibitors of electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Uncouples
of oxidative phosphorylation. Regulation of ATP synthesis. Respiratory
control.

19. The definition and the stages of biological oxidation. Reactive oxygen species.
Generation of free radicals. Stages of the lipid peroxidation. Clinical
significance of free radicals. Free radicals scavenger systems. Antioxidants.
Vitamin E. Biochemical role of vitamin E. Deficiency manifestations of
vitamin E.

20. Central metabolic pathway. Definition, localization in the cell. Pyruvate

dehydrogenase complex. Structure and regulation. Biological significance of
 the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid Pantothenic acid and Co-enzyme
A. Structure and biological functions. Deficiency of pantothenic acid.

21. Central metabolic pathway. Definition, localization in the cell. Reactions of the
Krebs cycle. Biological significance of the CAC. Regulation of the CAC.

22. Functions of carbohydrates in organism. The staples abundant to

monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Digestion of the
polysaccharides and disaccharides. Absorption of glucose, galactose and
fructose. Abnormal degradation of disaccharides in the gastrointestinal tract.

23. Metabolism of glycogen. Glycogenolysis and glycogenesis. Regulation.

Glycogen storage diseases (types Ia, III, IV, V).

24. Glycolysis. Definition, localization and reaction in details. . Regulation of

glycolysis. Key enzymes of glycolysis. Biological significance.

25. Glycogenolysis in the muscles. Cory cycle. Glucose- alanine cycle. Biological
significance. Regulation.

26. Energy balance of glycolysis and aerobic oxidation of glucose in the different
organs. Aerobic oxidation of glucose in details. Regulation of aerobic
oxidation of glucose.

27. Blood glucose. Regulation. Gluconeogenesis. Definition. Reactions. Regulation

and biological significance of gluconeogenesis.

28. Pentose- phosphate pathway (PPP) of glucose oxidation. Reactions of the

oxidative phase in details. Biological significance and regulation of PPP.

29. Functions of the carbohydrates in organism. Fructose metabolism in details.

Hereditary fructose intolerance.

30. Functions of the carbohydrates in organism. Galactose metabolism in details.

Galactosemia. Galactokinase deficiency.

31. Functions of the lipids in organism. The staples abundant to triacylglycerols

(TG), phospholipids (PL) and cholesterol esters (CE). Stages of lipids
metabolism. Conditions for lipid’ digestion. Digestion of the TG, PL and CE.
Mixed micelle formation . Abnormalities in absorption of lipids.
32. Bile acids and saults. Biological significant of the bile acids. Enterohepatic
circulation of bile acids. Cholelithiasis.

33. Stages of lipids metabolism. Conditions for lipid’ digestion. Resynthesis of

TAGs, PLs and cholesterol esters. Structure of chylomicron. Metabolism of the
chylomicrons. Extracellular lipoprotein lipase.

34. Oxidation of even chain fatty acids in details. Regulation, biological

significance, energetics.

35. Mechanism activation of hormone sensitive lipase. Lipolysis in details.

Biological significant. Oxidation of glycerol in details. Regulation, biological
significance, energetics.

36. Sources and utilization of acetyl CoA. Transport of acetyl CoA to cytosol by
citrate shuttle system. Biosynthesis of malonyl CoA. Regulation.

37. Stages of synthesis of fatty acids. by fatty acid synthase complex in details..
Characteristic of fatty acid synthase complex. Regulation, biological
significance.

38. Functions of the lipids in organism. Synthesis of TAGs and PLs in details.
Regulation. Biological significance of TAGs and PLs

39. Ketogenesis and degradation of ketone bodies. Biological significance of

ketone bodies. Ketosis. Diabetic ketoacidosis.

40. Transport of lipids by blood. Chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL. Metabolism,

structure, functions.

41. Synthesis of cholesterol. Stages of synthesis. Synthesis of mevalonic acid in

details. Regulation. Fate of cholesterol. Formation of bile acids and bile salts.
Regulation.

42. Transport of lipids by blood. Atherogenic and antiatherogenic lipoproteins.

Atherosclerosis. Stages of formation. Risk factors for atherosclerosis.

43. Functions of protein in organism. Stages of protein metabolism. Essential, non-

essential, semi-essential amino acids. Digestion in stomach, duodenum, small
 intestine. General characteristics of proteases. Endopeptidases, exopeptidases.
Specificity of enzymes. Absorption of free amino acids. Hartnup’s disease.
Cystinuria.

44. Functions of the protein in organism. Stages of protein metabolism. Digestion

in stomach, duodenum, small intestine. Putrefaction of amino acids.
Detoxification of toxic products. Putrefaction of tryptophan. Detoxification of
indole

45. Common fates of amino acids. Conversion of α- amino group. Transamination.

Biological significance of ALT and AST. Deamination for D- and L- amino
acids. Oxidative deamination of glutamic acid. Biological significance.
Transdeamination. Scheme. Biological significance. Fate of carbon skeletons.
Glycogenic, ketogenic and glycoketogenic amino acids.

46. Disposal of ammonia from tissues. Transport forms for ammonia. Mechanism
of toxic action of ammonia and detoxification of ammonia in the nervous
tissue. Urea cycle. Regulation, biological significance, disorders of urea cycle.
Ammoniogenesis in kidney. Biological significance.

