Modelling and Simulation Approaches For Exploiting Multi-Component Characteristics of Ores in Mineral Processing Circuits.s4273407 - Final - Thesis

MODELLING AND SIMULATION APPROACHES FOR EXPLOITING
MULTI-COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORES IN MINERAL

PROCESSING CIRCUITS
Bianca Foggiatto
B.Sc. (Eng.), M.E.
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at
The University of Queensland in 2017
Sustainable Minerals Institute
Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre

Abstract
With many of the world’s richest ore deposits already depleted, deposits with complex
mineralogy, higher competence and lower grades are now being targeted and mining
projects have progressively increased in scale. The mechanical constraints, processing
performance and cost limitations of conventional processing technologies when applied to
high-throughput low grade resources are becoming increasingly apparent, motivating
engineers to investigate practices such as selective blasting, pre-concentration, pre-
weakening, selective grinding and design of circuits that can be actively controlled to
respond to variable feed characteristics. Provided the ore is amenable to these processes,
they have the potential to deliver improved efficiency and can help in absorbing process
instabilities caused by ore variability.
In order to confidently simulate circuits in which these processing strategies can be applied
and quantify their potential benefits, a configurable simulation interface called the Model
Developers’ Kit (MDK) developed at the JKMRC has been used. It features a multi-
component modelling and simulation engine that allows dealing with multiple components
in the feed, accommodating different competencies of ores, utilising physical separation
opportunities and tracking the grade reporting along the different potential processing
routes.
Three case studies were selected for the development of methodologies for exploiting
multi-component characteristics of ores in the modelling and simulation of comminution
and separation circuits in MDK and to trial the ability of different circuit designs to respond
to variable stream properties.
For each case study, component types were selected based on the characteristics of the
selected ores, multi-component models were fitted to industrial measured data, followed
by simulation of circuit design scenarios aimed at optimising grinding and separation
efficiencies. These methodologies demonstrate the behaviour of individual components
and quantify the performance of various flowsheets that treat mixtures of minerals or
processing streams with different competencies and ores with preferential deportment of
high-grade material after crushing and grinding stages. These simulations demonstrate
that the composition and properties of multi-component systems can be used
advantageously to improve circuit performance and energy efficiency.
i
Declaration by author
This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published
or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I
have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included
in my thesis.
I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical
assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional
editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The
content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of
my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work
that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any
university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any,
have been submitted to qualify for another award.
I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University
Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the
thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act
1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School.
I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the
copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright
permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis.
ii
Publications during candidature
Paper presentation:
Powell, M. S., Hilden, M. M., Foggiatto, B., Kay, P., Ballantyne, G., Andrusiewicz, M.,
Weerasekara, N. & Yahyaei, M. (2012). Flexible circuits. Paper presented at the CRC
Ore Annual Assembly 2012.
Foggiatto, B., Powell, M. S. & Hilden, M. M. (2013). Flexible circuits. Paper presented at
the CRC Ore Annual Assembly 2013.
Conference abstract:
Foggiatto, B. & Andrusiewicz, M. (2012). Development of a protocol for surveying

comminution and flotation circuits. SMI RHD Student Conference 2012.
Peer-reviewed conference papers:
Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M., Powell, M. S., Kay, P. D. & Andrusiewicz, M. (2012).
Simulation of flexible circuits. In 11th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference, 291-298.
Hobart: AusIMM.
Lane, G., Foggiatto, B. & Bueno, M. P. (2013). Power-based comminution calculations

using Ausgrind. In M. Alvarez, A. Doll, W. Kracht & R. Kuyvenhoven (Eds.), 10th
International Mineral Processing Conference, 85-96. Santiago: Gecamin.
Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M. & Powell, M. S. (2014). Advances in the simulation of flexible
circuits. In 12th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference. Townsville: AusIMM.
Powell, M. S., Foggiatto, B. & Hilden, M. M. (2014). Practical simulation of FlexiCircuit

processing options. In XXVI International Mineral Processing Congress. Santiago:
Gecamin.
Foggiatto, B., Bueno, M., Lane, G., McLean, E. & Chandramohan, R. (2014). The
economics of large scale ore sorting. In XXVI International Mineral Processing
Congress. Santiago: Gecamin.
Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M. & Powell, M. S. (2015). Use of a novel multi-component

approach for simulating a comminution circuit featuring HPGR and SAG mill. In B.
iii
Klein, K. McLeod, R. Roufail & F. Wang (Eds.), International Semi-autogenous
Grinding and High Pressure Grinding Roll Technology. Vancouver: UBC.
Ballantine, G., Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M. and Powell, M. S. (2015). The impact of pre-
concentration/grade engineering on SAG milling. In B. Klein, K. McLeod, R. Roufail &
F. Wang (Eds.), International Semi-autogenous Grinding and High Pressure Grinding
Roll Technology. Vancouver: UBC.
Chandramohan, R., Lane, G., Foggiatto, B. and Bueno, M. P. (2015). Reliability of ore
characterization tests. In B. Klein, K. McLeod, R. Roufail & F. Wang (Eds.),
International Semi-autogenous Grinding and High Pressure Grinding Roll
Technology. Vancouver: UBC.
Staples, P., Lane, G., Braun, R., Foggiatto, B. and Bueno, M. P. (2015). Are SAG mills
losing market confidence? In B. Klein, K. McLeod, R. Roufail & F. Wang (Eds.),
International Semi-autogenous Grinding and High Pressure Grinding Roll
Bueno, M., Lane, G. and Foggiatto, B. (2015). Geometallurgy applied in comminution

circuit design to minimize risk and maximize project value. In B. Klein, K. McLeod, R.
Roufail & F. Wang (Eds.), International Semi-autogenous Grinding and High
Pressure Grinding Roll Technology. Vancouver: UBC.
Reports:
Vos, F. & Foggiatto, B. (2012). Kennecott Utah Copper Concentrator Case Study - Base
Line Survey - Planning and Execution (AMIRA P9P Document No. P9P-CS4-001-B).
53 p.
Vos, F. & Foggiatto, B. (2013). Kennecott Utah Copper Concentrator Case Study - Base
Line Survey - Site Report (AMIRA P9P Document No. P9P-CS4-002-A). 13 p.
Vos, F., Bradshaw, D., Foggiatto, B. & Powell, M. S. (2013). Kennecott Utah Copper
Concentrator Case Study - Base Line Survey - Workshop Report (AMIRA P9P
Document No. P9P-CS4-003-A). 21 p.
Foggiatto, B., Powell, M. S. & Hilden, M. M. (2013). KUC Case Study – Comminution
Report (AMIRA P9P Progress Report). 19 p.
iv
Book chapters:
Dundar, H., Burgess, D., Foggiatto, B., Bueno, M., McLean, E. & Lane, G. (2015). Milling
circuit calculations. In A. Lynch (Ed.), The AusIMM Comminution Handbook (pp. 191-
213). Carlton: AusIMM.
Foggiatto, B., Bueno, M., McLean, E., Lane, G. & Morley, C. (2015). Circuit design. In A.
Lynch (Ed.), The AusIMM Comminution Handbook (pp. 265-301). Carlton: AusIMM.
Publications included in this thesis
Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M., Powell, M. S., Kay, P. D. & Andrusiewicz, M. (2012).
Simulation of flexible circuits. In 11th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference, 291-298.
Hobart: AusIMM.
Partially incorporated in Chapter 6.
Contributor Statement of contribution
Designed simulation scenarios (50%),

Conducted simulations (100%),
Bianca Foggiatto (Candidate)
Analysed the data (100%),
Wrote the paper (70%).

Marko Hilden
Wrote and edited the paper (30%).
Proposed content and structure (100%),

Malcolm Powell
Reviewed the paper (100%).
Programmed the Models Developers’ Kit

Michal Andrusiewicz (MDK) and provided support on simulations
(100%).
v
Powell, M. S., Foggiatto, B. & Hilden, M. M. (2014). Practical simulation of FlexiCircuit
processing options. In XXVI International Mineral Processing Congress. Santiago:
Gecamin.
Partially incorporated in Chapters 4.

Reviewed simulation scenarios (50%),

Marko Hilden
Reviewed and edited the paper (100%).

Malcolm Powell
Wrote and edited the paper (20%).
Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M. & Powell, M. S. (2014). Advances in the simulation of flexible
circuits. In 12th AusIMM Mill Operators’ Conference. Townsville: AusIMM.


Marko Hilden

Malcolm Powell
vi
Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M. & Powell, M. S. (2015). Use of a novel multi-component
approach for simulating a comminution circuit featuring HPGR and SAG mill. In B.
Klein, K. McLeod, R. Roufail & F. Wang (Eds.), International Semi-autogenous
Grinding and High Pressure Grinding Roll Technology. Vancouver: UBC.
Developed the multi-component approach

(100%),

Marko Hilden
Reviewed the paper (50%).

Malcolm Powell
Reviewed paper (50%).
Contributions by others to the thesis
Mr. Michal Andrusiewicz programmed new models as required and the code of the new
multi-component structure implemented into the MDK simulation platform.
Dr. Marko Hilden envisaged the multi-component approach developed for modelling the
preferential deportment of gold, which was further developed in this thesis.
Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree
None.
vii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors Professor Malcolm Powell and

Dr. Marko Hilden for their guidance and mentorship throughout the duration of my
research and constant source of encouragement to produce this thesis. I am particularly
indebted to Prof. Powell who recruited me and provided me with the opportunity to work at
the JKMRC.
Special thanks go to Michal Andrusiewicz, who developed the modelling and simulation
platform used in this thesis. Michal’s commitment in improving and further expanding the
MDK’s capabilities is greatly appreciated.
My sincere appreciation goes to Greg Lane, Tim Napier-Munn, Mohsen Yahyaei, Walter
Valery, Sarma Kanchibotla, Eddie McLean, Rob Morrison, Bill Whiten, Craig Brown, Simon
Michaux, Peter Holtham, Karen Holtham, Marcos Bueno, Rajiv Chandramohan, Janine
Lay, and Paul Kay for their valuable comments and suggestions to bring this thesis to this
present form. I also wish to extend my thanks to the JKMRC pilot plant personnel, Jeffrey
Parkes and Jon Worth, and my fellow students, Nerrida Scott, Joseph John, Chao Li,
Beatriz S. Katagiri, Cristian Carrasco and Erica Avelar, for their friendships, healthy
criticism, suggestions and cooperation.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Newcrest, LKAB, JKMRC, JKTech and CRC
Ore personnel in providing the industrial plant data, technical information to develop the
methodologies presented in this thesis. In this respect, I also wish to extend my thanks to
Dieter Engelhardt, Paul Griffin, David Seaman, Matthew Livingstone, Erik Niva, Chris
Bailey, Tapiwa Chenje, Alan Bye, John Jackson, Steve Walters and Patrick Walters.
JKMRC, CRC Ore and AMIRA P9P sponsors are also acknowledged for their financial
supports.
I also want to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Homero Delboni

Junior and Dr. Arthur Pinto Chaves for encouragement during the
early days of my career and for planting the seed that made me a
“rock hugger”.
Last but not least, I sincerely thank my family for their

unconditional support, encouragement and understanding through
Image reproduced from
these years.
www.rockhugger.com.au
viii
Keywords
Multi-component modelling, mineral processing circuits, energy efficiency
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)
091404 Mineral Processing / Beneficiation 100%
Fields of Research (FoR) Classification
0914 Resources Engineering and Extractive Metallurgy 100%
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Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Thesis Scope ........................................................................................................................ 3

1.1.1 Hypotheses ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.2 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Objectives.......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Structure of the Thesis .......................................................................................................... 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 9
2.1 The Need for Innovative Circuit Configurations .................................................................... 9
2.2 Standard Comminution Circuit Design ................................................................................ 11

2.2.1 Selection of Comminution Circuits .................................................................................. 13
2.2.2 Models and Circuit Simulation for Typical Comminution Circuit Configurations .............. 18
2.3 Processes Requiring Multi-Component Modelling .............................................................. 19

2.3.1 Sorting and Pre-concentration......................................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Coarse Particles Rejection .............................................................................................. 23
2.3.3 Mine-to-Mill and Selective Blasting ................................................................................. 25
2.3.4 Separations within a Circulating Load ............................................................................. 27
2.3.5 Staged Grinding and Progressive Upgrade..................................................................... 29
2.3.6 Geometallurgy ................................................................................................................. 30
2.3.7 Flexible Circuit Approach ................................................................................................ 31
2.4 Limitations of Multi-Component Models .............................................................................. 33

2.4.1 Comminution ................................................................................................................... 34
2.4.2 Sizing Devices ................................................................................................................. 37
2.4.3 Mineral Liberation ............................................................................................................ 42
2.4.4 Flotation, Density and Magnetic Separation.................................................................... 45
2.5 Mineral Processing Simulators ............................................................................................ 47

2.5.1 The Need for Advanced Simulation Capabilities ............................................................. 61
2.6 Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................................. 67
3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 70
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 70
3.2 Survey Data ........................................................................................................................ 70
3.3 Case Studies ....................................................................................................................... 72
3.4 Energy Efficiency ................................................................................................................ 73

3.4.1 Energy Efficiency of Multi-Component Ores ................................................................... 76
3.5 Concepts Developed for MDK Simulations ......................................................................... 77

3.5.1 Pre-Modelling Calculations.............................................................................................. 77
3.5.2 Pre-Simulation Calculations ............................................................................................ 77
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3.5.3 Post-Simulation Calculations........................................................................................... 78
3.5.4 Customised Simulation Interface..................................................................................... 78
3.5.5 Customised Simulation Output Reporting ....................................................................... 79
3.6 Multi-Component Models Used in MDK Simulations .......................................................... 80
4 CASE STUDY I - LKAB ........................................................................................................ 82
4.1 Circuit description ................................................................................................................ 82

4.1.1 Comminution Circuit Survey ............................................................................................ 83
4.1.2 Ore Characteristics.......................................................................................................... 84
4.1.3 Additional Modelling Data................................................................................................ 85
4.1.4 Ore Type Characteristics................................................................................................. 86
4.2 Multi-Component Modelling Methodology ........................................................................... 87

4.2.1 Mineral Multi-Component Approach ................................................................................ 88
4.2.2 Conceptual Flowsheet ..................................................................................................... 89
4.2.3 Model Fitting .................................................................................................................... 90
4.3 Simulation Results .............................................................................................................. 98

4.3.1 Base Case ....................................................................................................................... 98
4.3.2 Simulation of the Base Case Circuit Processing Lower Grade Ores ............................ 102
4.3.3 Evaluation of Alternative Processing Options ............................................................... 105
4.3.4 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 110
4.3.4.1. Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................... 116
4.4 Summary and Conclusions ............................................................................................... 118
5 CASE STUDY II - CADIA .................................................................................................... 121
5.1 Circuit Description ............................................................................................................. 121

5.1.1 Comminution Circuit Survey .......................................................................................... 123
5.1.2 Secondary Crusher and HPGR Surveys ....................................................................... 124
5.1.3 Ore Characteristics........................................................................................................ 126
5.1.3.1 Primary Crusher Product ....................................................................................... 126
5.1.3.2 HPGR .................................................................................................................... 127
5.2 Multi-Component Modelling Methodology ......................................................................... 129

5.2.1 Stream Processing History Multi-Component Approach ............................................... 131
5.2.2 Conceptual Flowsheet ................................................................................................... 131
5.2.3 Model Fitting .................................................................................................................. 132
5.3 Simulation Results ............................................................................................................ 142

5.3.1 Base Case ..................................................................................................................... 143
5.3.1.1 Comparison between Single and Multi-Component SAG Mill Simulations of the
Base Case Scenario ............................................................................................................. 146
5.3.2 Multi-Component Simulations of Increasing HPGR Operating Pressures .................... 150
5.3.3 Evaluation of Alternative Circuit Options ....................................................................... 152
5.3.4 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 154
6 CASE STUDY III - TELFER ................................................................................................ 160
6.1 Circuit Description ............................................................................................................. 160

6.1.1 Comminution Circuit Survey .......................................................................................... 162
6.1.2 Integrated Mass and Metallurgical Balance .................................................................. 162
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6.1.3 Ore Characteristics........................................................................................................ 163
6.1.4 Ore Variability ................................................................................................................ 163
6.2 Multi-Component Modelling Methodology ......................................................................... 166

6.2.1 Mineralisation Multi-Component Approach ................................................................... 167
6.2.2 Conceptual Flowsheet ................................................................................................... 167
6.2.3 Model Fitting .................................................................................................................. 168
6.2.3.1 Comminution Circuit Single Component Modelling in JKSimMet .......................... 169
6.2.3.2 Comminution Circuit Multi-Component Modelling in MDK..................................... 170
6.2.4 Pre-Concentration Circuit Models ................................................................................. 178
6.3 Simulation Results ............................................................................................................ 179

6.3.1 Base Case ..................................................................................................................... 180
6.3.2 Simulation of the Base Case Circuit Processing Variable Ore Types ........................... 183
6.3.3 Pre-Concentration and Comminution Circuit Options ................................................... 186
6.3.3.1 Assessment of Pre-Concentration by Screening ................................................... 187
6.3.3.2 Simulation Scenarios ............................................................................................. 189
6.3.4 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 192
6.3.4.1. Comparison between Base Case Circuit and Pre-Concentration and Comminution
Circuit Options....................................................................................................................... 195
7 MODELLING APPROACHES FOR EXPLOITING MULTI-COMPONENT

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORES .................................................................................................. 202
7.1 Simulation Challenges in Each Case Study ...................................................................... 202
7.2 Applicability of the Concepts Developed in this Thesis ..................................................... 204
7.3 Advantages and Limitations of Models Used in this Thesis .............................................. 207
7.4 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 212
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................... 215
8.1 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 215
8.2 Major Conclusions from Each Case Study ........................................................................ 217

8.2.1 Case Study I .................................................................................................................. 217
8.2.2 Case Study II ................................................................................................................. 218
8.2.3 Case Study III ................................................................................................................ 219
8.3 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 221

8.3.1 Contributions to Knowledge .......................................................................................... 222
8.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 223
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 225
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APPENDIX 1 Single and Multi-Component Models Used in this Thesis..…..…………….. A1 – 1
Perfect Mixing Ball Mill Model ….…………………………………….….…….………..……. A1 – 1

Multi-Component Perfect Mixing Ball Mill Model ..…………………..….…….……………. A1 – 2
Modified Multi-Component Perfect Mixing Ball Mill Model .…….….….…….……………. A1 – 3
AG/SAG Mill Leung’s Model ………………………………………….….……………………. A1 – 3
AG/SAG Mill Variable Rates Model .…………………...………….…….…………………… A1 – 5
Bueno’s AG/SAG Mill Model …………………………………....………..…………………… A1 – 7
Andersen and Whiten Crusher Model ……………………………………...………………… A1 – 8
Multi-Component Crusher Model ..….……………………………………..………..………. A1 – 11
Morrell, Tondo and Shi HPGR Model ……………………………………………...……….. A1 – 11
Multi-Component HPGR Model ……………………………………………………………... A1 – 12
Multi-Component Efficiency Curves ………………………………………………….…….. A1 – 13
Nageswararao Cyclone Model …………………………………………………………….... A1 – 13
Nageswararao Multi-Component Cyclone Model ………………….……………….…….. A1 – 14
Two-Way Splitter Model .……………………………………………………………………...A1 – 15
Multi-Component Two-Way Splitter Model …………………………..…………………….. A1 – 15
Two-Way Simple Splitter Model …………………………………………………………….. A1 – 16
Multi-Component Two-Way Simple Splitter Model ..…..………………………………….. A1 – 16
Powell and Hilden’s Bin and Stockpile Model ..……………………….………………….. A1 – 16
Component Adjustment Model ………………………………………………….…………... A1 – 17
APPENDIX 2 Case Study I – Mass Balance Results ..…………………………………….……A2 - 1
APPENDIX 3 Circuit Configurations in MDK .……………...…..……………….….…….…….. A3 - 1
APPENDIX 4 Case Study I – Model Fit and Simulation Results .……………..…………… A4 - 1
APPENDIX 5 Case Study II – Mass Balance Results ……………………..…..………………. A5 - 1
APPENDIX 6 Case Study II – Model Fit and Simulation Results …………………….…….. A6 - 1
APPENDIX 7 Case Study III – Mass and Metallurgical Balance Results ………………….. A7 - 1
APPENDIX 8 Case Study III – Model Fit and Simulation Results ..……..……………..….. A8 - 1
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List of Tables
Table 2.1. Typical comminution circuit configurations (Foggiatto et al., 2015a) ............................. 14
Table 2.2. Ore competence and circuit selection (Lane et al., 2002) ............................................. 16
Table 2.3. Summary of steady-state mineral processing simulators .............................................. 64
Table 3.1. Multi-component models used in MDK .......................................................................... 81
Table 4.1. Summary of breakage test results – case study I .......................................................... 84
Table 4.2. Equipment specifications – case study I ........................................................................ 91
Table 4.3. Mass and metallurgical balances – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I ........ 99
Table 4.4. Main process parameters – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I .................. 100
Table 4.5. Size specific energies – base case circuit – ore types A, B and C – case study I ....... 104
Table 4.6. Equipment specifications – SAG mill – case study I .................................................... 106
Table 4.7. HPGR specifications – case study I ............................................................................ 107
Table 4.8. Splitter settings (% to AG/SAG mill) – ore types A, B and C – case study I ................ 111
Table 4.9. Alternative scenario evaluation – ore types B and C – case study I ............................ 112
Table 4.10. Processing cost estimates – case study I .................................................................. 117
Table 5.1. Main results from the secondary crusher surveys – case study II (Yahyaei, 2013a)... 125
Table 5.2. Main results from the HPGR surveys at different pressures – case study II (Yahyaei et
al., 2013a) ..................................................................................................................................... 126
Table 5.3. Summary of breakage test results – case study II ....................................................... 127
Table 5.4. HPGR products breakage tests results – case study II ............................................... 128
Table 5.5. Mass balances – base case – case study II ................................................................ 144
Table 5.6. Main process parameters – base case – case study II ............................................... 145
Table 5.7. Single and multi-component breakage parameters – case study II ............................. 148
Table 5.8. Single and multi-component SAG mill simulation results – case study II .................... 149
Table 5.9. Breakage parameters – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations – case
study II .......................................................................................................................................... 150
Table 5.10. Simulation input – case study II ................................................................................. 154
Table 6.1. Breakage characterisation testwork results – case study III ........................................ 163
Table 6.2. Variability of size and gold distributions for belt-cut samples ...................................... 164
Table 6.3. Feed component characteristics – base case circuit – case study III .......................... 171
Table 6.4. Mass balance – base case circuit – case study III ...................................................... 181
Table 6.5. Metallurgical balance – base case circuit – case study III ........................................... 181
Table 6.6. Main process parameters – base case circuit – case study III .................................... 181
Table 6.7. Component size specific energy ( 150) – base case circuit – case study III .......... 183
xiv
Table 6.8. Circuit scenario evaluation – case study III ................................................................. 195
Table 7.1. Simulation challenges and advantages of multi-component approaches .................... 203
Table 7.2. Advantages and limitations of models used in this thesis ........................................... 208
xv
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Evolution of AG/SAG mill diameter and power (adapted from Jones, 2006 and Orser
Svalbonas & van de Vijfeijken, 2011) ............................................................................................. 10
Figure 2.2. Classical comminution circuit ....................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.3. Comparison of particle size distribution between HPGR and cone crusher (KHD &
Weir, 2013) ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.4. Ore sorting (Agricola, 1556) ......................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.5. Curves to visualise amenability of preferential metal deportment by size.................... 24
Figure 2.6. Typical recovery versus particle size curve for Les Mines Selbaie (Bartholomew et al.,
2015) ............................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2.7. Examples of Flexible Circuit configurations ................................................................. 32
Figure 2.8. Typical efficiency curve ................................................................................................ 38
Figure 2.9. The role of a mineral liberation model in simulating a mineral processing circuit
(redrawn from Wiegel, 1976) .......................................................................................................... 44
Figure 2.10. Classification of mineral processing software (redrawn from Sastry & Adel, 1984) ... 48
Figure 2.11. Steps in scale-up procedure using ESTIMILL and SCALEMILL (redrawn from Herbst
& Rajamani, 1982) .......................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 2.12. Material representation in USIMPAC (Brochot et al., 1995) ...................................... 54
Figure 2.13. MetSMART breakage pattern definition (Minerality, 2015) ........................................ 56
Figure 2.14. Moly-Cop Tools ball mill and cyclone circuit (Sepulveda, Muranda & Jofre, 2015) ... 58
Figure 2.15. MDK’s stream structures ............................................................................................ 59
Figure 2.16. IES framework (CRC Ore, 2015b) ............................................................................. 61
Figure 2.17. LIMN snapshot - typical ash distribution per density bin ............................................ 62
Figure 3.1. Variation of SAG mill operating parameters during survey .......................................... 71
Figure 3.2. Bond work index efficiency (Napier-Munn, 2014) ........................................................ 74
Figure 3.3. Mill performance benchmark (Mokken et al., 1975) ..................................................... 75
Figure 3.4. Relationship between initial particle size and size specific energy (Ballantyne et al.,
2015b) ............................................................................................................................................. 76
Figure 3.5. Example of a customised simulation interface ............................................................. 79
Figure 3.6. Example of a customised simulation output reporting ................................................. 80
Figure 4.1. LKAB Kiruna KA2 circuit configuration ......................................................................... 83
Figure 4.2. Primary crushed ore magnetite and silicate size distributions ..................................... 85
Figure 4.3. Primary crushed ore size distributions– case study I (Hahne et al., 2003) .................. 85
Figure 4.4. Primary crushed size distributions per ore type – case study I .................................... 87
Figure 4.5. Schematic showing the scope of research in case study I .......................................... 88
xvi
Figure 4.6. Conceptual flowsheet for the application of mineral multi-component approach ......... 90
Figure 4.7. Bueno’s (2013) pilot plant data – AG mill feed size distributions ................................. 92
Figure 4.8. Component breakage rate for varying feed composition (Bueno, 2013) ..................... 93
Figure 4.9. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – AG mill fresh feed, load and
product – Case study I .................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 4.10. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – trommel and screw
classifier – Case study I .................................................................................................................. 95
Figure 4.11. Pebble mill breakage rates and product size distribution ........................................... 96
Figure 4.12. Recovery curves according to ore types .................................................................... 97
Figure 4.13. Base case circuit configuration – case study I ........................................................... 99
Figure 4.14. Size specific energy graph – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I............. 100
Figure 4.15. Component size specific energy graph – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I
...................................................................................................................................................... 101
Figure 4.16. Magnetite and silicate recoveries per ore type – case study I ................................. 103
Figure 4.17. Size specific energy graph – base case circuit – ore types A, B and C – case study I
...................................................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 4.18. Simulation scenarios – case study I ......................................................................... 109
Figure 5.1. Concentrator 1 circuit configuration ........................................................................... 122
Figure 5.2. Size distributions obtained for SAG mill combined feed and product – case study II 124
Figure 5.3. Impact of CSS on crusher product size distribution – case study II ........................... 125
Figure 5.4. Primary crushed ore size distributions – case study II ............................................... 127
Figure 5.5. Specific energy and 10 graph for HPGR products under various pressures – case
study II .......................................................................................................................................... 128
Figure 5.6. A×b increment and BWI reduction for increasing HPGR operating pressures – case
study II .......................................................................................................................................... 129
Figure 5.7. Schematic showing the scope of the research in case study II ................................. 130
Figure 5.8. Conceptual flowsheet for the application of the stream processing history multi-
component approach .................................................................................................................... 132
Figure 5.9. Master-slave model fit in JKSimMet – secondary crusher – case study II ................. 135
Figure 5.10. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK– screen and trommel –
case study II .................................................................................................................................. 136
Figure 5.11. Master-slave model fit in JKSimMet – HPGR – case study II .................................. 136
Figure 5.12. Relationship between power coefficient of the HPGR and specific energy for a
diamantiferous ore (Morrell & Shi, 1997) ...................................................................................... 137
Figure 5.13. Relationship between the percent of hard component in a SAG mill feed and load
(Bueno, 2013) ............................................................................................................................... 138
Figure 5.14. Breakage rates obtained for single and multi-component SAG mill model – case
study II .......................................................................................................................................... 139
xvii
Figure 5.15. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – SAG mill circuit streams –
case study II .................................................................................................................................. 140
Figure 5.16. Breakage rates obtained for single and multi-component ball mill model ................ 141
Figure 5.17. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – ball mill circuit streams –
Case study II ................................................................................................................................. 142
Figure 5.18. Size specific energy graph – base case – case study II .......................................... 146
Figure 5.19. Flowsheet for simulations comparing single and multi-component SAG mill models
...................................................................................................................................................... 147
Figure 5.20. Example of different methods for averaging A×b ..................................................... 148
Figure 5.21. HPGR product size distributions – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations –
case study II .................................................................................................................................. 151
Figure 5.22. Size specific energy graph – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations – case
study II .......................................................................................................................................... 152
Figure 5.23. Simulation scenario 2 – case study II ...................................................................... 153
Figure 5.24. SAG mill feed size distributions – scenario 4 – case study II ................................... 156
Figure 5.25. Size specific energy graph – scenarios 1 to 4 – case study II ................................. 157
Figure 6.1. Telfer circuit configuration .......................................................................................... 161
Figure 6.2. Stockwork mineralisation at high-grade reef sample (Carrasco-Tapia, 2013) ........... 164
Figure 6.3. Size and gold distributions for grouped samples ....................................................... 165
Figure 6.4. Bougainville diagram for Telfer grouped samples (redrawn from Carrasco-Tapia, 2013)
...................................................................................................................................................... 165
Figure 6.5. Schematic showing the scope of the research in case study III ................................ 166
Figure 6.6. Conceptual flowsheet for the application of the mineralisation multi-component
approach ....................................................................................................................................... 168
Figure 6.7. Telfer comminution circuit model fit in JKSimMet ...................................................... 169
Figure 6.8. Multi-component modelling in MDK with identical components – balanced and fitted
size distributions ........................................................................................................................... 172
study III ......................................................................................................................................... 173
Figure 6.10. SAG mill feed particle and component size distribution – case study III .................. 174
Figure 6.11. Size and gold distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – SAG mill
fresh feed and discharge – case study III ..................................................................................... 174
Figure 6.12. Corrected partition curves comparison for quartz (Collins, 2016) ............................ 175
Figure 6.13. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – trommel, cyclones,
cyclone underflow screen and size split – case study III .............................................................. 176
Figure 6.14. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – pebble crusher feed
and product – case study III .......................................................................................................... 177
Figure 6.15. Size and gold distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – ball mill
feed and discharge – case study III .............................................................................................. 178
xviii
Figure 6.16. Efficiency curve parameters relationship for screening simulation .......................... 178
Figure 6.17. Base case circuit configuration – case study III ....................................................... 180
Figure 6.18. Size specific energy graph – base case – case study III ......................................... 182
Figure 6.19. Feed component characteristics – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case
study III ......................................................................................................................................... 184
Figure 6.20. Relationship between feed grade and throughput and ball mill circulating load – case
study III ......................................................................................................................................... 185
Figure 6.21. Size specific energy graph – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case study III
...................................................................................................................................................... 186
Figure 6.22. Gold recovery for pre-concentration options – scenario 1 – case study III .............. 188
Figure 6.23. Alternative circuit configurations – case study III ..................................................... 190
Figure 6.24. Methodology to determine the low grade stockpile characteristics – case study III . 191
Figure 6.25. SAG mill feed size distributions – case study III ...................................................... 194
Figure 6.26. Specific energy per gram of gold – case study III .................................................... 197
Figure 6.27. Size specific energy graphs – scenarios 1 and 2 – case study III ........................... 198
Figure 7.1. Multi-component particle breakage schematic ........................................................... 213
xix
List of Abbreviations
AG mill – Autogenous Mill
AMIRA – Australian Mineral Industries Research Association

A×b – Parameters from the DWT, SMC test and RBT
BRGM – Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières
BWI – Bond Ball Mill Work Index

CANMET – Canadian Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology
CIL – Carbon in Leach
COS – Coarse Ore Stockpile
CRC Ore – Cooperative Research Centre for Optimising Resource Extraction

CSIRO – Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
CSS – Closed-Side Setting
CVO – Cadia Valley Operations
DWT – Drop Weight Test
EGL – Effective Grinding Length of a tumbling mill
GRLM – Gaudin Random Liberation Model

HPGR – High Pressure Grinding Rolls
IES – Integrated Extraction Simulator, a process simulator developed by CRC Ore
JKMRC – Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre
MDK – Model Developers’ Kit, a process simulator developed by JKMRC
MLA – Mineral Liberation Analysis

OSS – Open Side Setting
PBM – Population Balance Model
PMM – Perfect Mixing Model
– size corresponding to 80% passing of product particle size distribution
ROM – Run of Mine
RBT – Rotary Breakage Test
SAG mill – Semi-Autogenous Mill

SCSE – SAG Circuit Specific Energy
SPI – Parameter from SAG Power Index test

SSE – Size Specific Energy
xx
– Abrasion parameter
1G – MDK single component model fitting/simulation group (size only)

2G – MDK multi-component model fitting/simulation group (size-by-component)
3G – MDK multi-component model fitting/simulation group (size-by-component-by-liberation)
2CRB or 3CRB – stage crush, rod and ball mill circuit
2CB or 3CB – stage crush and ball mill circuit
SS-AG – single stage AG mill circuit
SS-SAG – single stage SAG mill circuit

SAB – SAG and ball mill circuit
2C-SAB – stage crush, SAG and ball mill circuit
SABC – SAG and ball mill with pebble crusher circuit
ABC – AG and ball mill with pebble crusher circuit

AP – AG and pebble mill circuit
2C-HPGRB – stage crush, HPGR and ball mill circuit
HPGR-SABC – stage crush, HPGR, SAG and ball mill with pebble crusher circuit
xxi
1 Introduction
This chapter presents a brief overview of the issues and topics relating to innovative circuit
design and optimisation practices including a justification for the need to advance multi-
component circuit modelling and simulation capabilities, followed by the thesis scope and
a chapter by chapter outline of the thesis.
With many of the world’s richest ore deposits already depleted, deposits with complex
mineralogy and lower grades are now being targeted and hence mining projects have
progressively increased in scale to satisfy the demand for metals. The mechanical
constraints, processing performance and cost limitations of conventional processing
technologies when applied to high-throughput low grade resources are becoming
increasingly apparent, motivating engineers to seek more innovative circuit design and
optimisation alternatives. Several authors have presented concepts to utilise available and
emerging technologies to develop such strategies including:
 Using energy efficient crushing technologies such as high pressure grinding rolls
(HPGR), or technologies that don’t require grinding media (Pokrajcic & Lewis-Gray,
2010; Powell, Benzer & Mainza, 2011a);
 Selectively increasing blasting energy intensity to higher value‐bearing ore zones
(Bearman, 2012; CRC Ore, 2015a; McKee, 2013);
 Rejecting coarse gangue and using pre-concentration stages (such as through
screening or sorting) (Carrasco-Tapia, 2013);
 Pre-weakening ore using technologies that have potential to enhance mineral
liberation through grain-boundary fracturing such as microwave or high voltage
electrical discharge (Vorster, Rowson & Kingman, 2001; Parker, Shi, Evans &
Powell, 2015);
 Optimising grind size for each ore type (Pokrajcic & Lewis-Gray, 2010); and
 Applying the flexible circuit approach so that processes can be actively controlled to
respond to variable feed characteristics (Powell & Bye, 2009).
Provided the ore is amenable to these processes, they have the potential to deliver
improved efficiency and absorb process instabilities caused by ore variability.
1
Nevertheless, available simulation capabilities are in many cases unable to adequately
simulate the above strategies, and consequently the development of business cases for
applying the above strategies rely heavily on simple empirical models and engineering
estimates. This limitation therefore reduces the confidence for mining companies when
evaluating potentially energy-saving strategies for their comminution circuits.
Quantitative modelling and simulation techniques are vital to the study and development of
mineral processing circuits in which these processing strategies can be applied. However,
to identify and quantify the benefits of the above processes, mathematical models that
respond to properties of distinct ore types or components of an ore are required. There are
a number of multi-component models for single processing units in the public domain;
however, it is rare to find a collection of them in a simulator. Most of the available
simulators containing comminution, classification and separation models were conceived
for homogenous feeds and consider single average physical properties and particle
behaviour. As a consequence, circuit design and optimisation options are usually
compared on the basis of average ore properties of the plant feed, when in reality,
operating plants are commonly fed with complex mixtures of components. For example,
these components may be distinct ore lithologies within the deposit or the minerals
constituting the ore, as long as they present significant differences in their properties. In
these situations, the use of models developed for a single homogeneous component can
lead to not just biased performance predictions but worse, the inability to simulate circuits
in which stream composition or other component-specific properties influence circuit
performance.
In order to confidently simulate these circuits and fully exploit the multi-component
characteristics of different ores, significant advances in modelling and simulation capability
are required. Some of these advances include the ability to deal with multiple components
in the streams, so as to accommodate different competencies of ore, to utilise physical
separation technologies (such as classification, sorting, magnetic and gravity separation)
and to track the grade reporting along the different potential processing routes.
Recently, a range of multi-component models have been developed under the Australian
Mineral Industries Research Association (AMIRA) P9 project covering comminution,
classification and separation units (the latter revived from older simulators developed for
mineral sands and dense-medium processes). Considerable effort has been applied to
develop the modelling and simulation tools required to integrate these models in a unified
platform. Andrusiewicz (2012; Andrusiewicz et al., 2011a) developed a platform known as
2
the Model Developers’ Kit (MDK), which was introduced to enable researchers at the
Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (JKMRC) and within the AMIRA P9 project to
address the challenges of multi-component modelling and the rapid prototyping of new
models in a simulator. The MDK structure allows the user to select between model
fitting/simulation groups: single component (group 1 (1G) - size only) and multi-component
(group 2 (2G) - size-by-component or group 3 (3G) - size-by-component-by-liberation)1.
Different researchers (Andrusiewicz et al., 2011b; Bueno, 2013; Collins, 2016; Tavares,
2011; Mainza, Muzanenhamo, Narasimha & Waters, 2014; Benzer, Dundar, Aydogan &
Erdogan, 2014) have recently used MDK’s size-by-component modelling/simulation
structure for developing and testing new models. Other authors (Andrusiewicz et al.,
2011a; Vos, Evans & Liu, 2015) have tested the size-by-component-by-liberation structure,
despite the limited availability of 3G models in MDK and the requirement of extensive (and
costly) liberation data. However, only few examples in the literature demonstrate the
potential of the size-by-component structure for the modelling and simulation of processing
circuits featuring comminution and separation stages under a common platform. Hence,
there is a critical need to investigate 2G multi-component modelling and simulation
techniques that not only allow processing circuits of the future to be assessed but also
properly account for changes in process stream properties.
1.1 Thesis Scope
A series of three case studies were selected for this thesis as the basis for the
development of 2G multi-component modelling techniques to provide the means to
demonstrate the potential benefits of capturing changes in process stream properties in
the design and optimisation of processing circuits. The MDK was used as the tool for
modelling and simulating integrated circuits featuring comminution and separation stages
(flotation, magnetic and density separation), using the latest multi-component models, the
2G data structure and measured plant survey and characterisation testwork data. Each
case study features a different method for defining the component type, selected based on
key material characteristics that change through the circuit – such as mineral composition,
elements (assays), ore types or processing history of streams.
1
Labelled as 1D, 2D and 3D in previous publications (M. Andrusiewicz, personal communication, December
2015).
3
1.1.1 Hypotheses
The thesis as based on the development of multi-component approaches in MDK aimed at

testing the following hypotheses:
Multi-component simulations of complex processing circuits with ores

defined as mixtures of homogeneous components provide a practical
means of modelling circuits without requiring full liberation data, and allow
key ore characteristics to be tracked around the circuit.
The properties of multi-component ores can thereby be exploited through

multi-component simulation to enable the assessment of interactions
between comminution and separation processes and the meaningful
evaluation of innovative processing circuit configurations.
1.1.2 Research Questions
Based on the hypotheses, the following research questions were established as the
primary goals of this thesis:
 What are the main limitations of the existing processing unit models and simulators
when dealing with multi-component feeds from the selected case studies?
 What parameters are required to be measured to fully utilise the capabilities of
current multi-component models?
 How should the benefits of using multi-component structures when simulating
different circuit configurations be assessed?
The research questions were tackled by establishing three real case studies with different
circuit configurations and treating different forms of multi-component ores. The following
questions were defined based on the specific characteristics of the selected case studies:
 Can 2G multi-component simulations accurately model the processing of mixtures

of minerals having different properties through a full circuit containing milling and
multiple stages of separation, such as the grinding and concentration of magnetite
and silicate mixtures?
 Is it feasible to use 2G multi-component simulation to track processes where ore
changes hardness, such as modelling the weakening of ore as it passes through a
HPGR and its downstream impacts on semi-autogenous (SAG) and ball milling
performance?
4
 Can a strong grade-by-size distribution be adequately simulated using 2G multi-
component models to exploit their gold deportment behaviours in pre-concentration
and comminution processes?
The emphasis in each case is the simulation of complete circuits rather than focussing on
single unit operations or a small section of plant, as the objective is to advance multi-
component circuit simulation capabilities, and specifically seek gaps in simulation
capability that need to be addressed in order to model and simulate processing circuits of
the future.
1.1.3 Objectives
To answer these questions, the following objectives are addressed in the case studies of
this thesis:
 define the multi-component stream properties needed to track the properties of

processing streams by component for each case study, and to detail the data
requirements for the streams and models in each case;
 develop and describe approaches for fitting multi-component models to the
available data as required;
 use multi-component models to simulate processing circuits, and demonstrate the
ability to quantify the performance of individual components;
 evaluate and identify the main limitations of the existing processing unit multi-
component models when dealing with the selected case studies and, if necessary,
modify existing models or develop new models to enable the simulation of these
circuits to be carried out;
 review the benefits of using multi-component data structures when simulating more
complex circuit configurations; and
 demonstrate how alternative circuit configurations can be used to deal with
variations in stream properties.
The case studies are used to demonstrate circumstances where multi-component