47. Reactions decarboxylation of α- carboxyl group of amino acids. General

characteristic of biogenic amines. Biosynthesis of GABA, serotonin, histamine,
dopamine in details. Biological significance.

48. Metabolic fate of phenylalanine. Phenylketonuria. Metabolic fate of tyrosine.

Biosynthesis of catecholamines. Parkinsonism. Biosynthesis of melanin.
Albinism. Catabolism of tyrosine in liver. Alcaptonuria.

49. Metabolic fate of methionine. Biological significance of transmethylation

reactions. Biosynthesis of carnitine, phosphotidylcholine, adrenaline.
Synthesis of creatine. Biological significance of creatine phosphate. Fate of
branched-chain amino acids. Maple syrup urine disease.

50. Stages of fate of nucleic acids. Digestion of dietary nucleic acids. Degradation
of purine nucleotides. Gout. Adenosine deaminase deficiency.

51. Degradation of pyrimidine nucleotides. Biosynthesis de novo pyrimidine

ribonucleotides. Regulation. Synthesis of deoxyribonucleotides. Regulation

52. Biosynthesis de novo purine ribonucleotides. Regulation. Synthesis of

deoxyribonucleotides. Regulation. Salvage pathway for purines and
pyrimidines. Lesch- Nyhan syndrome.
53. Structure of DNA (primary, secondary, nucleosome, chromosome). Replication
of DNA. Transcription (initiation, elongation, termination). Processing of
mRNA. Regulation of transcription. Structure of tRNA, rRNA.

54. Translation (activation of amino acids, initiation, elongation, termination,

posttranslational processing). Regulation of gene expression.

55. Definition of hormones. Classification of hormones. Classification of receptors.

Adenyl cycle system. Glucagon. Biosynthesis and secretion. Physiological
action of glucagon.

56. Definition of hormones. Classification of hormones. Classification of receptors.

Phosphotidyl inositol phosphate system. Adrenaline. Biosynthesis. Mechanism
action of adrenaline.

57. Insulin. Biosynthesis of insulin. Secretion. Structure of insulin receptors.

Biological action of insulin. Diabetes mellitus. Type 1. Type 2. Metabolic
syndrome.

58. Cytosolic receptors. Structure. Biosynthesis of thyroid hormones. Metabolic

effects of thyroid hormones. Hypothyroidism. Cretinism, myxedema.
Hyperthyroidism. Exophthalmia. Goiter. Autoimmune thyroiditis.

59. Cytosolic receptors. Structure. Glucocorticoid hormones. Metabolic effects of

glucocorticoid hormones. Addison’s disease. Cushing's syndrome.

60. Functions of calcium. Vitamin D. Metabolism. Calcitriol. Mechanism action of

calcitriol. Parathyroid hormone. Biosynthesis of PH. Mechanism action of PH.
Osteoporosis.

61. Functions of calcium. Functions of phosphate ions. Hypercalcemia.

Hypocalcemia. Calcitonin. Mechanism action of calcitonin.

62. Functions of vitamin A. Chemistry of vitamin A. Retinoic acid and retinal.

Visual cycle. Deficiency of vitamin A. Night blindness. Xerophthalmia.
Keratomalacia. Hypervitaminosis A.

63. Functions of the water and distribution of water in the body. Electrolyte
composition of body fluids. Regulation of electrolyte balance. Aldosterone.
Metabolic effects. Hyperaldosteronism. ADH. Biosynthesis of ADH
scheme. Metabolic effects of ADH. Deficiency of ADH. Renin- angiotensin-
aldosterone system. Metabolic effects of angiotensin II.
64. Functions of the water and distribution of water in the body. Electrolyte
composition of body fluids. Regulation of electrolyte balance. Atrial natriuretic
peptide. Metabolic effects. Guanylate- cyclase system. Biological significance
of NO.

65. Structure of Hb (I, II, III, IV). Types of Hb (Hb A1, Hb A2, HbF, HbP).
Biological functions of Hb. Derivatives of Hb. Hemoglobinopathy.
Thalassemias. Heme synthesis. Porphyrias.

66. Metabolism glucose in the erythrocytes. Reactive oxygen species and

antioxidants. Free radicals scavenger systems in the erythrocytes. Breakdown
of Hb. Jaundices.

67. Contents of the blood. Biological significance of the blood. Physical and
chemical properties of the blood. Buffer systems. Alkalosis. Acidosis.
Biological significance of albumins and globulins. Hypoproteinemias.
Hyperproteinemias. Disproteinemias. Paraproteinemias.

68. Blood enzymes. Mineral components of the blood. Iron metabolism. Deficiency
of the iron.

69. Common characteristic and types of connective tissue. Function of connective

tissue. Cellular component of CT. Common characteristic of fibers component.
Common characteristic of extracellular matrix. Glycosaminoglycans (GAG)
and proteoglycans (PG).

70. Common characteristic of collagen. Biosynthesis of collagen. Intracellular

processing of collagen. Extracellular processing of collagen. Regulation
biosynthesis of collagen. Degradation of collagen.

71. Functions of kidneys. Glomerular filtration. Composition of glomerular filtrate.

Proteinuria. Tubular reabsorption. Threshold substances. Tubular maximum.
Glucosuria.

72. Functions of kidneys. Tubular reabsorption. Mechanisms reabsorption of amino

acids. Hartnup’s disease. Cystinuria. Reabsorption of solutes in tubules.
Abnormal constituents of urine.