techniques are practical to use and can provide richer simulation outputs than single
component approaches, i.e. the plant feed can be represented by different components
and they have differentiating properties that may affect downstream processes. For each
case study, a 2G multi-component modelling technique is used to simulate the ability of
5
different circuit configurations to respond to variable stream properties and to quantify the
potential of these circuits to transform processing capability of these streams.
1.2 Structure of the Thesis
This thesis is organised into eight chapters, including this introduction. Chapter 2 reviews
the literature and explains why a fundamental rather than incremental shift in the design of
comminution circuits is required in order to obtain a substantial improvement in grinding
efficiency. It is argued that the key to the design of the future generation of processing
plants is to understand and respond to the ore properties. Therefore, it is necessary to
ensure that the properties of ore components can be adequately characterised, modelled
and simulated. While typical configurations adopted by the minerals industry are generally
efficient for cases where the entire stream is treated as having a uniform set of properties,
multi-component ores present the possibility of their properties being exploited. The state-
of-art of multi-component modelling and simulation is discussed in the context of
assessing novel circuit configurations and the relevant limitations of the available models
and tools.
In chapter 3, the methods for the application of the novel multi-component modelling
methodologies are described in the context of analysing alternative circuit configurations to
evaluate, explore the limitations of, and build on the multi-component modelling and
simulation capability rather than solely conduct optimisation studies of these three mining
operations.
Chapters 4, 5 and 6 describe the three case studies of this thesis:
 Case Study I – LKAB: the key aspect of interest in the LKAB case study is the
simulation of magnetic separation within the grinding circuit. By removing the waste
silicate at a relatively coarse size as soon as it is liberated, barren particles do not
need to be ground to final product size, and therefore saving a considerable
quantity of energy as the silicate is also the harder component. Multi-component
simulation is necessary to model the breakage as well as magnetic separation
performance of a mixture of mineral particles of differing hardness and magnetic
susceptibility. Indeed previous multi-component research have exploited the
behaviour of different minerals composing an ore, particularly to study iron ores, but
not using state of the art processing models and a simulator able to deal with the
evaluation of various complex circuit configurations and based in a user-friendly
6
spreadsheet environment that allows organizing and manipulating simulation
results. This case study aims at investigating the addition of processing units such
as HPGR and SAG mills into the flowsheet and determining the most effective
circuit configuration for processing ores with varying composition by multi-
component simulation and analysis of results on a component basis.
 Case Study II - Cadia: Newcrest’s Cadia Valley Operations (CVO) installed a HPGR
pre-crushing facility ahead of the SABC circuit in 2012. The HPGR has the
characteristic of inducing micro-cracks in ore, and therefore in effect, the product
from the device has a lower hardness. Previous HPGR trade-off studies have
acknowledged but not quantified the micro-cracking benefits on downstream units in
an integrated circuit due to the lack of a suitable modelling framework. This case
study seeks to use a multi-component approach to effectively simulate the micro-
cracking phenomenon and its effects on comminution efficiency.
 Case Study III - Telfer: the third case study aims to simulate the feed ore to a plant
where there is a distinct grade-by-size distribution. At Newcrest’s Telfer operations,
gold in the ROM feed is in some ore types biased towards the finer or intermediate
fractions, and leads to the potential to upgrade the plant feed by using coarse
screening. The rejection of low-grade coarse particles has the potential to
significantly reduce the specific energy used for grinding, in particular when
expressed in terms of energy per gold gram. The appropriateness of using multi-
component simulation to represent gold deportment by size is investigated in this
case study. Multi-component simulations that include a simple separation by size of
component with different gold content were used to predict the extent to which the
plant feed grade can be upgraded and the compounded effects on downstream
grinding performance.
The challenges for the modelling and simulation of the processing circuits of the three
case studies are discussed in chapter 7 in terms of the limitations of the current single
component methods, the issues related to prediction capabilities and the potential role of
multi-component approaches in improving these predictions and increasing process
knowledge. It also incorporates a discussion of the usefulness of the multi-component
approaches applied in this thesis, as well as a comprehensive analysis of the current
capabilities and limitations of the single and multi-component models available in MDK and
used in this thesis.
7
Chapter 8 completes the thesis by summarising the work conducted in the thesis and the
main conclusions and makes recommendations for further research.
8
2 Literature Review
This chapter reviews the literature and explains why a fundamental rather than incremental
shift in the design of comminution circuits is required in order to obtain a substantial
improvement in grinding efficiency. It is argued that the key to the design of the future
generation of processing plants is to understand and respond to the ore properties.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that the properties of ore components can be
adequately characterised, modelled and simulated. While typical configurations adopted
by the minerals industry are generally efficient for cases where the entire stream is treated
as having a uniform set of properties, multi-component ores present the possibility of their
properties being exploited. The state-of-art of multi-component modelling and simulation is
discussed in the context of assessing novel circuit configurations and the relevant
limitations of the available models and tools.
2.1 The Need for Innovative Circuit Configurations
Comminution circuit designs featuring autogenous and semi-autogenous (AG/SAG) and

ball mills have long been applied with success and have been well accepted by the
industry, while HPGR based circuits have more recently been considered for very hard ore
applications (Lane, Fleay, Reynolds & La Brooy, 2002; Morley, 2006a; Rosario, Hall,
Grundy & Klein, 2011). However, the industry uptake of innovation in comminution circuit
design has been mostly based on increasing equipment size and capacity and in the
development of improved wear parts and media materials. For example, increments in
AG/SAG mill diameter and power are given in Figure 2.1. In the past two decades, largest
installed mill diameter has increased only 2 feet while maximum mill power has increased
40%. Arguably, the gains achievable with these incremental advances are asymptoting to
a finite limit.
9
The 42 foot SAG mill has been
constructed for Conga mine
but is not in operation
Figure 2.1. Evolution of AG/SAG mill diameter and power (adapted from Jones, 2006 and Orser
Svalbonas & van de Vijfeijken, 2011)
To achieve higher throughputs at finer grinding sizes and lower ore grades, larger
equipment have been used by the industry to lower project costs. The selection of these
circuits has been mostly based on the experience of the design engineer, adapting existing
configurations and using widely-accepted technologies. The next generation of mines are
being designed to operate at vast throughputs, an approach that may work for uniform
orebodies but, according to Powell (2013), it may not be as successful for low grade ore
bodies because lower grade ores present higher variability in grade across the orebody,
and thus higher sensitivity to throughput and recovery by size.
Most optimisation strategies available to plant operators can provide worthwhile but
modest improvements in processing efficiency. Modifications to make the concentrator or
primary mill feed finer, such as secondary crushing and the mine-to-mill approach, have
enabled capacity increases and reported higher overall energy efficiencies. When these
practices are adopted, often a re-balancing of power demand between SAG and ball mills
is necessary and installing additional ball mill grinding capacity is often required to prevent
throughput becoming limited by the ball milling circuit. Other optimisation practices
discussed in the literature review that can aid with de-bottlenecking milling circuits include
improvement of classification efficiencies, concentration of relatively coarse liberated
particles in circulating loads, staged grinding and progressive upgrade.
These practices have been successful for optimising energy consumption and metal
recoveries in the past decades. However, the specific energy usage (kWh/t of ore treated
or metal produced) for processing high tonnage, low grade ores needs to drop drastically
to achieve the oft-stated company targets of 10 to 20% savings in absolute energy while
10
processing at least double the mass of rock (Powell & Bye, 2009). Clearly, applying only
these optimisation practices will not achieve this objective.
Innovative circuit design solutions are required to bring about a step change in energy
efficiency and maintain metal production rates while processing low grade ores and
dealing with ore variability. Design strategies to reduce power consumption (per unit of
metal produced) and improve efficiency of comminution circuits have become an area of
intensive research because low cost energy is becoming increasingly scarce.
Quantitative modelling and simulation techniques are vital to the study and development of
processing circuits of the future that are able to maintain the high levels of production and
to understand when to apply certain design strategies to reduce power consumption and
improve efficiency of the circuit. This thesis proposes that differences in multi-component
ore characteristics can be exploited within comminution process in various ways, and that
judicious definition of multi-component streams in circuit simulation allows circuit designs
to be evaluated.
This chapter therefore investigates the special simulation challenges that arise when
modelling novel circuit designs, and the extent to which current simulation tools are
equipped to allow future energy efficient circuit designs to be assessed.
2.2 Standard Comminution Circuit Design
From the 1920s until 1950s, most comminution circuits were designed with staged
crushing followed by rod and ball mills. The crushing and grinding circuit depicted in Figure
2.2 is a common example of configuration of the mid of the 20th century, known as the
classical comminution circuit (Chaves & Peres, 2006). The last stage of crushing and
grinding was operated in closed circuit to produce particles with a controlled size
distribution.
11
Figure 2.2. Classical comminution circuit
However, the demand for minerals during and after the Second World War was enormous
and a large increase in the grinding capacity was required to serve the needs of the
industry. Larger rod and ball mills that allowed processing higher tonnages and coarser
feed size distributions became available during the 1960s, but serious operational
problems with rod tangling appeared with the increase in mill diameter. Concurrently,
flowsheets containing autogenous (AG) mills became more attractive as a single AG mill
could replace crushing stages and rod milling (Wills & Napier-Munn, 2006).
The challenge with the AG mill was the formation of critical-sized particles that broke
slowly and filled the AG mills up (these particles are too small to efficiently grind other
particles and too large to be ground). In the 1970s, large steel balls were added to
autogenous mills to supplement grinding media helping to avoid the build-up of critical-
sized particles and those mills were called SAG mills. SAG mills have since become
dominant in large operations.
Crushing the critical-sized material (particles in the range from 12 to 75 mm) and returning
it into the mill also proved to be an effective method of avoiding build-up of those particles.
In the 1980s, including pebble crushing became a common practice. According to Barratt
and Sherman (2002), most new concentrators or expansion projects between 1980s and
2000s included either AG or SAG mills.
12
During the 1990s, the development of roll wear protection systems made the use of
HPGRs feasible for treating harder and more abrasive ores. The high grinding forces that
the material is subjected to when processed by a HPGR induce micro-cracks in the
product particles, thus generating more fines in the product, weakening the material and
decreasing the work load of the downstream units (Norgate & Weller, 1994). This
technology has been applied to increase comminution circuit throughput in
tertiary/quaternary crushing stages, to prepare feed for ball milling or leaching (van der
Meer & Maphosa, 2011) or magnetic separation, carbon in leach (CIL) gold treatment or
heap leaching (van der Meer & Gruendken, 2008, 2010). HPGR has also been
successfully implemented in pebble crushing duty – not actually crushing pebbles but
rather crushing crushed pebbles – to de-bottleneck SAG mill circuits (Dowling, Corpi,
McIvor & Rose, 2001).
Regrind mills were typically installed in treating fine grained concentrates since the 1960s.
If concentrate grades were not achieved in the first stages of concentration, then further
grinding was applied to liberate valuable minerals. Ball mills and, more recently, stirred
mills operating with small media have been used to achieve fine grinding (product with
less than 20 µm) and ultrafine grinding (product with less than 10 µm). Recent studies
have revealed that stirred mills can be more energy efficient in regrind applications and the
resulting products show higher surface area than those obtained by ball milling (Corrans &
Angove, 1991; Kwade, 1999; Jankovic, 2003).
2.2.1 Selection of Comminution Circuits
In practice, the selection of new comminution circuits is mostly based on the experience of
the design engineer, knowledge of what is accepted by industry and what has been
applied previously and worked well for ores with similar characteristics (Pokrajcic, 2010).
Table 2.1 shows typical comminution flowsheets described by Foggiatto, Bueno, McLean,
Lane and Morley (2015a). Primary crushing and secondary crushing (in the case of three
crushing stages) are common to the circuits described and were excluded from these flow
sheets for clarity.
13
Table 2.1. Typical comminution circuit configurations (Foggiatto et al., 2015a)
Flowsheet Circuit Description
Stage crush, rod and ball mill circuit (2CRB or

3CRB)
This circuit has low tonnage applications and has
become less common since SAG milling increased
its applicability.
Stage crush and ball mill circuit (2CB or 3CB)

This circuit has low tonnage applications and has
become less common since SAG milling increased
its applicability.
Single stage SAG (or AG) mill circuit (SS-SAG)

This is a low capital circuit applicable to low-to-
moderate throughput and moderate ore competence.
SAG and ball mill circuit (SAB)

This circuit is typically selected for plants of
moderate ore competence and hardness.
Stage crush, SAG and ball mill circuit (2C-SAB)

This circuit is usually selected for plants treating
harder ores.
SAG and ball mill with pebble crusher circuit

(SABC)
This circuit is typically selected for plants above
2 Mt/a treating moderate-to-high competence ores.
14
Table 2.1. Typical comminution circuit configurations (Foggiatto et al., 2015a) (continuing)
Flowsheet Circuit Description
AG and ball mill with pebble crusher circuit

(ABC)
Fully autogenous grinding has the potential to reduce
operating costs.
AG and pebble mill circuit (AP)

Fully autogenous grinding has the potential to
provide the lowest operating costs. Success
depends on control of feed size and ore
competence. May require pebble crushing to control
pebble volume.
Stage crush, HPGR and ball mill circuit (2C-

HPGRB)
This circuit is considered for large throughput plants
treating competent ores to improve energy efficiency
(when compared with SABC circuits).
Stage crush, HPGR, SAG and ball mill with

pebble crusher circuit (HPGR – SABC)
This circuit has been used for large throughput
plants treating competent ores to de-bottleneck the
SAG milling circuit.
According to Lane et al. (2002), the selection of these circuits is strongly influenced by
plant capacity and ore competence. Table 2.2 shows the most suitable circuit in most
cases for a given ore competence and required throughput.
15
Table 2.2. Ore competence and circuit selection (Lane et al., 2002)
Ore competence < 0.5 Mt/a 0.5 to 2 Mt/a 2 to 6 Mt/a > 6 Mt/a
Low
Single stage SAG Single stage SAG Single stage SAG SAB
(A×b > 90)
Moderate Single stage AG, Single stage AG,

Single stage AG ABC
(30 < A×b < 90) SAB and ABC SAB and ABC
High Two stage Stage crush and SABC & Stage

SABC
(A×b < 30) crush/ball mill ball mill & SABC crush/HPGR/ball mill
Due to limited throughput capacity and the operational limitations of rod mills, traditional
circuits including staged crushing, rod and ball mills are rarely considered for new projects.
However, staged crushing and ball milling still is an economic option for processing hard
ores at low to moderate throughput.
The single stage AG mill is a simple option with low capital and operating costs, as steel
media is not required (Mokken, Blendulf & Young, 1975; Putland, 2005). The associated
risk of this circuit option for greenfield projects is high, and it is necessary to understand
the ore variability by establishing a mine plan according to the expected plant
performance. In a single grinding stage, reduction rates over 1000:1 can be achieved.
However, as critical size particles reduce breakage rates and tend to accumulate in the AG
mill load; these can reduce the mill capacity and increase the required specific energy. To
reduce the accumulation of critical sized particles in AG mills, steel balls are added to
accelerate their breakage (Delboni Jr, 2007). Therefore, the single stage SAG mill allows a
better processing control when facing variable feeds regarding size distribution and
blending. Other methods for preventing the accumulation of critical size material in the mill
load are through addition of larger pebble ports to the mill grate and inclusion of pebble
crushers (Wills & Napier-Munn, 2006; Esvelt, 1997).
The AG - pebble mill configuration is another alternative to absorb fluctuations observed in

single stage AG mill. Critical size particles are used as grinding media in the secondary
grinding stage. The circulating load of the pebble mill can be adjusted to obtain the desired
product size distribution. Compared to the single stage AG mill, excessive fines generation
is avoided. This multi-stage fully autogenous circuit is a common option in the iron ore
industry, including large operations such as Cleveland Cliffs in the United States and
LKAB in Sweden, as well as smaller operations like Savage River in Australia (McNab,
Jankovic, David & Payne, 2009).
16
If the critical size fraction throughput is variable or presents high competence, a ball mill is
a more favourable option than a pebble mill. The AG - ball mill configuration results in
energy consumption similar to the classical staged crushing and rod/ball milling (Delboni
Jr., 2007). Sometimes, if the ore presents moderate competence, critical size material
tends to accumulate in the AG mill, and thus a pebble crusher can be utilised and this
circuit is known as ABC, for example Cyprus Bagdad, Hellyer and Nkomati grinding
circuits (Clements, 1992; Valery & Morrell, 1995; Wolmarans, Morgan & Smit, 2011).
The SAG - ball mill (SAB) circuit is typically applied for soft and moderate competence
ores and is a viable option when considerable variation in the ore breakage characteristics
occurs. If the ore being processed is highly competent and the SAB throughput is limited
by the accumulation of critical size particles, the easier modifications are usually to
increase the ball charge and the SAG mill rotation speed. However, if these operating
strategies are not enough for achieving the desired throughput, then a pebble crusher is
necessary. The SAG - ball mill - pebble crusher circuit is known as SABC when the
crusher product is returned to the SAG mill and SABC-B (also named SACB), if the
product is directly forwarded to the ball mill.
More recently, the benefits of utilising HPGRs has gained acceptance within the minerals
industry. Circuits containing HPGR have been described by several authors (Morley,
2006a, 2006b; Maxton, van der Meer & Gruendken, 2006; Daniel, 2007; Rosario, Boyd &
Grundy, 2009; van der Meer & Gruendken, 2010). The application of HPGR covers a wide
range of feed top sizes, from pre-crushing in AG/SAG circuits to final grinding in the
preparation of pellet feed to obtain high surface area. Figure 2.3 illustrates the comparison
of particle size distribution between HPGR and cone crusher, processing the same feed.
17
Figure 2.3. Comparison of particle size distribution between HPGR and cone crusher (KHD &
Weir, 2013)
It can be seen in Figure 2.3 that the HPGR can produce a particle size distribution that is
wider, with similar but higher proportion of fines compared with standard crushers. The
HPGR can be applied to replace tertiary crushers’ duties or to complement pebble
crushers’ duties. Van der Meer and Fernandez (2015) summarised some of the features
and experiences for HPGR application in pebble crushing, and in all the examples, HPGR
is applied after the pebbles are crushed using conventional crushers.
2.2.2 Models and Circuit Simulation for Typical Comminution Circuit

Configurations
The development of process models has received major attention from researchers over
the decades, and models have been developed for the most common unit operations that
comprise processing plants, representing building blocks required for circuit simulation.
The performance of the typical comminution circuit configurations described in Table 2.1
can be modelled using one of several available single-component comminution circuit
simulators.
Simulation is a powerful tool for selecting and dimensioning equipment, identifying and
fixing bottlenecks and analysing potential improvements or changes through hypothetical
scenarios without the inconvenience of operating the plant under experimental conditions.
It also has been employed for other purposes such as improving process knowledge,
comparing alternative control strategies and operator training (Napier Munn et al., 2005).
18
Simulators typically consist of:
 a means of drawing the process flowsheet, usually through a graphical interface

that directs the interaction with the models during the simulation calculations;
 models describing the operating behaviour of process units of which there are two
basic types (King, 2003): (a) separation units that separate solid particles with
distinct physical/chemical characteristics, for example classification and magnetic
separation, or that separate solid and liquid constituents, and (b) transformation
units that alter the characteristics of the solid particles, for example crushing and
grinding operations;
 a description of streams characteristics represented as vectors containing the
particle size distribution data, and solids and water flow rates;
 a mass balancing algorithm to reconcile the data, verify the presence of inconsistent
input data and calculate missing values that could not be measured;
 a model fitting algorithm to estimate model parameters;
 a simulation engine that performs: (1) loop finding - recycle streams nodes
identification; (2) circuit decomposition - the circuit is recognised as a combination
of several interconnected units; and (3) sequential calculation algorithms -
calculating and transmitting details of the streams from model to model (Ford,
1979); and
 a system of reporting and formatting of results, usually in tabular and graphical
forms.
Unit models for single-component models are widely available and their capabilities and
limitations have been a topic of interest among researchers. For example, Bailey et al.
(2009) presented limitations of the JKSimMet package in the design of comminution
circuits.
2.3 Processes Requiring Multi-Component Modelling
In order to design circuits that can exploit differences in particle properties, a method of
simulating them is needed. By necessity, these systems require multi-component models
and a multi-component modelling framework for describing how particles of differing
properties behave. Several important examples of processes where differences in mineral
properties can be used within the comminution circuit to improve processing outcomes are
discussed as follows.
19
2.3.1 Sorting and Pre-concentration
Since minerals were extracted from rocks by laboriously breaking them with hammers and
picks, selected material with higher grade was hand-picked for further processing. Manual
ore sorting off a table depicted by Agricola (1556) is reproduced in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4. Ore sorting (Agricola, 1556)
As most ore deposits consist of rocks containing varying amounts of valuable minerals and
even totally barren rocks, it is possible to exploit differences in particle properties to sort or
pre-concentrate the run-of-mine feed. By rejecting gangue minerals at a relatively coarse
size, thereby significantly reducing throughput and increasing metal grade to the following
stages of size reduction, a substantial reduction in energy requirements is possible.
The differences between valuable minerals and gangue properties at coarse size fractions
can be exploited as a means of separation through magnetic susceptibility, density, colour,
etc. In particular, gravity separation attracts attention for processing gold, sulphides and
other heavy minerals; magnetic separation has a wide application in the iron ore industry
and ore sorting plays an important role in uranium and platinum operations.
The upgrade processes commonly follow a crushing circuit when possible to obtain
crushed products with liberated gangue particles. Depending on equipment capacity,
increasing the crushing circuit throughput before the pre-concentration process can also
have a positive outcome for metal production and the operation profitability (Foggiatto,
Bueno, Lane, McLean & Chandramohan, 2014a).
20
Examples of circuits featuring staged crushing and pre-concentration can be found in the
literature, such as the study presented by Gray, Delemontex, Grigg and Yeomans (2011),
who investigated the viability of a jigging plant of a silver, zinc, tin ore from the Pirquitas
mine, in Argentina. Fiedler, Munro and Pease (1984) discussed a major increase in
throughput when commissioning a heavy medium pre-concentration plant at Mt Isa lead-
zinc operation, which rejected 30 per cent of waste ore before the grinding circuit. A
celestite beneficiation plant was described by Onal and Dogan (1988) which included jaw
crushing and jigging to obtain a coarse concentrate. Krishna Rao (1996) presented an
overview of tungsten ores beneficiation practice in India, showing some examples of pre-
concentration that include staged crushing using rolls crushers, screening and jigging or
pneumatic concentration. The study by Connelly and Ingle (2011) described the design of
a pre-concentration plant for processing an Australian iron ore by magnetic separation,
and Roy and Das (2009) showed a prospect for pre-concentrating Indian iron ores through
gravity separation, using jigs and shaking tables.
Ore sorting provides an opportunity to reject waste particles by recognising differences in

particle properties. It can be used at a relatively coarse size prior to energy intensive
comminution and also for the production of final products, which is the case of limestone
and diamond ores. It is usually a dry process in which a portion of the material is rejected
based on mineral properties and/or grade. Many existing sorting machines require a
washed and closely sized feed for efficient operation. When submitted for sorting, particles
are initially examined by sensors to measure properties and compare it with some criterion
(e.g., light versus dark particles), and afterwards, individual particles are separated
through an external force into different products according to the measured properties
(Salter & Wyatt, 1991).
A number of technologies for sensing ore particles have been studied extensively and
identified as suitable for industrial application, which include: photometry, near-infrared
spectroscopy, radiometry, γ-ray radiation, conductivity, magnetism, microwave, X-ray
transparency, X-ray luminescence, and UV fluorescence (Sivamohan & Forssberg, 1991;
Wotruba, 2006). Optical sensors are the most common sensor type currently used
(Norgate & Haque, 2013). Ore sorting techniques for relatively low tonnage rates have
been successfully applied to mineral processing plants. For example, a sorting pilot plant
was evaluated at the Mogalakwena mine achieving 15 t/h per sorter, and approximately
35% of the mass being discarded and 80% of platinum minerals recovered to the
concentrate (Rule, Fouchee & Swart, 2015). Despite the advantages that sorting machines
21
can provide, effective ore sorting at high tonnage rates is yet to be achieved due to
process, economic and operational limitations (Manouchehri, 2003).
Recent years have seen the publication of a number of assessments of the impacts of ore
sorting on mineral processing economics (Lessard, de Bakker & McHugh, 2014; Lessard,
Sweetser, Bartram, Figueroa & McHugh, 2016; Foggiatto et al., 2014a, Duffy, Valery,
Jankovic & Holtham, 2015) and on greenhouse gas emissions (Norgate & Haque, 2013),
but in which estimated recovery values have been used. These studies demonstrated that
sorting needs to be highly efficient in order to add value and recoup the capital investment.
Bamber (2008) developed a methodology to evaluate the impact of pre-concentration and

ore sorting on mining costs and the impact of cost variations on cut-off grade, resources
and reserves. Bamber studied a few different ores, investigating waste disposal and power
requirement aspects, the latter based on power calculations based on the BWI of the
concentrates. However, the study did not consider how pre-concentration and ore sorting
affects the downstream grinding circuit performance, either by testing a continuous circuit
or by simulation. This exposes a gap in the current knowledge and simulation capability.
To fill this gap in the literature, Foggiatto, Hilden, Powell, Kay and Andrusiewicz (2012)
utilised multi-component simulations to conduct a preliminary investigation of circuit
upgrade options at a gold ore operation dealing with decreasing and variable feed grades.
Operating and design processing strategies were defined to increase metal production
rates. The proposed circuit incorporated a coarse grizzly, an oversize splitter, a screen,
and a sorter to reject coarse, harder, lower grade material as waste; prior to a SABC
circuit. A hypothetical gold deportment model was fitted, such that when typical crushing
energies are applied, the softer rocks with high content of gold break into finer fragments
than the harder components containing little gold. Both grizzly and screen apertures were
controlled according to the variation in the crusher product size and gold distribution, to
suit the sortability of the ore and any particle size constraints of the sorting equipment. The
sorter was modelled using a smoothed spline function that interpolates the response for
sizes between the knots, and it was set up to have differing responses according to
particle size and gold grade. This multi-component methodology to track components with
different breakage characteristics and gold content showed to be a promising way of
analysing ore sorting effects on downstream grinding circuits and is further evaluated in
this thesis, as discussed in chapter 6.
22
2.3.2 Coarse Particles Rejection
The simplest means of upgrading circuit feed features only stages of crushing and
screening, when upgrades arise naturally from ROM particle size distribution or from a
coarse crush size (Klein, Dunbar & Scoble, 2002). However, its feasibility depends on the
deportment of valuable minerals to fine size fractions.
There are some examples of this concept applied in practice, and a notable example is Rio
Tinto’s Panguna mine in PNG’s Bougainville region where it was found that the size
fractions finer than 38.5 mm in the ROM brought about a significant copper upgrade
(Burns & Grimes, 1986). Other examples were described by Abouzeid (2007), where
phosphate ores were upgraded by the rejection of coarse hard siliceous material, and by
Bowman and Bearman (2014), where a fixed grizzly scalping device was used in front of
the primary crusher at the Mt Tom Price iron ore mine to determine the processing path of
the material – to the high grade or low grade plant.
Burns and Grimes (1986) developed a method for testing the processing response of
different ores based on a diagram of cumulative weight and metal recovery per size
fraction, referred to as the Bougainville diagram (Figure 2.5a). This diagram is useful for
comparing sample processing response when there is amenability to preferential metal
deportment by size, even though grades and masses are not evident on the diagram.
Carrasco, Keeney and Walters (2016) developed a methodology to characterise

preferential grade by size deportment based on an extensive database. A mathematical
model was employed to describe the relationship between metal upgrade and the
proportion of mass contained at specific size fractions (Figure 2.5b), which was named
preferential grade by size deportment curve.
Equation 2.1
where is the cumulative weight recovery (termed mass pull by the authors); and
describes the extent of preferential grade by size deportment response and 1 means
no grade by size response, and 0 1 indicates that metal is concentrated into the
coarse fractions.
Both curves are useful for visualising amenability of an ore to preferential metal
deportment by size and to determine where a positive economic benefit is evident.
23
(a) Bougainville diagram (b) Preferential grade by size deportment curve
(Burns & Grimes, 1986) (Carrasco et al., 2016)
Figure 2.5. Curves to visualise amenability of preferential metal deportment by size
Bowman and Bearman (2014) used the Bougainville diagram to study four different
streams of the processing circuit (ROM ore, primary crushed ore, SAG mill pebbles and
gravity screen oversize), while Carrasco et al. (2016) classified SAG mill feed samples
according to the preferential grade by size response parameter ( ). The findings from
these studies demonstrate that both methods can be successfully used for determining the
amenability of the ore to coarse gangue rejection thus reducing the throughput at various
stages of the mining and comminution processes.
However, exploiting the preferential grade by size deportment response of ores by

removing coarse particles can significantly affect the particle size distribution of the
comminution circuit feed, which can potentially increase mill throughput but also can have
a deleterious effect on circuits featuring SAG mills. Although it is possible to increase the
ball load to compensate for the reduction in large rocks, it can become difficult to maintain
sufficient load within the SAG mill, media costs increase and extra ball milling capacity can
be required. Therefore, if the coarse fractions from the SAG mill feed are rejected, different
operating strategies will be required.
Limited literature was found on the downstream processing implications of rejecting coarse
particles, such as finer feed particle size distribution effects on the comminution circuit and
higher metal feed grades effects on the flotation circuit. One example is the work of
Ballantyne, Foggiatto, Hilden and Powell (2015a), in which single component simulations
were carried out in MDK to evaluate the performance of a SABC processing pre-screened
copper ore feeds obtained from a Grade Engineering study (Pease, Walters, Raassina,
Keeney & Shapland, 2015; CRC Ore 2015a). The Grade Engineering study involved a
24
range of strategies for the early coarse rejection of low value components. The authors
outlined operating and design processing strategies for the comminution circuit that can
provide the necessary flexibility to maintain optimal performance in the context of varying
feed size distributions and ore properties. It was assumed that the rock load within the
SAG mill can be controlled via a coarse ore stockpile, and the impact of the SAG mill
product on ball milling performance can be controlled by changing the feed rate of fine
material and the quantity of screen middling sent to the SAG mill. Another example is the
work by Foggiatto et al. (2012), discussed in chapter 2.3.1. The simulation of the circuit
featuring screening and sorting prior to a SABC circuit to reject coarse particles indicated
that losses in gold to coarse waste were low compared to the potential benefits in reducing
specific energy and increasing metal production.
The problem with the simulations cited above is that size distribution of the SAG mill feed
varied considerably from the conditions in which the SAG mill model was fitted, so the
simulated conditions may be outside the range of applicability of the existing models, plus
the removal of low grade material is likely to affect the range of ore competence that has to
be milled.
2.3.3 Mine-to-Mill and Selective Blasting
The impact of blasting on downstream operations has been discussed extensively over the
last 20 years. The mine-to-mill method is a well-established optimisation approach for
increasing throughput and reducing energy cost in mineral processing operations (Ron &
Dance, 1998; Herbst, 2000; McKee, 2013).
This approach involves extensive rock characterisation, in which the strength of the ore is
measured through standard tests such as Bond work index and drop weight tests. Rock
properties are mapped out on the mine plan and ore domains defined. Rock
characterisation measurements are used, along with data from site surveys, to calibrate
the blast fragmentation, crushing and grinding circuit models. These models are then used
to simulate and explore the impact of alternative blast designs on the ROM size
distribution and breakage properties, which are commonly calculated as an average or the
80th percentile of a range of samples from different ore zones, and respective performance
of the comminution circuit. The economic balance of comminution between the mine and
the plant allows the maximisation of the plant throughput while minimising the unit cost,
25
based on a blast design for different ore domains (Ruokonen, Leinonen, Pekkarinen &
Toivanen, 1998).
Many successful mine-to-mill optimisation studies have been published in the literature.
Several operations that have successfully implemented this approach, and some
examples include Porgera in PNG (Grundstrom, Kanchibotla, Jankovic & Thornton, 2001),
Fimiston in Western Australia (Karageorgos, Skrypniuk, Valery & Ovens, 2001), Ernest
Henry in Queensland (Strohmayr & Valery, 2001) and Morila in Mali (Gillot, 2005).
Mine-to-mill optimisation studies demonstrated that throughput gains of up to 20% can be

obtained through a closer match of blasted run-of-mine ore to the feed best treated by a
SAG mill (Powell & Bye, 2009). However, the mine-to-mill approach specifically targeted at
increased SAG mill throughput, rather than process response over a varying orebody.
Powell and Bye (2009) suggested that selective blasting by increasing the blasting
intensity in high-grade zones relative to the harder low-grade zones and enhancing the
natural upgrade in fines sizes can also be used to produce improved material feed to
downstream processing circuits.
To test this hypothesis, the Cooperative Research Centre for Optimising Resource
Extraction (CRC Ore, 2015a) conducted selective blasting trials at the Anglo Platinum’s
Mogalakwena operation in South Africa, in which geometallurgical data was used to target
high yield sections of the orebody with greater blast energy, resulting in fine fragment sizes
in high-grade material. Low-grade ore was distributed to coarse fragments, allowing for
separation prior to grinding. The trial involved an advanced blast targeting high-grade
material for greater fragmentation, followed by coarse particle screening to remove
oversize and thus upgrading the ROM ore. The results of the study indicated that selective
blasting enables the mill to process material at a higher grade, with a potential reduction of
30% in waste processing. However, the effects of selective blasting on the breakage
properties of the ores from different grade zones and respective performance of the
comminution circuit need further investigation.
It is evident from the literature that increasing blast energy can also affect the breakage
parameters of the rock. For example, the effect of blasting on the impact breakage of rocks
was investigated in the work by Kim (2010). The results from the breakage
characterisation testwork conducted on samples blasted using various powder factors (0.4,
0.8 and 1.2 kg/m3) and un-blasted samples showed that the values of A x b increase with
increasing powder factors while BWI values decrease, indicating a reduction in strength,
which Kim attributed to blast-induced micro-cracks. Therefore, it is reasonable to argue
26
that besides different size and metal distributions, the ROM ores from different zones and
obtained through selective blasting, also differ in breakage characteristics.
Despite the availability of mineral processing simulators which are able to use multi-
component structures to simulate blending of different ore types, the majority of the mine-
to-mill published researches have used JKSimMet as simulation tool. However, techniques
for modelling and simulating comminution circuits, which represent the ROM ore as a
single component, may not provide accurate predictions for ore blends composed of
selective blasted ores types. The use of multi-component techniques to represent the
blending of different ore types submitted to selective blending can enhance the quality of
simulation predictions and assist in exploiting multi-component characteristics of ore
blends in mine-to-mill studies.
2.3.4 Separations within a Circulating Load
The performance of ball mill circuits is strongly influenced by the classification process and
the characteristics of the circulating load being returned to the mill. The circulating loads
generated in a typical ball mill-cyclone circuit contain a fraction of liberated valuable
minerals as well as unliberated particles which can be preferentially returned to the mill,
because of preferential breakage, classification or segregation effects.
Differences between minerals densities can result in the concentration of relatively heavy
particles in cyclone underflow even though they may be sufficiently liberated. The main
motivations for concentrating these relatively coarse liberated particles are: to remove
liberated gangue minerals from the circuit before energy intensive grinding stages; to
prevent overgrinding the valuable minerals; to reduce effects of the entrainment of
unwanted gangue fines; and to improve concentrate filtering.
This technique is applicable when the minerals contained in the circulating load are
sufficiently liberated to produce a concentrate or final waste. To recover these particles, it
is customary to install concentration processes to separate liberated valuable particles
through techniques such as flash flotation and gravity separation. In the gold industry,
these practices have been in use to recover free gold in recycle streams for almost three
decades (for example Marvel Loch (Bird & Briggs, 2011) and Telfer (Zheng, Manton,
Burns, Crawford & Griffin, 2010)). These separation techniques are also employed in
sulphide processing plants, since overground sulphide particles are more difficult to
recover in downstream flotation stages.
27
The review of the literature on the modelling and simulation of circuits featuring
separations within circulating loads indicates that the matrix modelling approach has been
used by many researchers. Several empirical modelling methods exist both commercially
and in the literature, which are based on data from surveys or laboratory testwork or a
combination of both, and are used to predict the performance of such separation units.
One example is the method proposed by Laplante et al. (1995) to predict the recovery of
gold by gravity concentration using empirical models of a ball mill, cyclone and gravity
concentrator. Laplante and Dunne (2002) and Mackinnon, Yan and Dunne (2003) applied
this method to predict the recovery of free gold in flash flotation circuits.
These empirical models group the feed stream into mineral components (minimally one
valuable mineral and the remainder being the combined gangue minerals), with each
grouping typically based on a property that can be measured such as density, magnetic
susceptibility and ‘floatability’, without requiring size by liberation data to classify particles.
Typically, these models include equations of recovery for all size intervals of the
components, which enables the total recovery and concentrate grade to be determined for
variations in the feed grade and size distribution (which is further discussed in
chapter 2.4.4). The use of these models is limited in circumstances where there is an
abrupt change in ore properties such as liberation size or in operating conditions, as the
recovery of valuable minerals can vary significantly.
Property based models were developed to address this issue. These models rely on
liberation/mineralogical data to define groups into which particles can be classified
according to their properties; and thus, require the modelling of mineral liberation in
continuous comminution units. A number of researchers have taken up the challenge of
modelling liberation in comminution and a variety of models have been developed to allow
the integrated simulation of comminution and separation process, as discussed in
chapter 2.4.3.
Even though property based models require more data for model development and are
believed to better represent flotation processes, Runge (2009) established that both
empirically derived and property based methods predicted the same result for a galena
flotation system when sufficient numbers of parameters are used.
28
2.3.5 Staged Grinding and Progressive Upgrade
When processing products with a broad particle size distribution, the recoveries of
particles at the fine and coarse ends have a tendency to be lower. This is illustrated in
Figure 2.6, which shows a typical copper flotation size-recovery curve presented by
Bartholomew, Arafat and McIvor (2015) and indicates that higher recovery of particles
occurs between approximately 15 and 100 µm.
Figure 2.6. Typical recovery versus particle size curve for Les Mines Selbaie (Bartholomew et al.,
2015)
Figure 2.6 suggests that controlling the size distribution in the mid-sizes can positively
affect metal recoveries. Therefore, staged grinding with intermediate concentration
processes can provide significant benefits in recovering valuable minerals that vary
significantly in grain size compared to grinding followed by concentration processes.
Besides minimising energy consumption and wear rates, staged grinding allows the control
of ground products in narrow size distributions and the design of concentration process
according to the selected particle size range.
Staged grinding and progressive upgrade is a strategy adopted in different situations, for
example when:
 gangue minerals can be easily liberated at coarser sizes than the valuable minerals
and the separation process produces a final waste, hence decreasing the capacity
necessary for downstream processes and the ball and liners wear rates. A good
example is the Savage River processing circuit, in which the autogenous mill
discharge is screened and the oversize is processed through a cone crusher and
29
magnetic cobber and the undersize is submitted to magnetic separation, and the
concentrate reports to a ball mill circuit and final magnetic separation (David,
Larson & Li, 2011);
 the valuable minerals vary in grain size, thus a portion of liberated particles are
generated in each stage of size reduction allowing final concentrates to be obtained
in each stage of concentration; and
 the concentrate requires further size reduction to free the valuable mineral from the
gangue for producing a high-grade concentrate.
The matrix modelling approach has been used by many researchers to model and
simulate staged grinding circuits with progressive upgrade, typically based on data from
surveys, laboratory testwork or a combination of both, as discussed in chapter 2.3.4.
Similarly, the separation models require multi-component structures to determine recovery
and grade of concentrates and the models are applicable when simulation scenarios do
not vary significantly from the conditions for which the models were derived. Particle based
models allow mineral liberation to be taken into account and have been available since the
90’s in MODSIM simulator and since early 2000s in USIM PAC.
2.3.6 Geometallurgy
The discipline of Geometallurgy aims to understand orebody variability by integrating

geology and metallurgy for both projects under development for processing circuit design
and existing operations for throughput forecasting (Kittler, Liebezeit, Ehrig, Macmillan &
Lower, 2011; Williams, 2013). In a typical geometallurgical program, ore types across the
orebody are characterised in terms of mineralogy, hardness, liberation size, energy
consumption and metal recovery (Bueno, Lane & Foggiatto, 2015).
Instead of having a single composite sample (hence a single value) for each ore type,
geometallurgical programs rely on several smaller samples distributed over each ore type.
Provided with the characterisation database, process engineers can predict head grade,
throughput and metal recoveries; and these metallurgical performance indices may be
mapped across an orebody.
The throughput is calculated or simulated in steady-state based on a single fixed feed type
at a time, rather than blending mixes from a potential mine plan, using typical circuit
configurations listed in Table 2.1. In the design of new circuits, the 75th percentile of ore
30
competence parameters is frequently used, which should ensure that at least 75% of the
ore types will achieve design throughput.
Nevertheless, some authors (Powell, 2013; Pokrajcic & Lewis-Gray, 2010) have stated
that the design of energy efficient circuits requires an approach based not only on the
properties of the orebody but also on lowering production costs, which can only be
obtained through a step change in technology. Understanding ore types and their
metallurgical performance is essential for the design of energy efficient circuits, but the
ability to adapt these circuits to the ore types over the mine life enables the operation to
minimise overall energy use and processing costs, and to maximise metal recovery and
resource utilisation.
2.3.7 Flexible Circuit Approach
The selection of a mineral processing circuit that achieves the desired throughput, energy
efficiency and metal recovery during the entire life of the mine is a difficult exercise when
treating orebodies with decreasing grades or high variability. The characteristics of the ore
fed to the processing plant changes according to the characteristics of exposed materials
at the mine such as competence and grade. This leads to control disturbances in the
processing plant that may affect downstream performance and metal recoveries (Powell,
2013; Burger et al., 2006). The Flexible Circuit approach was proposed by Powell and Bye
(2009) to address energy efficiency and operational stability in the mineral processing
industry and to enable circuits to respond to upstream changes.
The focus of the Flexible Circuit approach is to investigate the benefits of flowsheets
customised to different ore characteristics as an alternative to existing fixed typical circuit
layouts treating a mixture of different ore types or parallel lines treating different ore types.
Extra capacity is provided through optimising the process combining detailed
characterisation of ore properties, economic modelling, process control optimisation and
innovative processing plant design.
The potential of this approach, presented in the work of Powell and Bye (2009), is tackled
in the following stages:
 mining – the first stage of comminution and a huge driver of the downstream milling
performance, and significant opportunity for waste removal early in the extraction
process;
31
 staged reduction – enabling access to product at various stages along the
comminution route;
 progressive upgrade – integrating waste removal and splitting into different grade
streams;
 more efficient equipment – matching the equipment to the duty; and
 total cost that incorporates sustainability measures.
The approach has since been expanded by Powell and co-workers (Powell et al., 2011a;
Powell, 2013; Powell, Foggiatto & Hilden, 2014; Powell, Mainza, Hilden & Yahyaei, 2015;
Foggiatto et al., 2012) and two examples of Flexible Circuits are presented in Figure 2.7.
(a) circuit with alternative processing routes (b) mid-size pre-crush circuit
(Powell et al., 2011a) (Powell et al., 2015)
Figure 2.7. Examples of Flexible Circuit configurations
Metal recovery and production rates are also important aspects of process flexibility. The
ability to vary the product size and shift the processing route according to the ore type
appropriate processing route has potential to enhance overall recovery. Powell (2013)
stated that the key to design a circuit with operating flexibility is through controlling the
work load (the contribution of each unit of the circuit to the total specific energy) and
allowing it to be shifted around different comminution equipment of a circuit, while
maintaining a balanced throughput and grind. Equipment are operated in different modes
so that as the ore properties vary the work load across the circuit can be re-balanced,
preferably without the need to stop the plant.
32
Extensive orebody characterisation and variability analysis are necessary to make a
flexible circuit viable (Powell et al., 2011a). If this information is analysed in
geometallurgical context from blasting to metal production and waste disposal, then a
range of interrelated improvement opportunities can be integrated. Each geometallurgical
ore type would display a range of properties, and the proportions of each ore type in plant
feed as per mine plan would be driven by the simulation of an optimum processing route
and the respective processing performance, which must be controlled using advanced
instrumentation.
However, to quantify the benefits of circuits in which these ideas are applied, considerable
advances in modelling and simulation are required. Using existing models that were
conceived for homogenous feeds and require single average physical properties will not
capture the interrelated benefits of this approach. Some of these advances include the
ability to deal with multiple lithologies as components in the streams, so as to
accommodate different competencies of ore and response to separation processes (such
as classification, sorting, flotation, magnetic and gravity separation). Tracking the grade
reporting to circuit streams is the basis of many simulation tools and it is used for
analysing different potential processing routes. Thus, the development of methodologies
for exploiting multi-component characteristics of ores in the modelling and simulation of
comminution circuits is vital for further evaluating the potential benefits of the flexible
circuits approach. Tools that allow the simulation of multiple scenarios, such as the multi-
scenario tool in MDK and the supervisor algorithm in USIM PAC (described in
chapter 2.5), are essential to investigate the viability of such processing circuits.
2.4 Limitations of Multi-Component Models
The behaviour of particles with different physical properties in circuits treating ores
containing mixtures of minerals has been studied by many researchers. Compared with
single component modelling, the multi-component models are less well developed and
there are many limitations of these models, which have been recognised as discussed in
this chapter. A detailed review on the models used in the present thesis is presented in
Appendix 1.
33
2.4.1 Comminution
Early investigations of the process of size reduction aimed at understanding the

relationship between energy and the degree of size reduction. It was clear from
experiments that more energy was required as products became finer (Lynch, 1977).
Mathematically, the energy-size reduction equation was expressed as an empirical
differential form (Walker, Lewis, McAdams & Gilliland, 1937):
Equation 2.2
where is an infinitesimal amount of energy required for bringing about an infinitesimal

size reduction ; and and are constants for a given mill and material system.
Extensive research was carried out aiming to define the relationship between comminution
energy and size reduction and researchers gave different interpretation of this relationship.
Rittinger (1867) suggested that the energy input to a grind is proportional to the new
surface area produced. Kick (1885) proposed that the net energy input to a grind is
proportional to the reduction in the volume of the particle concerned. Another interpretation
was given by Bond (1952) in which the net energy input to a grind is proportional to the
length of the new crack tips formed. These relationships were derived from the energy-size
reduction equation 2.2, by substituting the exponent by the values of 2, 1 and 1.5, and
integrating the differential equation. The resulting equations are as follows:
Rittinger: Equation 2.3
Kick: Equation 2.4
Bond: Equation 2.5

√ √
where is the net specific energy; and are the feed and product size, respectively;
and are constants.
Much controversy arose about the hypotheses of Rittinger, Kick and Bond and several
studies on the validity of the methods for defining these relationships have been published
(Charles, 1957; Schuhmann, 1960; Hukki, 1961; Harris, 1966; Voller, 1983; Kapur &
Fuerstenau, 1986). In spite of the empirical basis of Bond’s theory, it is the most widely
used method for the sizing of rod and ball mills and has become a standard. The general
form of Bond’s equation is the following:
34
Equation 2.6
where is the specific energy (kWh/t); is the work index (kWh/t) which expresses the
resistance of the material to crushing and grinding; and and are the 80% passing
size of the feed and the product (µm), respectively.
Bond developed a standard laboratory test for the determination of the work index for
crushers, ball and rod mills in 1952 and modified it in 1961. Later in 1972, Rowland
recommended the use of efficiency factors for operations that differ from the specified
conditions and optimum feed sizes of a rod and ball milling circuit. The specific energy
prediction is generally accurate for devices that produce a product with a size distribution
parallel to that of the feed. However, it does not work well for devices such as the AG/SAG
mill and high pressure grinding rolls where the product size distribution is not parallel to
that of the feed.
To overcome limitations of the Bond method for AG/SAG mills, Barratt (1989) inferred an
empirical formula to determine the specific power requirements for a two-staged circuit
including SAG and ball mills based on an extensive pilot plant and operating plants
database. The method consisted in using the three Bond comminution work indexes
combined with efficiency factors. The energy requirement for each grinding stage was
calculated separately. The SAG mill energy ( ) included the sum of the crusher, rod
and ball mill energies while the ball mill energy ( ) was essentially the formula proposed
by Bond with a combined efficiency factor.
Several authors proposed methodologies for sizing AG/SAG mills that use Bond’s
approach and most of these involve the development of bench scale testwork for
determining specific energy and empirical equations for calculating mill power and
throughput. MacPherson (1989) proposed a test performed in a dry laboratory mill in
closed circuit with a classifier. It was a continuous autogenous grindability test, similar to a
pilot plant, which runs until steady state is achieved. At the test completion, size analyses
are carried out (feed, product and charge) and the specific energy input is computed using
power draw and throughput information. Other power-based methodologies available in
the literature include the SAG Power Index (SPI) (Starkey & Dobby, 1996), SAGDesign
test (Starkey, Hindstrom & Nadasdy, 2006) and the SMC test (Morrell, 2004).
However, all these power-based methodologies involve representing the size distribution
of feed and products by a single parameter, i.e. the size at which 80% by weight of the
material passes. This means a single size may represent many different size distributions.
35
The need to represent the full size distributions of feed and products led to the use of
matrix methods (Lynch, 1977). Epstein (1948) introduced the population balance model
(PBM), in which breakage is determined by the probability of a particle being selected for
breakage (selection function or rate) and the size distribution of the broken particles
(breakage distribution function). Essentially the PBM determines a mill matrix which,
when multiplied by a matrix representing the feed size distribution, results in a product
predicting the size reduction performance of a mill (Whiten, 1974):
Equation 2.7
The PBM concept was further developed by many researchers and was used to derive the
matrix model (Broadbent & Callcott, 1956a, 1956b), the kinetic model (Loveday, 1967) and
the perfect mixing model (PMM) (Whiten, 1974), representing the base of the most widely
used models for describing grinding devices. Appendix 1 provides further details on the
PMM model.
The PMM has the particular advantage that the breakage rate and discharge functions
were combined into a single term ( ⁄ ). In this model, ⁄ is calculated using , ,
appearance function and mill measured conditions and based in the assumption that the
discharge function remains constant as milling conditions change.
This model can be used to describe the behaviour of perfectly mixed continuous mills, but
research has addressed issues when:
 mixing effect cannot be ignored: a mill may be considered as a number of perfectly

mixed segments, as in the multi-segment mill model (Kavetsky & Whiten, 1982);
 mill content is retained: a hold-up function and dynamic models may be useful
(Lees, 1973);
 a more sophisticated breakage function is required: a combined ore-dependant
impact and abrasion appearance function may be applied (Leung, 1987);
 breakage rates interact with operating variables: a set of equations may be
implemented to correct breakage rates according to the operating conditions, such
as in the AG/SAG mill variable rates model (Morrell & Morrison, 1996); and
 the mill feed is composed of multiple components with different breakage
characteristics (preferential breakage): a mill may be divided into a number of
segments and the model applied to each component individually (Napier-Munn,
2005).
36
Multi-Component Grinding Investigations
Although preferential breakage of heterogeneous ores in grinding systems has been under
research since the work of Holmes and Patching (1957), the behaviour of multi-component
feeds when ground together is far from being fully understood and modelled.
The early investigations on the grinding of multi-component feeds were conducted in

laboratory rod and ball mills (Holmes & Patching, 1957; Fuerstenau & Sullivan, 1962;
Somasundaran & Fuerstenau, 1963). In these investigations, in order to determine the
fraction of energy consumed by each component in the mixture, the size reduction was
assumed to be first order with respect to the volume of each component in the mill.
Later, the kinetic approach was introduced in the analysis of grinding of multi-component
feeds (Tanaka & Selby, 1976; Venkataraman & Fuerstenau, 1984). Kapur and Fuerstenau
(1988) integrated the energetic and kinetic aspects of multi-component feed grinding into a
single framework and developed a method to quantify the energy split based on a concept
of grinding paths, which is tracked by dividing the ground particle size distribution data into
suitably chosen coarse, medium and fine fractions. The kinetic approach has been
successfully applied in investigations on grinding mixtures of coal (Cho & Luckie, 1995)
and mixtures of ceramic raw materials (Ipek, Ucbas & Hosten, 2005).
Although multi-component feeds have a significant effect on AG/SAG circuits, only a few
researchers have reported work on AG/SAG milling. Stange (1996) attempted to develop a
hybrid multi-component mathematical model for AG mills, combining some features of
Leung’s model (1987) with Austin’s model (1987). Stange’s work showed that neither his
nor Leung’s model were able to accurately predict the build-up of hard material in the mill
load, which supported the need for the development of a model framework. McKen and
Chiasson (2006) reported some interesting findings on the use of the Macpherson test
(Macpherson, 1989) to study the behaviour of ore blends. Bueno (2013) conducted a
detailed investigation on the breakage interactions and mass transport of independent
components in pilot and industrial AG mills and proposed an AG/SAG mill model structure,
which uses component specific breakage rates and discharge function parameters.
2.4.2 Sizing Devices
The separation of particles at fine sizes is an essential stage of mineral processing, used
to classify particles that are sufficiently liberated for recovery. Sizing devices such as
screens and cyclones are used when a single stage of comminution does not provide a
37
product of required size. The material that does not meet the size criterion is recycled to
the comminution device. Therefore, the sizing device performance has a strong influence
on recycle loads, circuit capacity and final product size.
The performance of size separation can be represented by an efficiency curve that

describes the proportion of particles of a given size which reports to a selected product
and thus consists of a distribution function that gives the efficiency of separation at any
particle size. The shape (or sharpness) of the curve is dependent on operating and design
conditions of the sizing device.
A characteristic feature of the actual efficiency curve of a cyclone is that as the particle
size approaches zero the efficiency approaches the water recovery and increases with
size until reaching unity (Nageswararao, 1999). A typical efficiency curve for a particular
classification can be observed in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8. Typical efficiency curve
Kelsall (1953) proposed a method to correct the efficiency curves which consisted in
subtracting the efficiency of all sizes by the water recovery to the underflow ( ), so that
the normalised efficiency varies between zero and unity.
Equation 2.8
where and are the corrected and actual efficiencies.
The corrected efficiency curve can be normalised by dividing the size axis by , and this
curve, named the reduced efficiency curve, was found to be very useful to compare
cyclone performance as it is generally independent of equipment dimensions and
38
operating conditions of a cyclone processing a given feed (Lynch & Rao, 1965). The
important concept is that the reduced efficiency curve is a characteristic function of the
ore.
The most widely used equations expressing the corrected efficiency as a function of the
particle size are:
 Rosin-Rammler type of function derived independently by Plitt (1971) and Reid

(1971):
1 exp 2 Equation 2.9
where is the size of interest, is the separation size, and is a scale

parameter describing the sharpness of the separation.
 An exponential sum expression proposed by Whiten (cited in Napier-Munn, Morrell,

Morrison & Kojovic, 2005):
Equation 2.10
where the parameter determines the slope of the efficiency curve.
As shown in Figure 2.8, efficiency curves can present fish-hook patterns, which denotes
the shape of the separation efficiency curve having a higher recovery in the fine particle
range than the coarser particle sizes up to a critical particle size and after that the recovery
increases with increase in particle sizes. Researchers have proposed empirical
correlations to predict the fish-hook effect in a cyclone with reasonable accuracy, even
though they fail to agree on the reasons for this phenomenon (Finch, 1983; Flintoff, Plitt &
Turak, 1987). Whiten (cited in Napier-Munn et al., 2005), for example, introduced an
additional parameter, , into his function which controls the initial rise in the curve at fine
sizes:
∗
Equation 2.11
∗
∗
The parameter controls the initial rise in the curve at fine sizes. The parameter can be
calculated iteratively, given the condition that when ⁄2 ( is the water split to
∗
the fine product). When no fish-hook is present, 0, 1 and the equation reduces to
the previous equation.
39
Several authors proposed empirical models for cyclones (Lynch & Rao, 1975;
Nageswararao, 1978; Asomah, 1996) in which the separation efficiency was described
using Whiten’s expression (Equation 2.10) and performance criteria such as were
correlated to equipment geometry, feed solids and flowrate. The Nageswararao model is
one of the most used models and it comprises empirical equations for four process criteria
including , volumetric flow, recovery of water and slurry to underflow.
Efficiency curves can also be utilised to represent screen performance, which usually
provides sharper cuts than cyclones. The curve shape is dependent on the sieve series
used to size the material (Hess, 1983). According to Napier-Munn et al. (2005), only a few
size fractions can define the shape of the curve and thus the method of averaging
efficiency over a size range is of great importance. The screen performance can then be
described by the feed size distribution, feed tonnage and the efficiency curve, as proposed
by several authors (Lynch, 1977; Karra, 1979; Hatch & Mular, 1979; Batterham, Weller,
Norgate & Birkett, 1980).
Because all these models have empirical parameters, which require operating data to
allow parameter fitting, they suffer a common problem: they work well over the range of
conditions in which they were estimated, but extrapolation should be carried with caution
when feed properties and operating conditions change significantly.
Multi-Component Size Classification Investigations
Many researchers have studied and modelled the behaviour of particles with different
physical properties in circuits featuring classification by size. Bradley (1965) proposed a
method to predict of individual minerals based on their specific gravity, while Marlow
(1973) suggested that relationships between the values for the individual minerals
could be determined based on the value for the mixture, multiplied by a constant.
Lynch (1977) investigated the aspects of the classification behaviour of multi-component
feeds using data from Warrego concentrator (magnetite-silica mixture) and Broken Hill
concentrator (galena-marmatite-silica mixture). Lynch plotted the reduced efficiency curves
for the mixture and the minerals separately and concluded that even though the reduced
efficiency of the mixture curve may change, the curves for the individual components
remain the same.
Other researchers have provided some evidence indicating that interaction occurs
between different density components during classification. Coal classification studies
have been pursued by many researchers (Plitt, Finch & Flintoff, 1980; Lynch & Rao, 1975;
40
Finch & Matwijenko, 1977), as various density coal fractions behave as a simple multi-
component system during the separation. Cho (1993) determined that the values of
lighter minerals increased when present in a mixture, whilst values of heavy minerals
were not affected. In accordance with Cho’s work, O’Brien and colleagues (2000) showed
that lighter coal components were subjected to greater change in classification, and also
these interactions were dependent on both the component density and solid concentration.
Mainza and colleagues extensively studied the classification behaviour of UG2 platinum
ore using a three-product cyclone and conventional cyclones (Mainza, Powell & Knopjes,
2004, 2005). During the classification, the coarse silicates report to the overflow and the
fine chromite to the underflow. Pilot plant trials were performed and results indicated that
the efficiency curve for overall classification did not present an ‘S shape’; low density
component classification curves were associated with fish-hook; the and recoveries
for individual components vary significantly; and is substantially higher for the low
density components and lower for the high density components.
Collins (2016) conducted an investigation on the classification of pure silica and a mixture
of silica and garnet and found that the classification of pure silica under the same
operating conditions appears to be different to the classification of silica when present as
part of a mixture, and suggested an interaction effect between components in a mixture.
Only a few attempts to develop multi-component models were found in the literature. One
example was presented by Weller, Sterns, Artone and Bruckard (1988), who attempted to
develop a multi-component model of grinding and classification circuits in a
comprehensive scaling-up manner. The experiments were carried out in four identical ball
mill - cyclone circuits processing copper ore and results lead to the following observations:
the standard ‘S shape’ of efficiency-curve was obtained for all the components (pyrite,
copper and gangue minerals); the for each individual component changes
significantly; and the sharpness of the separation, , is high for the low density component
and slightly lower for the high density component.
Multi-component efficiency curves were developed during several research projects at the
JKMRC which utilised JKSimSand and JKSimFloat simulators (JKTech, 1993a; 1993b). In
this model, each component has its own efficiency curve, as per Whiten’s equation, and
fixed water split to the fine product. The sharpness of the curve, , is considered to be
constant for a given component density class and feed solids. A multi-component version
of the Nageswararao (1978) model was also developed for JKSimSand and JKSimFloat
41
(JKTech, 1993a; 1993b), which includes specific parameters that account for feed solids
characteristics, including size distribution and specific gravity. In this model, a single
efficiency curve is determined for the cyclone and the separation size of each component
is adjusted. Further details on both models are given in Appendix 1.
Narasimha, Mainza and Holtham (2012) published a concept for modelling the
performance of cyclones based on multi-component behaviour. A density dependence
function was used to extend the single component reduced and models for multi-
component classification. A set of semi-empirical model equations were presented and the
modified reduced cut-equation for multi-component systems was validated using industrial
data available in the literature. As argued by the authors, the predictions were reasonably
close to the experimental data; however, extensive model validation for multi-component
systems still needs to be pursued, for example implementing an equation for as follows.
. Equation 2.12
where is the component particle density, and is the liquid medium density and is
constant dependent on feed material characteristics and the cyclone design conditions.
2.4.3 Mineral Liberation
The main purpose of grinding circuits is to break the ore to a size sufficiently small to
liberate the value and gangue minerals, so as to permit the valuable component(s) to be
recovered by downstream concentration processes (Weedon, Napier-Munn & Evans,
1990). According to Wiegel (2006), mineral liberation is an extremely important
phenomenon as it permits subsequent separations to be carried out and simulated
effectively.
The importance of the analysis of mineral liberation was recognised in the early work by
Gaudin (1939), when he proposed a conceptual model to predict liberation by size
reduction in which random breakage of an ore texture is used to create progeny particles
(Gaudin Random Liberation Model - GRLM). Gaudin’s approach was based on the
superposition of simple regular fracture and texture patterns. Ore texture was modelled by
populating a cubic volume with smaller cubic grains and using mono-sized cubic grains in
an ordered, orthogonal grid. Gaudin’s approach inspired subsequent researchers seeking
the development of quantitative relationships between size reduction and liberation
(Wiegel, 1965; Wiegel & Li, 1967). The application of binary probability concepts to modify
42
Gaudin’s model allowed the entire range of ore feed grades and particles sizes to be
quantified.
Until the 90’s there were limited attempts to further develop models to describe the mineral
liberation phenomena (Andrews & Mika, 1975; Wiegel, 1976; Herbst, Rajamani, Lin &
Miller, 1988; King, 1979; Barbery & Leroux, 1988). In the 1990s, the use of image analysis
obtained through optical or electron microscopy started to be used to represent the ore
texture shifted the emphasis of liberation studies. This motivated researchers to continue
researching the liberation phenomena (King & Schneider, 1993, 1998; Gay, 1999;
Stamboliadis, 2008; Wiegel, 2006; Hilden, 2014; Andrusiewicz, Evans, Mariano, Morrison
& Wightman, 2016; and others).
As discussed by Evans (2010), many of the models cited above suffer from similar
constraints:
 the user must assume the breakage is random for the model to be applicable and
thus accepts simplifying conditions such as no selective breakage, no differential
breakage, no preferential breakage, no phase-boundary fracture, no liberation by
detachment and no boundary-region fracture (King & Schneider, 1998); and
 the ore is treated as a binary system with the mineral of interest as one phase and
all other minerals grouped together to form the second phase.
It has been identified by several authors (Gaudin, 1939; King & Schneider, 1993; Evans et
al., 2013) that sometimes mineral liberation occurs due to non-random breakage. Non-
random breakage is described as the fracture pattern that results during comminution of
any particle where the fracture pattern is not independent of the mineralogical composition
and texture of the particle (King & Schneider, 1998). Accurate prediction of the product
mineral composition distribution given the feed mineral composition and texture should
then not be achieved if significant proportions of breakage are due to non-random events.
More recently there have been new contributions to the development of liberation models
that take into account the preferential breakage that occurs for some ores (Gay, 2004;
Khalesi, Bazin, Hodouin & Bellec, 2009; Brochot & Botané, 2012). In the case of
preferential breakage, the modelling of comminution is more complicated as the progeny
size distribution and the repartition in the liberation classes cannot be modelled separately.
43
Integrated modelling and simulation of size reduction and mineral liberation
A block diagram that illustrates the interaction of mineral liberation and size reduction
modelling in the simulation of mineral processing circuits is depicted in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9. The role of a mineral liberation model in simulating a mineral processing circuit
(redrawn from Wiegel, 1976)
As shown in Figure 2.9, there are two main aspects in predicting the characteristics of a
comminution product: the size reduction and the mineral liberation. The size reduction
depends on the selection function (the probability of a particle of a given size being
broken) and the breakage function (the size distribution of the progeny particles). The
mineral liberation aspect requires the knowledge of mineralogical texture, described by
King (2003) as the distribution of minerals in space, the coherence of each mineral and the
adherence between them. The mineralogical texture of the ore determines the probability
of a progeny particle acquiring a certain grade after the breakage of a parent particle
(Stamboliadis, 2008).
A variety of methods has been developed to predict the grade distribution produced by the
comminution of an ore in a batch or open-circuit grinding operation (for example the work
by King, 1979; and Barbery, 1991). According to Schneider and King (1994) this is
relatively easy as the resulting grade distribution is solely dependent on the ore’s original
texture. When comminution is in closed circuit with a concentration or separation device,
many methods do not apply as the material being comminuted becomes a combination of
44
fresh and processed ore, and there is a preferential concentration of some minerals in the
recycle streams. The approach proposed to predict the liberation spectra that is produced
by a closed-continuous grinding circuit was the population-balance equation. The
population balance model describes the progeny fragment size distribution and the
liberation model distributes these fragments into the various liberation classes regardless
of the breakage events (Brochot & Botané, 2012).
King (1990) provided a simple model for the internal structure of the Andrews-Mika
diagram (Andrews & Mika, 1975), which requires one textural parameter measured directly
from the ore being studied. The main advantage of King's solution is that, unlike the
conventional solutions, it does not require the estimation of hundreds of arbitrary
parameters that cannot be independently measured. Schneider (1995) developed the
King’s model to the stage where it could be calibrated using image analysis data obtained
from samples of ore. This framework was implemented in the MODSIM simulator, which
has been largely used for process design and optimisation.
Brochot, Wiegel, Ersayin and Touze (2006) coupled the Gaudin’s random liberation model
with the population balance model, which needs liberation information to be obtained from
specific laboratory tests. The required liberation parameters represent the “effective”
mineral grain size, the grade of the mineralised ore in the mill feed and the amount of
barren waste dilution included in that feed. The authors proposed a solution for describing
the composition changes due to size reduction, in which an individual locked composition
range is distributed in only three composition ranges of a finer particle size: one lower, one
higher and the other the same range as the parent particle (details were described by
Wiegel in 2010). These proportions are calculated for all size fractions and are
denominated directional coefficients. The breakage matrix and selection function are given
by composite class to simulate the selectivity. This model was implemented in USIM PAC
and Brochot et al. (2006) illustrated its application to an iron ore grinding circuit.
2.4.4 Flotation, Density and Magnetic Separation
In typical flotation, density and magnetic separation circuits, the variables that affect the
recovery rate can be characterised into those associated with the machines and those
associated with the characteristics of the streams feeding the unit. Extensive work in
developing effective models for these units is described in the literature, aiming at
establishing relationships between the machine variables, particle property effects and
45
separation performance. Particles within an ore stream with similar behaviour can be
grouped and assigned a recovery rate as input into separation models, i.e. essentially
represent the partition to the concentrate as follows:
Equation 2.13
where is the recovery of the component, is the mass rate of the component in
the concentrate stream, and is the mass rate of the component in the feed stream.
A variety of different techniques to group these particles are presented in the literature
(Kelsall, 1961; King, 1973; Apling & Ersayin, 1986; Dance, 1992; Runge, 2009). Two
examples of such techniques are:
 mathematical fitting techniques are used to determine groups based on mineral

recovery rates empirically derived from measurements during testwork or industrial
survey. It is usual to derive concentrate and tailing groups. The disadvantage is that
the groups are not related to the physical characteristics of the particles in the ore
and thus the separation behaviour after any process change cannot be predicted;
 particles are grouped according to measurable physical properties. The calibration
of these component property based models usually requires sizing, mineralogical
composition and liberation analysis in circuit streams and, potentially, chemical
surface analysis of particles when involving flotation, which are out of the scope of
this literature review.
Despite the limitations of empirically derived models, in which all particles within a group
must have the same recovery rate, these generic models can be used to describe the
behaviour of a wide range of separation processes. Some examples of these models
include: simple partition curve model, multi-component partition curve model, multi-
component recovery / weight recovery model, and multi-component 2 and 3-way split
models. All these models are described in detail in the Appendix 1.
The simple partition curve model was developed by Whiten (cited in JKTech, 1993a) to
represent density separation performance. The proposed function describes the probability
of a particle reporting to the heavy product through a relationship between the partition and
particle density, as follows:
Equation 2.14
46
where is the density of interest, the parameter determines the slope of the efficiency
curve and is related to the separation density.
For large values, as in most gravity separation devices, the equation is simplified to:
Equation 2.15
The multi-component partition curve is modelled in a similar way to the multi-component

mill model, in which the mill is divided into a number of segments and the model applied to
each component. A unique value is determined for properties of each mineral (or
component) and the partition is based on the particle properties and the probability of a
particle to report to a selected product. This model allows fitting parameters that determine
partition values for each size fraction, and thus caution should be used where conditions
between those used for determination of parameters and those to be simulated are
significantly different.
The component recovery curve model and multi-component 2 and 3-way split models are
flexible and generic models that use a family of spline curves to describe the weight
recovery of each component. Weedon et al. (1990) showed that liberation may be
independent of grinding history, i.e. that a given size interval will always contain the same
proportion of liberated mineral, regardless of how many breakage events it has
experienced. The separating characteristics to be simulated must not change significantly
from survey / testwork conditions, such as feed rate and density. This simplifying
assumption is adopted in this thesis to develop 2G multi-component techniques, without
the use of liberation information.
2.5 Mineral Processing Simulators
Developments in mineral processing software started in the 1970s, supported by the

minerals industry, which had a clear need for a simulation package with well documented
models and simulation engine, user friendly interface to facilitate the use of simulation for
process design and optimisation. According to Napier-Munn and Lynch (1992), because of
the substantial resources requirement, most of those custom-designed simulators have
developed from university, institutional or company research programmes. The literature
shows similarity between most of these programmes, which use flowsheet simulation
based on sequential modular modelling techniques (Herbst, Rajamani, Mular & Flintoff,
47
2002). Sastry and Adel (1984) classified mineral processing simulators as shown in Figure
2.10.
Figure 2.10. Classification of mineral processing software (redrawn from Sastry & Adel, 1984)
Successful steady-state simulators dedicated to mineral processing have been developed

in the past decades using population balance models. Nevertheless, improving the
simulation capabilities and developing such software are still areas of intensive research in
the present time.
The main software products that contain models for comminution, classification and
separation processes, with focus on steady-state simulation of integrated circuit/plants are
described below.
Simulators dedicated to crushing and screening plants
Many crushing and screening calculators have been developed since the 1960’s. Some
were described in the literature but with no further developments being published or the
program continuously commercialised such as cited in McKee and Wiseman (1991) and
Sastry and Adel (1984). Sandvik’s PlantDesigner (Hedvall & Nordin, 2002), Aggflow (2017)
and Metso’s BRUNO (Kaja, 2002) are examples of ‘in-house’ simulators developed by
crusher manufactures. These simulators have been used to facilitate crushing and
48
screening circuits design, equipment selection and process optimisation; however they
include equipment from specific vendors only.
ESTIMILL and SCALEMILL
The earliest reference to a program for grinding calculations was published by Herbst and
co-authors (1977, 1982). The ESTIMILL program provides statistically best estimates of
kinetic parameters (selection and breakage functions) from batch grinding tests. A
separate program, SCALEMILL, was developed to scale-up grinding circuits including ball
mill and cyclones and to predict the grinding power requirement and product size
distribution As described by Herbst and Rajamani (1982), SCALEMILL makes scale-up
calculations in the context of a linear-kinetic grinding model and a regression model of the
cyclones to arrive at the specific energy input requirements, which depends on the
grinding circuit configuration, and from which mill dimensions are calculated. The cyclone
model (Lynch & Rao, 1975) is a series of empirical equations which relate the design and
operating variables to the size separation. These equations require the specifications of
cyclone geometry in addition to the model constants and typical values the constants were
given to be used as a first approximation in the absence of actual data.
Figure 2.11. Steps in scale-up procedure using ESTIMILL and SCALEMILL (redrawn from Herbst
& Rajamani, 1982)
49
ESTIMILL has been in use by academia and in industry since its development and has
been used to evaluate grinding efficiency and sizing of mills (Herbst & Lo, 1988; Lo,
Herbst, Rajamani & Arbiter, 1986; Bhattacharyya, Tuzcu & Rajamani, 2016). An extension
of the program was made to allow the estimation of selection and breakage functions for
two components for a grinding-liberation model, called ESTILIB (Peterson & Herbst, 1984).
MODSIM
Further efforts towards a general purpose steady-state mineral processing simulator

occurred with King and co-workers through the development of the MODSIM (King, 1983;
Ford & King, 1984). MODSIM is based on the population balance method capable of
accounting accurately for variations in particle size and mineral liberation characteristics
together with other critical properties such as density, mineralogical texture, elemental
composition, magnetic susceptibility.
The program allows the simulation of integrated flowsheets as it is possible to model

random mineral liberation phenomena that occur in comminution devices. A wide array of
models for the unit operations is supplied in the model library, nevertheless it offers the
versatility to the user to incorporate new models or modify the existing ones. The only
restriction on the models is the basic data structure to describe particulate solids that
requires that a unit model should be capable of receiving the details of the unit feed from
the simulator and producing the appropriate product streams.
MODSIM has been largely used for process design and optimisation and as an academic
tool. Examples of published studies using MODSIM include:
 a study on the simulation of a taconite circuit including ball mills, cyclones and
magnetic separators in which models were fitted using liberation spectra obtained
through image analysis techniques with stereological correction (King & Schneider,
1995).
 an investigation of dense medium cyclone separation performance a coal

preparation plant (Umucu, 2014). Washability data from float-sink tests were
obtained from a coal sample and used to run model fitting and to predict the amount
of clean coal and ash content in the separation products.
50
MINDRES
The MINDRES simulator (Stewart et al., 1977) was developed as an initiative of the
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia. It
contained models for comminution, classification, flotation and other concentration
processes and it was able to calculate flows and size distribution of the components
present in the streams of the selected process. Sutherland and Weller (1983) presented a
study using MINDRES to evaluate a complex tin flotation circuit. In this study, it was
assumed that the size-recovery behaviour in flotation units would be constant and reflect
the conditions of the plant used to fit the models. The authors emphasised the benefits that
rapid calculations through simulation could bring as a basis for metallurgical
recommendations, but also recognised the limitation of the approach and the
appropriateness of the flotation models at the time.
A simplified method of modelling liberation was used in MINDRES to predict size and
liberation changes in fine grinding devices (Weller, Morrell & Gottlieb, 1996). The
methodology proved to be useful for ores where the liberation by size profiles were similar
in the feed and product streams. Further development of MINDRES was not found by the
author in public domain.
JKSimSand
The JKSimSand simulator (JKTech, 1993a) was developed by the JKMRC to provide
engineers the ability to design and simulate mineral sand processing plants. The software
included mass balance, model fit and simulation routines.
A generalised multi-component model structure and many of the multi-component models

– including process models of screens, splitters, spirals and classifiers – were developed
by Whiten and Morrison, while Dance and Stradling were responsible for the models of
electrostatic and magnetic separation (cited in JKTech, 1993a). The stream configuration
data associated with the circuit streams was specified by the user, including: sieve series
for size distribution data; mineral species; density range for mineral species; and assays,
magnetic and electrostatic properties of mineral species. Many of the JKSimSand models
were included to the MDK library, as discussed later in this chapter.
51
JKSimMet and JKSimFloat
JKSimMet and JKSimFloat simulators were developed by JKTech to analyse and model
comminution and classification and flotation processes, respectively (JKTech, 1987 cited
in McKee & Wiseman, 1991; JKTech, 1993b). Both software:
 are closed packages in which user cannot add their own process models; and
 integrate tasks associated with mass balancing of raw plant data, model
development using the balanced data and simulation using the fully developed
models.
Most of the models have been developed as part of the AMIRA P9 project and since then
its modelling capabilities have been improved through the same project. These models
rely on the JKMRC methodology of separating the ore and machine parameters that are
calibrated to actual plant performance.
The most significant feature of JKSimMet is the availability of validated comminution and
classification models, including crushers, AG/SAG mills, ball mills and HPGRs. The
structure of these models is based on population balance principles and separate
equations are used for accurately predicting power requirements. The latest version of the
program includes the JKSimFloat mass balance algorithm, permitting the mass balance of
size-by-assay data.
Flotation models used in JKSimFloat and their application have been described in the
literature (Harris, 1997; Alexander, Runge, Franzidis & Manlapig, 2000). The models
divide the flotation performance into that resulting from machine parameters, such as
hydrodynamics and froth performance, and ore parameters, such as susceptibility to
flotation. This methodology is based on the estimation of floatability components in
industrial flotation plants and has been applied to a wide range of commodities.
JKSimMet and JKSimFloat can be used together to predict the impact of changing
throughput and/or grind size on the flotation circuit recovery. However, the user must
manually export data from JKSimMet to JKSimFloat, as these programs are not integrated.
USIM PAC
The USIM PAC package was developed by the Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et
Minières (BRGM) (Broussaud, Connil & Fourniguet, 1988). The USIM PAC simulator is
used for design/optimisation of mineral and hydrometallurgical processing and it
52
incorporates functions for material balance, model fitting and simulation. The stream
structures in USIM PAC consider three material states: solid, liquid and gas. Brochot,
Durance, Fourniguet, Guillaneau & Villeneuve (1995) reported that the reason to describe
all material states is to take into account all the properties necessary to the plant simulator,
according to the simulation objective, the choice of unit operation models and the available
data. This is illustrated in Figure 2.12.
A description hierarchy defines the criterion application order to describe a flowrate. There
are five hierarchies: phase flowrate, size distribution, component grade, component grade
per size and component floatability.
This simulator allows users to model plant operations with three levels of accuracy
(Brochot, Durance, Guillaneau & Villeneuve, 2002):
 level 0: models do not take into account dimensional parameters and the
performance of the unit is independent of its dimensions and feed flowrate;
 level 1: models take dimensional parameters into account and require little
experimental data; and
 level 2 and 3: models of higher level that require the estimation of some of their
parameters on the basis of experimental data (level 2), obtained from the
continuous operation of the unit, or on the basis of experimental data and specific
tests (level 3).
Each unit operation model uses a material description level adapted to the unit type. A
peripheral layer algorithm translates the entire material description of the input streams
into a material description devoted to a particular model and to translate the restrictive
material description of calculated output streams (Brochot et al., 1995).
53
(a) Preliminary grinding plant design
(b) Grinding plant optimisation
(c) Grinding and flotation plant (F: Floating particles, N: No Floating particles)
(d) Gold ore treatment plant

Figure 2.12. Material representation in USIMPAC (Brochot et al., 1995)
The USIM PAC introduced a reverse simulation feature which gives the user the ability to
back-calculate equipment sizes and parameters to produce specified plant outputs
(Durance, Guillaneau, Villeneuve, Fourniguet & Brochot, 1993). It also features a capital
cost estimation model, which estimates the overall plant construction cost, and a phase
model that describes the particles properties such as size distribution, density distribution,
54
assay by size, mineral composition and liberation data. The Gaudin Random Liberation
Model (GRLM) is applied to model the effects of size reduction on liberation based on the
volume of each particle size fraction and mineral grain size (Brochot et al., 2006).
MetSim
MetSim is Proware’s equation based simulation package (Bartlett, 1987), that integrates
the chemical and the minerals industries processes in the same platform. It has a more
complex structure than mineral dedicated simulators, once it is capable of simulating
chemical, pyro and hydrometallurgical processes.
The simulator can be used to calculate mass and energy balances, to fit models and
perform steady-state and dynamic simulations of complex circuits. The comminution and
gravity separation module includes unit operations for crushing, screening, grinding,
classification, gravity separation, dense media, and coal preparation. This module uses
particle size and liberation data. The dynamic simulation module can be used to analyse
strategies to optimise and control crushing and grinding plants.
There are several studies in the literature applying this simulator in the modelling of
smelters and leaching plants, but limited information on comminution circuits.
SPOC
The SPOC project was an initiative of the Canadian Centre for Mineral and Energy
Technology (CANMET) to provide the industry with an extensive methodology for process
evaluation and optimisation assisted by computers (Laguitton, 1985 cited in Petruk, 1989;
CANMET, 1989 cited in McKee & Wiseman, 1991). The result was the development of a
simulator and its manual, which at the time could be transferred to requesting
organisations. The SPOC package incorporated functions for material balance, model
calibration and flowsheet simulation.
LIMN
LIMN was designed to draw and solve flowsheets (Wiseman, 1994). It is a solution engine
that functions as an add-in module to Microsoft Excel. All data is kept within Microsoft
Excel sheets with data structures and workbook layout conventions. It contains a stream
structure that handles size fractions by mineral species and models that are published in
the literature for both mineral processing (Yan, Wiseman & Dunne, 2005) and coal
preparation (du Plessis, 2010; Hand & Wiseman, 2010), including comminution,
55
classification, concentration and dense media separation units. It contains a WizardPack
that provides the user flow path options that can be tested without having to recreate the
flowsheet. For example, the simulation of a screen and a cyclone are run in parallel,
allowing the user to compare the performance of both units.
MetSMART
MetSMART is a simulation software that claims the capability of simulating the effects of
changing feed ore characteristics within grinding and flotation processing plants
(Minerality, 2015). It allows users to draw flowsheets, to perform mass and metallurgical
balances, model calibration and simulations of the processing plant. The software actively
diagnoses inefficiencies, warns users if problems are likely – highlighting potential trouble
spots and provides suggestions on changing variables in order to solve problems. It also
features an expert reporting of stream properties and equipment outputs, including
interactive graphs, tables and charts.
The comminution models available in MetSMART do not require specific breakage tests
and users have the flexibility of selecting which test they prefer, as these models utilise a
unique scale for abrasion, impact and attritioning. The software determines impact and
abrasion index based on Bond ball mill work index and these define the breakage pattern
information, as presented in Figure 2.13.
Figure 2.13. MetSMART breakage pattern definition (Minerality, 2015)
Information obtained either in bench scale testwork or industrial surveys are used to
calculate the flotation kinetics (Mena, 2015). Scale-up factors can be determined when
both industrial and laboratory samples are taken, accounting for differences in floatability
and selectivity depending on the scale. The literature lacks information on how the
software deals with changes in mineral liberation and its influence on flotation when
different operating conditions are simulated for comminution circuits.
56
HSC Chemistry
HSC Chemistry is Outotec’s (Lamberg & Tommiska, 2009) tool for mineral processing and
thermodynamic calculations, which includes four different modes with their own area of
application: 1) particles mode, which is used for mineral processing and includes grinding
and flotation particle based models; 2) reactions mode, which is used for
hydrometallurgical processing and features chemical reaction-based models;
3) distributions mode, which is applied for pyrometallurgical processing and presents
element distribution-based models; and 4) experimental mode, which is used for mass
balancing experimental data.
This software has a special approach for mineral processes such as crushing, grinding,
flotation, gravity separation, or screening. HSC has a database of simplistic models using
reduction ratios for crushing and grinding, efficiency curve models for size separation
units, and flotation models that are dependent on the sophistication of the testwork and
can be set up as mass distributors, mineral distributors or particle distributors.
Mineral-based models treat particles of different size distributions, composition and

hardness. Lamberg and Vianna (2007) developed a technique for tracking multi-phase
mineral particles during the mass balance and simulation, which is used in the particles
mode. This technique uses particle classification and binning for representing multi-phase
mineral particle composition distributions. The particle classification and binning method
was proved to be effective for tracking particles in the flotation study by Lamberg, Bourke
and Kujawa (2009). In addition, it includes a mineral database tool that allows the software
to calculate chemical composition and specific gravity for each particle and also for each
stream. A mineral liberation tool is also available for processing mineral liberation analysis
(MLA) analysis, which can be used during simulation.
Moly-Cop tools
Moly-Cop Tools is a set of easy-to-use Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, designed to

evaluate the operating efficiency of grinding circuits, following standardised methodologies
and widely accepted evaluation criteria (Moly-Cop, 2015). It incorporates a full set of
simulators for crushing, SAG and ball milling applications with its corresponding mass
balance and parameter estimation routines, with a user-friendly interface (an example is
shown in Figure 2.14). In addition, complementary spreadsheets are provided for Bond’s
Law calculations, grinding media wear estimation and other useful general utility functions.
57
Figure 2.14. Moly-Cop Tools ball mill and cyclone circuit (Sepulveda, Muranda & Jofre, 2015)
MDK
A set of software tools called MDK has recently been developed by Michal Andrusiewicz at
the JKMRC, and was upgraded in the AMIRA P9O project (Andrusiewicz et al., 2011a,
2011b; Andrusiewicz, 2012), with the purpose of expanding simulation capabilities to
include multi-component (or multi-mineral) simulation, to integrate comminution and
flotation modelling platforms, and to allow testing and development of new models before
building into future commercial simulation packages. Further development work was
carried out in the AMIRA P9P project, and with support from the CRC Ore (Ziemski, 2012),
toward the continued improvement of the software. Figure 2.15 shows the single and multi-
component stream structures available in MDK.
58
(a) single component (group 1 – 1G)
(b) multi-component (group 2 – 2G)

Figure 2.15. MDK’s stream structures
The core of the program consists of JKSimMet models and its fitting and simulation
engines, interfaced with a Microsoft Excel front-end. Microsoft Excel was chosen because
of its popularity, computational and graphical capabilities. The simulation framework allows
the user to configure flowsheets of mineral processing circuits by linking single and multi-
component models. The MDK simulation and fitting engine reads data from Microsoft
Excel template sheets which represent, in tabular form, the circuit connection matrix, unit
and stream lists, model parameters and experimental stream data.
59
The MDK solver can be called upon to model fit parameters in any model, or to simulate
the circuit as defined in the interface sheets. When simulating a flowsheet, information
about process stream characteristics is carried from one unit to the next. This information
may include size distribution, mineral composition and also particle liberation classes. This
means that a considerable amount of data is required for each stream. For example,
comminution models may require data regarding the components' hardness and size
distribution, while the flotation model may need information about size and minerals’
distribution, flotability and liberation.
Additional worksheets can be defined for pre-calculating model inputs, analysing and
displaying simulation results. New functions using Visual Basic for Application (VBA) in
Microsoft Excel can be added to develop complex and interactive calculations to wrap
around the simulations, making it an ideal platform for investigating circuit scenarios. A
simple example is optimising the feed percent solids, the number of cyclones and the
operational pressure in a cyclone nest, to obtain a product with the desired P80. The Excel
environment allows the user to plot the input and output results of simulator in various
forms.
Currently the MDK contains the single component models from JKSimMet, and also the
multi-component models from other JKTech simulators such as JKSimSand and
JKSimFloat (JKTech, 1993a; 1993b) as well as models recently developed within the
AMIRA P9 project.
The MDK also offers the possibility of running large numbers of consecutive simulations,
each with a different set of input parameters. There is an opportunity for automating the
simulation process to optimise circuits by varying the input parameters and seeking an
operating point that minimises or maximises an objective function, for example, to
determine the crusher operating gap which maximises throughput or minimises operating
costs.
IES
The Integrated Extraction Simulator (IES) is a cloud-based simulation and optimisation

platform that was created to allow operators to assess the processing performance of
future ore sources (Ziemski, 2012; CRC Ore, 2015b). It was developed by the CRC Ore in
collaboration with the JKMRC to integrate drill and blast models with crushing, grinding
and flotation models (Figure 2.16), facilitating the investigation of the effect that blasting
has on grinding and downstream flotation processes.
60
Users can implement their own models in IES and use them privately or share them with
others in the IES community. In addition, expressions can be defined for calculating
operating cost per tonne, power consumption or CO emissions, enabling the metal
production and environmental footprint optimisation to be performed directly with multiple
objective functions.
Figure 2.16. IES framework (CRC Ore, 2015b)
2.5.1 The Need for Advanced Simulation Capabilities
Some researchers believe (King, 1983; Ford & King, 1984; King & Schneider, 1995) that a
rational design of comminution operations can be possible only when the liberation of the
grinding product is properly described (size-by-component-by-liberation) and a definite
relationship between the liberation and the performance of subsequent mineral separation
is established. However, circuit design and optimisation based on mineral liberation may
be difficult in practice because liberation assessment of different streams of the circuit is
time-consuming and expensive. The modelling of liberation in comminution is not yet
sufficiently advanced to permit accurate simulation in particular where non-random
breakage occurs, despite extensive work conducted in modelling mineral liberation.
However, there is another group of researchers that have applied the multi-component
structure (size-by-component) simulation capabilities, avoiding the use of liberation-based
comminution models. For example, the JKSimSand (JKTech, 1993), USIM PAC (Brochot
et al., 1995) and LIMN (Wiseman, 1994) have structures that utilise particle density
61
distribution by size information, which is obtained from measurements on fractions from
dense liquid separation of the different streams. In Figure 2.17, a default ash assay table
for the different density bins utilised as input in LIMN is presented for an African coal.
Figure 2.17. LIMN snapshot - typical ash distribution per density bin
Using these simulators in mineral sands, iron ore and coal applications can be facilitated
because components have significant difference in their physical properties and can be
easily separated from gangue minerals (for example, rutile, zircon and ilmenite present in
mineral sands). Nevertheless, the applicability of these simulators is not restricted to these
commodities. In a confidential study using JKSimSand (R. Morrison, personal
communication, October 13, 2015), components were separated in metallic copper,
magnetics, non-magnetics, copper sulphide, and in density bins (2.85, 3.3 and 3.6) to
represent a grinding and gravity circuit processing a copper/gold ore. The JKSimFloat
follows a similar concept, in which mineral components are characterised by flotability
(JKTech, 1993).
Considerable effort has been applied to develop the modelling and simulation tools
required to further develop the size-by-component multi-component structure. As
discussed earlier, Andrusiewicz (2012) developed a platform known as MDK, which
integrate models revived from older simulators (JKSimSand and JKSimFloat) and a range
of multi-component models that have been developed more recently under the AMIRA P9
project (Andrusiewicz et al., 2011b; Bueno, 2013; Collins, 2016; Tavares, 2011; Mainza et
al., 2014; Benzer et al., 2014).
The 2G multi-component structure (size-by-component) simulation capabilities are tested

in this thesis with the intent to establish methodologies that avoid the necessity of
collecting mineral liberation data. Selected case studies are used to demonstrate the
current multi-component circuit simulation capabilities using the 2G structure, and
62
specifically seek gaps in simulation capability that need to be addressed in order to model
and simulate processing circuits of the future, as described in chapter 1.
Understanding the behaviour of individual components in a processing circuit treating

multi-component ores has the potential to aid in a range of tasks, such as:
 quantifying the benefits of pre-concentration, ore sorting and staged upgrade,

especially energy efficiencies and metal recoveries;
 assessing the best utilisation of hard ore components as media in grinding
operations and where hard components recirculate, accumulate in the mill load and
consume processing capacity; and
 better understanding the behaviour of ore components with different breakage
properties in AG/SAG grinding operations.
During the operation of mineral processing plants, disturbances are caused by the ore
variability, be it in ore competence / hardness, feed flowrate or size/mineral distribution.
These disturbances can make it difficult to run the circuit efficiently and meet product
specifications at all times. To address this problem, investigators have been interested in
the quantitative description of the behaviour of unit operations. Mathematical models have
been applied to predict the performance of individual units which were integrated in
mineral processing simulators to allow the analysis of the entire circuit.
The review of modelling methods and the steady-state simulation programs described the
state of art of mineral processing simulation. Most of the available simulators are
dedicated software under Windows or DOS environments that use similar simulation
structures and therefore lack flexibility to deal with more complex circuit configurations and
test new models. Table 2.3 provides a summary of the advantages and limitations of the
selected steady-state simulators. Note that the table does not present a summary of
capability, but rather lists points that differentiate each simulator from the rest.
63
Table 2.3. Summary of steady-state mineral processing simulators
Simulator Advantages Limitations
Cannot be used to simulate an entire

Crushing comminution circuit as they do not
In-house models by manufactures based on extensive
and include grinding and concentration
database
screening models
simulators Include detailed machine specific parameters
Usually contain equipment
information from one vendor only
Allows the determination of kinetic parameters

ESTIMILL (selection and breakage functions) from batch grinding
and tests of up to two discrete components Limited to ball milling circuits
SCALEMILL Model parameters in ESTIMILL can be used to scale-
up ball mills and run sensitivity tests in SCALEMILL
MODSIM incorporates mineral and coal processing

Would require translating
units
programming language of the multi-
Random mineral liberation phenomena can be component models developed under
MODSIM modelled in MODSIM the AMIRA P9 program to suit
MODIM’s data structures that are
Users can implement and test new models in the
required to give a valid description of
simulation framework using the Development Kit
the particulate solids.
supplied
Incorporates a wide range of processing unit models

MINDRES Successful simplified methodology for simulating Not available in public domain
liberation of ores with substantially invariant textures
Incorporated several multi-component processing unit

models that were recently included in the MDK library
Specific to mineral sands applications
JKSimSand Mineral properties such as density and magnetic
No longer available
susceptibility were used as model input, and model
parameters were specific to each mineral
JKSimMet models restricted to

comminution and classification
processes and JKSimFloat to flotation
circuits
Models have been continuously improved since 1970s
JKSimMet
JKSimMet and JKSimFloat are
and Includes multi-dimensional mass balance routines
independent software, and there is no
JKSimFloat
Widest range of industrially validated models automated method to transfer data
and integrate circuits
Does not allow rapid implementation
of new models
64
Table 2.3. Summary of steady-state mineral processing simulators (continuing)
Can be used to model and simulate the composition

by size distribution of comminution products and the
method developed by Wiegel (2006) to model the Available models are relatively old
effects of size reduction on liberation models (for example: Austin el al.
(1987), Austin et al. (1984), Ferrara et
Allows selection between three levels of model al. (1979))
USIM PAC accuracy and the description of a flowrate according
to five hierarchies: phase flowrate, size distribution, Would require translating
component grade, component grade per size and programming language of the multi-
component floatability. component models to be used in the
thesis to suit the simulator data
Contains a peripheral layer algorithm that allows structure
models to be adapted according to the material
description level selected by the user
Integrates the chemical and minerals industries Interdisciplinary tool that does not
MetSim processes, from comminution to smelting focus on comminution, with only high
Features a dynamic simulation module level, i.e. basic models available
SPOC and its detailed manual was transferred to the

SPOC Not available in public domain
minerals industry in Canada by CANMET
Models are focused on coal

processing lacking the advanced
Structured to allow addition of user models and comminution models required for this
testing new models thesis
Has a user-friendly and quick flowsheet drawing tool Crushing and grinding units have no
LIMN effects on component, as grade by
Easy access to data analysis, and customised results
size matrix is fixed
presentation and plotting tools
The simulation set up of controllers
WizardPack provides the user flow path options that
and scenarios can be time consuming
can be tested without recreating the flowsheet
Minimal industrial scaling parameters
in models
Limited information in the public

Warns users about circuit inefficiencies and provides domain on how mineral liberation is
suggestions to solve problems incorporated in the simulations
MetSMART Does not require specific breakage tests, as the No information on the accuracy of the
comminution models utilise a unique scale for comminution scaling method
abrasion, impact and attritioning
No ability to add or edit models
Uses a multi-phase approach to deal with particles of

different size distributions, composition and hardness
HSC Lacks a library of advanced mineral
Can process MLA analysis data and integrate with
Chemistry processing models
simulation
Contains tools for users to build their models
Editable, no hidden formulae or calculation algorithms Standardised spreadsheets that

Moly-Cop
include grinding and classification
Tools Free of charge units only
65
Table 2.3. Summary of steady-state mineral processing simulators (continuing)
Includes wide range of models developed in the

JKMRC and AMIRA P9 project, including multi-
component enabled models, and users can implement
and test new models in the framework
Provides environments for users to build models based
Only available for AMIRA P9
on open programming approaches
researchers and sponsors
Provides a model platform for size distribution, size by
MDK Set up of customised output reports
component distribution and size by mineral liberation
and post-simulation calculations can
distribution
be time consuming
Easy access to data analysis, and customised results
Does not have a flowsheet interface
presentation and plotting tools
Features multi-scenario tool, that allows different
configurations to be simulated without recreating the
flowsheet and multiple operating conditions to be
simulated in batch mode
Capable of embedding property models

Stores simulation data, supporting data sharing and Still under development and validation
interaction with external applications
Does not provide automated model
IES Accepts multiple mine blocks, mining units, or a fitting functionality
complete mine plan as simulation input
Assessable to CRC Ore and AMIRA
Cloud-based benefits P9P sponsors at this stage
Multi-user collaboration
Circuits with unconventional and potentially more complex designs are expected to
become more common in the future as plant designers and operators look to process ores
more efficiently. Taking mineral processing plant simulation to a new level is necessary to
confidently simulate those circuits and diminish the risks involved in novel circuit designs.
The development of the MDK aims at achieving this new level of simulation capabilities
while tracking multi-component particles through the circuit.
The key requirements of the simulator to be used in this thesis were:
 The structure of the simulator and its models can accommodate particle properties
such as crushability, grindability and separability of the different ore components
based on competence, density, size and magnetic susceptibility.
 The simulator is based on a user-friendly spreadsheet environment that is easy to

use, gives the user easy access to all functionalities already defined in Excel such
as easily storing (data entry), organizing (formatting), manipulating (data plots and
macros) and importing and exporting simulation results to other software.
66
 The simulator has open access to the model codes and allows user to customise
existing models.
 The framework of the simulator allows rapid implementation and testing of new
models.
 A multi-scenario function is implemented which provides the user the means to

simulate various circuit flowsheets and evaluate the processing performance of the
circuit configurations according to selected parameter (known as key performance
indicators).
The multi-component structure in MDK was selected for exploiting multi-component

characteristics of ores in the modelling and simulation of comminution circuits as it fulfils
the key requirements for the application of multi-component approaches tested in this
thesis, even though there are other simulators that have the capability to carry multi-
component information around the circuit in addition to conducting multi-component mass
balance, model fit and simulation of the entire process. The model library in most of these
multi-component simulators does not contain advanced comminution and classification
models such the multi-component models that have been developed more recently under
the AMIRA P9 project and are implemented in MDK. MDK provides easy access to model
codes and thus it can be possible to implement these models into other simulators that
allow users to use their own models, it would be time consuming to re-code models into
other simulation platforms.
Additionally, Mr. Michal Andrusiewicz programmed new models and modifications to the
code of the new multi-component structure implemented into the MDK simulation platform
as required for the development of the case studies in this thesis.
2.6 Summary and Conclusions
The critical review of the literature on the current practice in the design and optimisation of
mineral processing circuits has led to the conclusion that the practices that have been
successful in optimising energy consumption and metal recoveries in mineral processing
plants will not be sufficient for processing massive low grade ore bodies with high
variability. Hence, a fundamental rather than incremental shift in the design of
comminution circuits is required in order to obtain a substantial improvement in grinding
efficiency.
67
Several important examples of processes where differences in mineral properties can be
exploited prior to or within the comminution circuit to improve processing outcomes were
discussed, including sorting and pre-concentration, coarse particles rejection, mine-to-mill
and selective blasting, separations within circulating loads, staged grinding and
progressive upgrade, geometallurgy and the flexible circuit approach. As mentioned in the
literature review, special simulation challenges arise when modelling these circuits, and
the extent to which current simulation tools are equipped to allow future energy efficient
circuit designs was assessed. It is proposed that the key to the design of the future
generation of processing plants is to understand and respond to the ore properties.
Therefore, these systems require multi-component models and a multi-component
modelling framework for describing how particles of differing properties behave and
influence processing performance. While typical configurations adopted by the minerals
industry are generally efficient for cases where the entire stream is treated as having a
uniform set of properties, multi-component ores present the possibility of their properties
being exploited and used as drivers affecting changes in plant design and optimisation.
The state-of-art in multi-component modelling and simulation was reviewed and the
relevant limitations of the available models and tools were discussed in the context of
designing novel circuit configurations. Some examples of successful application of multi-
component tools in the modelling and simulation of gold, iron ore, mineral sands and coal
ores were discussed in the literature review. In these examples, mineral components have
a significant difference in their physical properties and can be easily separated and
measured, and this is a key feature for the application of multi-component tools. Hence, it
was assumed that the available models can be used to prove the concept that exploiting
multi-component characteristics of ore may enable the interactions between comminution
and separation processes to be modelled and simulated for the meaningful evaluation of
innovative processing circuit configurations.
The review of modelling methods and the steady-state simulation programs indicated that
most of the available simulators use similar simulation structures and are closed packages
that lack flexibility to deal with modifications to the simulator structure and implementation
of new models. The multi-component structure in MDK was selected for exploiting the
multi-component characteristics of ores in the modelling and simulation of comminution
circuits as it allows the user to select components and define their properties and
performance at each unit of the circuit and therefore, to adequately carry multi-component
information around the circuit. In addition, the MDK and some of its multi-component
68
models have received relatively little real-world application or testing. Therefore, this thesis
also contributes to the development and validation of the newly developed multi-
component models and simulation methods, focusing on the required data for suitable
model fitting and simulation structure for tracking particle properties.
69
3 Methodology
This chapter describes the methods for the application of the novel multi-component
modelling approaches in the context of analysing the energy efficiency of alternative
comminution circuit configurations and the behaviour of selected ore components in series
of three case studies.
3.1 Introduction
A series of three case studies based on real operating circuits were selected to form a
dataset covering industrial plants with different comminution circuit configurations and a
diversity of applications for multi-component simulation within comminution circuits. The
dataset served as the basis for modelling the processing units and developing the 2G
multi-component approaches, in the context of analysing energy efficiency of alternative
circuit configurations and the behaviour of selected ore components in each case study.
Selected circuit configurations were simulated in the multi-component platform (MDK),

according to the specific requirements of each case study. The impact of changes to the
circuit configurations was analysed in terms of energy efficiency of the comminution circuit
and of the individual ore components.
The outcome of the simulations is realistic mineral processing configurations that test
multi-component capability, limitations and needs over a range of important commodities
and ore types.
3.2 Survey Data
High quality industrial plant data is essential for the development of the multi-component
approaches and to mathematically model the processing units and analyse processing
performance of alternative scenarios through simulation. The data sets used in this thesis
were obtained from recent JKMRC / JKTech / AMIRA P9 surveys at LKAB’s Kiruna KA2
iron ore concentrator in Sweden, Newcrest’s Cadia Valley Concentrator 1 in New South
Wales and Newcrest’s Telfer comminution circuit in Western Australia. An additional
70
dataset was collected during an AMIRA P9P survey at Newcrest’s Cadia Valley
Operations after the expansion project to upgrade the comminution plant.
Availability of suitable multi-component data especially around comminution circuits has

been scarce until the increased emphasis on multi-component modelling in the P9O and
P9P projects and direct research work for companies by various researchers. The author
directly participated in one of these (Newcrest’s Cadia) and is indebted to the value of
collaborative research to have access to such rich data sets.
All the comminution circuit surveys were planned and conducted according to JKMRC
protocols (Napier-Munn et al., 2005). Trends of the key operating variables were
monitored before and during the surveys to ensure that they were conducted at steady-
state conditions and this information was registered in the process control system during
the sampling periods to establish the average operational conditions of each survey. An
example of steady-state conditions monitoring is presented in Figure 3.1, which illustrates
the variation of selected SAG mill parameters during the Cadia processing circuit survey in
2013. It includes feed rate, power, the load-cell weight, water addition and pebbles rate.
An event of increased pebble rates over a 10 min period can be observed just prior to the
survey. The red vertical lines highlighting the survey period indicate steady-state
conditions during the survey.
Figure 3.1. Variation of SAG mill operating parameters during survey
71
The experimental data from the surveys incorporated all equipment parameters and
operational data registered during the sampling periods, laboratory analysis (percent
solids, size distributions and assays) and ore breakage characterisation. The data
collected for each case study is described in chapters 4, 5 and 6.
3.3 Case Studies
In each case study, a multi-component approach was developed to trial the ability of
different circuits to respond to variable stream properties and quantify the potential of
these circuits to transform processing capability. The purpose was to evaluate, explore the
limitations of, and build on the multi-component modelling and simulation capability rather
than solely conduct optimisation studies of these circuits. This is to say that these multi-
component approaches were the means to simulate and compare different feed
characteristics and circuit configurations, while tracking components and carrying their
properties through the processing circuits. The key aspects to be addressed by the multi-
component simulations of the case studies were:
 modelling the processing of mixtures of minerals having different physical properties

and breakage characteristics through a full circuit containing milling and multiple
stages of separation, and analyse energy efficiency on a component basis;
 tracking streams that have different processing history and thus different
performance in downstream units, such as modelling the weakening of ore as it
passes through a HPGR; and
 modelling the gold deportment in pre-screening processes and the preferential
deportment of high-grade material to fine size fractions in comminution products
using 2G multi-component simulation, without the requirement of liberation
information.
For the purposes of this thesis, the circuit configurations under survey conditions have in
some instances been modified to suit modelling capability and to test specific aspects that
it is desired to test in this study (for clarity, these modifications are noted in each case
study). Furthermore, there was a need to assume certain data from other operations or
similar ores due the absence of survey data for a number of the simulation scenarios
developed in the case studies. Developing the tools and demonstrating the value of more
advanced multi-component simulation is a key objective of this thesis.
72
3.4 Energy Efficiency
The investigation of the literature shows that sustainable development concepts have
recently resulted from the increasing environmental pressure to improve the efficiency of
resource utilisation and significantly reduce waste generation and CO emissions in the
minerals industry (Norgate, Jahanshahi & Rankin, 2006). Companies and researchers are
developing and utilising sustainability metrics to measure efficiency and guide decision
making in circuit design and optimisation. The key objective of these sustainability metrics
is to determine a relationship between energy (or greenhouse gases emission or water
usage) and production not only in terms of tonnes processed but also per tonnes of metal
produced.
Comminution processes, as the most energy-intensive part of mineral processing,

accounts for the majority of processing costs at a mine (Boucaut, 2014) and thus, has
been the main focus of sustainable development concepts. The potential benefits of
increasing comminution energy efficiency are manifold, although they may differ
substantially from project to project (Boucaut & Pokrajcic, 2015). It is important to
understand the risks and benefits of implementing a particular energy efficient project.
Crittenden (2011) suggested that these benefits may be far more substantial than the
energy saving itself, influencing operating costs and production rates as well.
However, assessing the energy efficiency of comminution processes is not an easy task.
According to Musa (2010), this is in part due to the ill-definition of the term comminution
efficiency and poor definition of the measurement of what has been achieved by breakage.
Energy efficiency is commonly cited as a means of comparing power consumption of
various comminution equipment and circuits (Pokrajcic, 2010). It is expressed as the ratio
of the amount of energy used to grind from a certain feed size to a product size as
measured and a benchmark. A few methods accessible in the literature for measuring
efficiency in comminution use the following benchmark:
Specific Energy
Energy efficiency can be calculated using the ratio of operating and corrected Bond work
indexes, such as determined by Bond equation (equation 2.6) and correction factors by
Rowland (1972) (see chapter 2.4.1), according to the following relationship:
/
% Equation 3.1
/
73
This parameter gives an indication of the efficiency of a grinding circuit in relation to the
Bond (1952) standard crush, rod and ball mill circuit.
Napier-Munn (2014) estimated that energy usage could be halved at some operations, as
per Figure 3.2, based on observed and predicted specific energy calculations using the
Bond standard method for determining comminution unit energy efficiency.
Figure 3.2. Bond work index efficiency (Napier-Munn, 2014)
However, the Bond equation relies on the assumption that mill feed and product size
distributions are parallel in log/log space and AG/SAG mills do not fit this assumption as
they tend to produce a large amount of fines relative to the reduction in . A number of
researchers have attempted to account for this by using correction factors (Barratt & Allan,
1986; Rowland, 1972) and alternative power factors (Hukki, 1961; Morrell, 2004). Other
researchers suggested that using the size specific energy to calculate the energy
efficiency is more effective than the Bond equation because it is related to the generation
of fines, not the reduction in the top size.
Size Specific Energy
The concept of utilising the energy required to produce fine material used to characterise
the efficiency of closed grinding circuits and as a measure of competence dates to the
mid-1970s (Mokken et al., 1975). Mokken et al. utilised a graph presenting t/MWh versus
production of particles passing 0.074 mm to characterise the performance of various
circuits featuring tumbling mills and defined a linear relationship between energy and per
cent passing 0.074 mm (Figure 3.3).
74
Hukki (1979) proposed to utilise the inverse of the axis parameter, which is the specific
energy (MWh/t), to represent the energy required to produce new - 0.075 mm material.
Levin (1992), Hilden and Suthers (2010), Musa and Morrison (2009), and Powell et al.
(2003-2010) showed that the relationships between cumulative comminution energy
consumption and material generated below 0.075 mm are also linear, over a wide range of
comminution machines.
Figure 3.3. Mill performance benchmark (Mokken et al., 1975)
Powell et al. (2003-2010) further explored the method and named the energy required to
produce fine material as size specific energy ( ), which is a measure across a broader
range of particle sizes. This parameter represents the energy required to generate fine
material, commonly particles passing 0.075 mm but a coarser or finer size can be selected
depending on the target product size, using the following equation:

⁄ % % Equation 3.2
⁄
Ballantyne, Peukert and Powell (2015b) investigated the appropriateness of the and
suggested that measuring the intrinsic competence of an ore in this way can then be used
to assess the energy efficiency of full-scale mills in relation to a lab scale test. The authors
75
found that the is closely related to the surface area production. This was
demonstrated by measuring the progressive production of fines from cumulative single
impact tests. The generation of - 0.075 mm material was found to be proportional to the
specific energy, but there was a secondary influence of size (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4. Relationship between initial particle size and size specific energy (Ballantyne et al.,
2015b)
3.4.1 Energy Efficiency of Multi-Component Ores
The review of the literature shows that the energy efficiency of comminution circuits has
been widely analysed using the Bond Work Index as benchmark, in terms of energy
requirement per ton of ore processed (specific energy), but there have been a number of
observations regarding the merits of this method which relies in the assumption that feed
and product cumulative size distributions are parallel when plotted on a log-log scale,
which is not necessarily true for AG/SAG mills. This has prompted the author to seek
another method that is robust and practical to be used to assess the efficiency of multi-
component comminution systems.
Extending the size specific energy methodology for assessing efficiency of multi-
component ores is one contribution of this thesis. The can provide the means to
determine the energy required to generate fine material for each component individually.
Based on the analysis of the appropriateness of the for assessing energy efficiency
conducted by Ballantyne et al. (2015b), the author concluded that can be a powerful
tool in the analysis of multi-component ores, as it can provide the means to determine the
energy required to generate fine material for each component individually. If the linear
76
trend of the relationship between cumulative comminution energy consumption and fines
generated holds, each component should have a separate linear relationship, and the
response of a mixture could be non-linear.
3.5 Concepts Developed for MDK Simulations
Being an Excel-based simulation tool, MDK provides a high level of flexibility with respect
to designing flowsheet simulations, setting up calculations prior to model fit and after
simulation runs. When performing simulation scenarios and variations of a given
simulation, the Excel environment makes it convenient to set up customised simulation
interfaces that allow automating even complex variations which would be difficult to
achieve with most of the traditional simulation programs. Additionally, the user can easily
set up customised model fit and simulation output reports, including the results from
calculations of performance parameters useful for data-analysis.
3.5.1 Pre-Modelling Calculations
As some of the multi-component models in the MDK have been developed from the single-
component models implemented in JKSimMet, model parameters from certain models in
JKSimMet can be directly implemented in MDK. The model fit of simplified circuits was
initially conducted in JKSimMet. The resulting model parameters were used in calculations
to determine the first estimates of model parameters of individual components performed
prior to multi-component model fitting in MDK. It can be advantageous to develop a single-
component version of a flowsheet before fitting the multi-component models in the MDK to
minimise the required time of fitting routines.
3.5.2 Pre-Simulation Calculations
Calculations prior to simulation are required when some of the model inputs are calculated
values. These pre-simulation calculations were carried out using Microsoft Excel VBA
(Visual Basic for Applications) macros to automate these tasks. These calculations were
particularly useful for separation units that have various sets of model parameters that are
selected according to the unit feed characteristics.
77
3.5.3 Post-Simulation Calculations
Following a simulation, calculations using spreadsheet links and macro-functions can be

useful for data-analysis and reporting functions to be performed automatically. As an
example of this, one may wish to calculate the operating parameters for a given circuit
simulation, such as mass recovery, circulating load, power draw, operating work index and
size specific energy, and for the ore components individually, as each component requires
distinct amounts of energy to be comminuted and this translates to a difference in the power
drawn in crushing and grinding. The use of as a tool for analysing component specific
energy is discussed further in this thesis (chapter 4.3).
3.5.4 Customised Simulation Interface
In each case study presented, an analysis of the base case circuit results indicated the
main constraints in the circuit while processing selected ores, which served as a guide to
proposing changes in circuit configuration. The investigation of various circuit scenarios to
define the optimum configuration was conducted through application of the multi-scenario
simulation tool available in MDK, as described in chapters 4, 5 and 6. These scenarios
were simulated for lower grade ores in case study I, different stream processing history
that leads to streams with variable hardness caused by different HPGR operating
conditions in case study II and processing ore types with variable size and grade
distribution in case study III.
For simulation of complex flowsheets, it can be expedient to design a worksheet to

function as a simulation interface containing links to the frequently changed model and
stream parameters. Customising a simulation interface can therefore aid in setting and
visualising simulation scenarios, simulating various scenarios more quickly and avoiding
user errors when a large number of modifications need to be done manually.
Splitters are process units that divert flow either in their entirety or fractionally between two
or more product streams. The splitter model can represent a physical splitter in the circuit
or a virtual splitter unit that enables different flowsheet configurations to be compared. The
use of customised simulation interface was particularly useful for setting splitters and
determining the best split configurations that resulted in higher processing performance.
An example of customised simulation interface for a circuit featuring splitters to modify
circuit configuration is presented in Figure 3.5.
78
Figure 3.5. Example of a customised simulation interface
3.5.5 Customised Simulation Output Reporting
Customising simulation reports is essential for analysing key simulation output values and
comparing various circuit scenarios. The use of customised simulation interface and
reporting allows the user to run simulations and analyse its outputs from a single
worksheet. For each case study, process performance was analysed according to the
specific requirements of each processing circuit, using a range of parameters such as
circuit throughput, specific energy, metal rates and concentrate quality, which were
compared to parameters obtained for the base case circuit that were also included to the
reporting worksheet.
An example of customised simulation interface is presented in Figure 3.6.
79
Figure 3.6. Example of a customised simulation output reporting
3.6 Multi-Component Models Used in MDK Simulations
The multi-component models used in MDK are listed in Table 3.1 and described in detail in
Appendix 1.
80
Table 3.1. Multi-component models used in MDK
Case study
Equipment Model
LKAB Cadia Telfer
AG/SAG mill Bueno model   
Perfect-mixing model  
Ball mill
Modified perfect-mixing model 
Bin and stockpile Powell and Hilden’s model  
Component transfer unit Component adjustment model 
Cyclone Efficiency curve   
Crusher Andersen and Whiten model   
Flotation, magnetic and
Two-way splitter model  
gravity separator
HPGR Morrell et al. model  
Splitter Simple two-way splitter model  
Trommel and screen Efficiency curve   
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4 Case Study I - LKAB
The key aspect of interest in the LKAB case study is the simulation of magnetic separation
within the grinding circuit. By removing the waste silicate at a relatively coarse size as
soon as it is liberated, barren particles do not need to be ground to final product size, and
therefore saving a considerable quantity of energy as the silicate is also the harder
component. Multi-component simulation is necessary to model the breakage as well as
magnetic separation performance of a mixture of mineral particles of differing hardness
and magnetic susceptibility. Indeed previous multi-component research have exploited the
behaviour of different minerals composing an ore, particularly to study iron ores, but not
using state of the art processing models and a simulator able to deal with the evaluation of
various complex circuit configurations and based in a user-friendly spreadsheet
environment that allows organizing and manipulating simulation results. This case study
aims at investigating the addition of processing units such as HPGR and SAG mills into
the flowsheet and determining the most effective circuit configuration for processing ores
with varying composition by multi-component simulation and analysis of results on a
component basis.
4.1 Circuit description
LKAB’s Kiruna KA2 comminution circuit flowsheet (Figure 4.1) is comprised of screens,
magnetic separators, AG mill, trommel, spiral classifier, pebble mill and cyclones. This
circuit was described in detail by Samskog, Söderman and Storeng (1996) and Söderman,
Storeng, Samskog, Guyot and Broussaud (1996).
82
Figure 4.1. LKAB Kiruna KA2 circuit configuration
The ROM is screened at 30 mm, and both oversize and undersize streams are
concentrated using magnetic separators. The concentrates are stored in different silos and
fed at independent rates into the AG mills. The magnetic separation prior to the AG mill
allows the upgrade of the circuit feed by rejecting gangue material resulting from the
dilution of the ore in the mine. The gangue material is typically a hard silicate rock with low
iron content that can be easily rejected by dry magnetic separation.
The coarse and fine upgraded ores are stored in different silos and their feed rates to the
AG mills are independent. The discharge of each AG mill is screened by the trommel after
which the fraction - 30 + 8 mm is used as grinding media in the pebble mill and the
undersize is classified by a large double screw classifier. The classifier produces a coarser
stream which returns to the autogenous mills, and a finer stream with 30% of the mass
passing 0.044 mm. The fine fraction is cleaned using magnetic separators before feeding
two pebble mills which operate in closed circuit with cyclones producing an overflow with
of 0.044 mm for downstream concentration processing.
4.1.1 Comminution Circuit Survey
A survey of the Kiruna comminution circuit was conducted as described by Powell et al.
(2011b); Bueno, Shi, Kojovic and Powell (2011) and Bueno (2013). This survey provided
measurements of the performance of the AG and pebble mills operated in conjunction with
magnetic separation stages allowing models for all the units in the circuit to be fitted. The
sample points selected for the survey were: waste from the pre-concentrator, AG mill feed,
trommel undersize and oversize, spiral classifier undersize and oversize, intermediate
magnetic separator concentrate and waste, pebble mill feed and product, cyclone overflow
and underflow.
83
All the samples collected during the surveys were characterised to determine the moisture
content, particle size distribution and magnetite content by size. The experimental dataset
obtained from Bueno (2013) was mass balanced and the full results are presented in
Appendix 2 (Table A2.1). Note that the feed of pebbles to the pebble mill is not at the
same solid rates as the trommel oversize.
4.1.2 Ore Characteristics
During the surveys at the LKAB concentrator, two representative belt-cut samples from the
mill fresh feed, and bulk samples of ore and waste from the pre-concentrator were
collected for ore characterisation tests. The ore breakage properties were quantified using
the Drop Weight Test (DWT) and Bond ball mill work index test according to procedures
described in the literature (Bond, 1952; Napier Munn et al., 2005). The summary of the
results for bulk samples of ore and waste are presented in Table 4.1, which also includes
measurements of the component densities (Bueno, 2013; Powell et al., 2011b).
Table 4.1. Summary of breakage test results – case study I
Parameter Bulk Ore Waste

A 78 79
b 1.28 0.47
DWT
A×b 100 37
0.55 0.23
Density 5.11 2.84
BWI (kWh/t) 13.8 15.8
The parameter A is similar for both components (meaning that the maximum amount of
breakage is similar) but the slope represented by the parameter b changes, this means
that soft component reaches maximum breakage at low energy levels whereas hard ore
requires more energy to achieve same degree of breakage.
The magnetite and silicate content of the primary crushed ore was determined based on
samples obtained through a careful sorting procedure, to generate component specific
information such as measured size distributions and magnetite content data. The primary
crusher product size distribution curves for magnetite and silicates are plotted separately
in Figure 4.2.
84
Figure 4.2. Primary crushed ore magnetite and silicate size distributions
The variability of the primary crushed ore size distribution was quantified by Hahne,
Palsson and Samskog (2003) and is reproduced in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3. Primary crushed ore size distributions– case study I (Hahne et al., 2003)
4.1.3 Additional Modelling Data
For the simulation of alternative processing routes, additional modelling data was required.
The following data were utilised:
 Results obtained from DWT, piston and die and lab-scale HPGR tests conducted by
Hawkins (2007) on a siliceous ore. These data were used as breakage parameters
of the hard component for model fitting the multi-component HPGR models;
85
 HPGR pilot scale test data obtained from a study to evaluate the size reduction of
an iron ore by HPGR in a tertiary duty (A. Pereira, personal communication,
January 14, 2011); and
 Magnetic separation data from the Kiruna circuit obtained from plant surveys (E.
Niva, personal communication, March 17, 2014).
The two first datasets served as input to the model fit of the multi-component HPGR used
in the simulation of alternative circuit configurations for processing relatively lower grade
magnetite ore types. The siliceous ore provided information to describe the relatively
harder component (silicates) and the high grade iron ore data provided breakage
characterisation data for the bulk material (iron ore). The pilot scale data was useful
information to model fit and scale-up the HPGR. These datasets provided the means to
model and to simulate the differential behaviour of components with similar characteristics
to the components present in the Kiruna ore and was required due to the absence of
coarse samples of the Kiruna ore to be tested.
4.1.4 Ore Type Characteristics
For the demonstrations of the 2G multi-component approach in this case study and the
simulation of decreasing feed grades, the base case survey ore plus two relatively lower
grade magnetite ore types were modelled: ore type A (base case survey ore) - 58.3%, ore
type B - 48.4%, and ore type C - 36.8% magnetite. The bulk size distribution of the two low
grade ore types were calculated based on the magnetite grade and the size distribution of
the individual components presented in Figure 4.2. The calculated size distribution of each
ore type is presented in Figure 4.4.
86
Figure 4.4. Primary crushed size distributions per ore type – case study I
As magnetite has a finer size distribution than the silicate (refer to Figure 4.2), ore types
with decreasing amounts of magnetite are coarser.
The breakage of the ore types is based on the assumption that each component breaks in
the same manner as if fully liberated. Based on previous studies (Söderman et al., 1996;
Bueno, 2013) of components with substantially different physical properties this appears to
be a reasonable assumption, with the ability to provide realistic simulation outcomes.
Although these assumptions are a simplification of reality, as the components are not fully
independent and some properties cannot be determined for the individual components,
they enable the simulation of varying feed compositions and provide understanding of the
component behaviours. When the component responses are combined, the models
describe the relationship between the processing unit performances for the bulk solids.
4.2 Multi-Component Modelling Methodology
The objective of this case study was to investigate options for increasing the circuit
capacity to treat ores with decreasing magnetite content to keep up with metal production
rates. Results from surveys at LKAB’s Kiruna circuit showed streams from different
equipment present a clear change in properties such as silicate/magnetite ratio, density,
magnetic susceptibility and hardness (Powell et al., 2011b; Bueno et al., 2011; Bueno,
2013). Thus, the focus was to take advantage of these changes and the ability to reject
coarse silicate particles through magnetic separation before the more energy intensive
grinding stages.
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Different ore type compositions were modelled for testing the multi-component approach
proposed for this case study. The simulations evaluated alternative processing circuits for
each of the ore types. Liberated silicates were removed at different stages of size
reduction and the magnetic separation processing efficiency was influenced by the
comminution product size distribution and composition. Options were determined to
improve processing performance for each ore type, based on the analysis of component
performance.
Figure 4.5 outlines the scope of the research in this case study.
Figure 4.5. Schematic showing the scope of research in case study I
4.2.1 Mineral Multi-Component Approach
The Kiruna orebody represent one of the world greatest magnetite-apatite deposits
(Kurmies, 2002). For the purpose of the development of the mineral multi-component
approach, it was assumed that all the iron is in the form of magnetite, as it is the dominant
iron mineral, and the iron assays were used to calculate the quantity of magnetite in all
size fractions of the circuit stream samples (Bueno, 2013). The remainder is waste
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minerals consisting of approximately 30% of apatite and silicates (Kurmies, 2002), which
are generically named the silicate minerals in this case study.
The concept was to model these two main components for simulating an integrated circuit
including magnetic separation and grinding stages. When the ore is comminuted, grade
segregation by size occurs because components have differing breakage properties: the
magnetite is relatively softer than the silicates. Therefore, fine particles generally have a
higher magnetite grade in comminuted products.
Magnetic separators were modelled using recovery curves for silicates and magnetite.
These curves were determined individually for each stage of magnetic separation in the
circuit. As mill product size distribution changes, so does the predicted performance of the
magnetic separators based on the recovery by size of each component. A methodology
was developed to correct the magnetic separation recovery models according to the
content of silicate in the feed. As feed grades varied from the data used to establish these
models, the recovery curves were factored.
4.2.2 Conceptual Flowsheet
Figure 4.6 shows the conceptual flowsheet for the application of the proposed multi-
component approach, including a HPGR and coarse rejection screen which are not a part
of the LKAB circuit. Splitters have been employed for the simulation of scenarios, by
diverting streams or a portion of them to different processing routes. When using the multi-
scenario tool available in MDK, sensitivity testing can be performed for different operating
regimes using a single master flowsheet. Many options can be rapidly assessed while
providing a standard template of outputs for easy comparison of simulation results. Thus,
by systematically varying splitter settings, different circuit configurations can be simulated
and it is possible to evaluate the shift of the processing load around the comminution
equipment and the quality of the final product.
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ROM
Waste Primary crusher

+50mm
Coarse separationA Screen A
-50mm -50+20mm
Screen B Crusher
-20mm
SPLIT E
SPLIT A HPGR
0/100 +3mm
SPLIT B Screen C
-3mm
AG/SAG mill 75/25 SPLIT D
O/S U/S U/F
SPLIT C AG/SAG screen CycloneA Magnetic separation
+15mm -15mm O/F O/F
Coarse separationB Ball mill CycloneB
U/F
Waste
Figure 4.6. Conceptual flowsheet for the application of mineral multi-component approach
The following options were provided by the splitters:
 Splitter A: by-pass the AG/SAG mill;
 Splitter B: return of HPGR screen oversize to AG/SAG mill feed or discharge;
 Splitter C: return pebbles to secondary crusher to avoid returning critical sized

particles to the AG/SAG mill;
 Splitter D: recycle of HPGR screen undersize to the HPGR to optimise its

performance; and
 Splitter E: return of secondary crusher product to AG/SAG mill to provide relatively

coarser particles to the mill feed.
The resulting circuit configurations obtained by varying the various splitter settings are
shown in Figure 4.18.
4.2.3 Model Fitting
The multi-component model fitting was carried out in MDK using the survey data from the
Kiruna comminution circuit, including size distributions, component distribution on a size-
by-size basis, equipment sizes and component breakage characteristics.
The model fitting procedure consisted of two steps as described below. The stream
connections and circuit units used in MDK are described in Table A3.1 (in Appendix 3).
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1. In the first step of model fitting, identical model parameters were assumed for both
components using bulk data. The adjusted model parameters were used as the
initial guessed values for the second step of model fitting.
2. In the second run, the measured component composition per size fraction was also
used in fitting to derive model parameters for each component.
Models were also developed for units not installed in the LKAB plant so that alternative
circuit configurations can be simulated. These were modelled individually in MDK using
information obtained in other databases as presented in chapter 4.1.3. Equipment
specifications for both the original LKAB KA2 circuit and the simulation circuit are given in
Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Equipment specifications – case study I
Original Simulated
AG mill Screen
Number 2 Top deck aperture (mm) 50
Diameter (m) 6.5 Bottom deck aperture (mm) 20
Length (m) 5.3 AG/SAG mill
Installed power (MW) 4.3 Number 1
Trommel screen Diameter (m) 10.4
(mm) 8 Length (m) 7.3
Screw classifier Installed power (MW) 10.0
Product specification 30% < 0.044 mm AG screen
Pebble mill (mm) 8
Number 2 Primary cyclones
Diameter (m) 6.5 Fine product specification 80% < 0.15 mm
Length (m) 8.5 Ball mill
Installed power (MW) 4.3 Number *
Cyclones Diameter (m) 6.5
Product specification 80% < 0.044 mm Length (m) 9.1
Load fraction (%) 40.0
Installed power (MW) 9.0
Ball mill cyclones
Fine product specification 80% < 0.060 mm
* depending on the scenario configuration
Once all units in the conceptual flowsheet for the application of mineral multi-component
approach were modelled, these models were integrated in MDK and used for simulating
the selected scenarios. The assumptions and details of the comminution and separation
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units model fitting and post-modelling calculations used to evaluate processing parameters
and model fitting errors are described as follows. The model parameters fitted for all multi-
component models are provided in Table A4.1.
AG Mill
Bueno (2013) used his multi-component AG/SAG mill model to evaluate the effects that
composition of the mill feed has on the breakage rates and presented shifts in breakage
rates obtained for three pilot plant tests, each with increasing amounts of silicates in the
feed blend in the following order: T5 (11.6% silicates), T1 (13.3% silicates) and T4 (27.9%
silicates). The analysis of the pilot plant raw data (Bueno, 2013) showed that the AG mill
feed presented identical size distributions in all the three tests (Figure 4.7a), while the size
distributions of the components varied according to the feed blend composition (Figure
4.7b).
(a) Bulk (b) Magnetite

Figure 4.7. Bueno’s (2013) pilot plant data – AG mill feed size distributions
The shifts in breakage rates obtained for magnetite and silicate in each of the three pilot
plant tests can be found in Figure 4.8.
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(a) Magnetite (b) Silicates
Figure 4.8. Component breakage rate for varying feed composition (Bueno, 2013)
As the ore becomes harder (more silicates), the calculated breakage rates retain similar
trends for both magnetite and silicate breakage rates, except for the magnetite coarsest
knot point for the harder feed (T4), as a consequence of the lack of magnetite particles in
the coarse size range (+ 40 mm) of the mill feed.
The results presented in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8 indicate that the breakage rates and
size distribution of the silicates are similar in the three tests. Based on this result, it was
assumed that fixed component specific breakage rate can be used in the simulations of
the selected ore types, as long as the component size distributions were similar to the
ones used in the model fit.
The primary mill operating conditions varied significantly in the selected simulation
scenarios. To accommodate the operating variations in these scenarios such as returning
the pebbles to the AG mill feed rather than using them as grinding media in the secondary
mill, the addition of grinding media, changes in mill total load and feed rates, the
component breakage rates were manually tuned utilising the JK variable rates AG/SAG
mill model equations (JKTech, 2001) (see Appendix 1).
The size distribution curves for the AG mill fresh feed, load and product obtained in mass
balance (points) and model fit (lines) are compared in Figure 4.9.
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Figure 4.9. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – AG mill fresh feed, load and
product – Case study I
Secondary Crushers
The parameters obtained from the single component Andersen and Whiten’s model were
used as an initial estimate for the multi-component modelling. In the multi-component
crusher model, scale factors related to model parameters , and were fitted for
each component individually.
HPGR
The HPGR was modelled using the Morrell, Shi and Tondo (1997) model and based on
results of pilot plant unit processing a different iron ore and breakage characteristics from
piston and die and drop weight tests. The combination of piston and die tests and
laboratory/pilot scale HPGR were used to produce a relationship between the compressive
bed and net motor power.
Trommel, Screen, Screw classifier and Cyclone
The trommel, screens, screw classifier and cyclones were modelled as multi-component
efficiency curves and the main assumption for conducting the model fit was that the
parameter was the same for both components in a specific unit. The parameter was
the same for both components for screens and was adjusted according component
measured data for cyclones (resulting in higher values for the lower density silicates).
The size distribution curves for the trommel and screw classifier streams are given in
Figure 4.10 for both mass balanced dataset (points) and the modelling predictions (lines).
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(a) trommel (b) screw classifier
Figure 4.10. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – trommel and screw
classifier – Case study I
Pebble/Ball mill
The pebble mill was modelled using survey data and the multi-component perfect mixing
ball mill model, with the grinding media density identical to the ore density. However, a
model that account for pebble consumption rates is not available in MDK, thus there were
no means to model the rate of AG screen oversize consumption in the pebble mill. In the
flowsheet used in model fitting, the AG screen oversize was sent to a stockpile while in the
simulations of the base case circuit, this stream returns directly to the AG mill.
The secondary mill was simulated as a ball mill in the scenarios presented in Figure 4.18.
The mill length was adjusted in a calculation to account for the difference between the
weight per unit volume of pebbles and steel balls in a way that power drawn by the
industrial mill and the simulated power drawn by the ball mill matched. The steel ball top
size was assumed to be 60 mm, which is the top size of the pebbles fed to the mill.
Figure 4.11 shows the pebble mill breakage rates for both components and the mill
product size distribution comparison between mass balanced and fitted data.
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(a) breakage rates (b) mill product size distribution curves
Figure 4.11. Pebble mill breakage rates and product size distribution
Figure 4.11a indicates that the breakage rates for the harder component (silicates) are
lower than the ones for the softer component. The breakage rate values increase with
size, pass through a maximum and reach to a reduction at the coarsest knot, ensuring the
effective rate of grinding cannot be 'infinite' if a coarser feed is simulated. These breakage
rates were considered to be invariant with feed grades. Figure 4.11b shows that measured
pebble mill and modelled ball mill products resulted in similar size distributions. Without the
pebble wear model required for a true pebble mill model, the predicted product will tend to
be coarser, as the fine abrasion product of the pebbles is not accounted for. This is
therefore a need for this capability to be implemented in MDK, however is outside the
scope of this thesis.
Magnetic Separation
The magnetic separation stages were modelled using the two-way splitter model.
Recovery curves were calculated based on measured data obtained from surveys at the
LKAB’s Kiruna circuit with the ore type A. As discussed previously in chapter 2.4.4,
liberation may be independent of grinding history and a given size interval should contain
the same proportion of liberated mineral. However, in the simulation of decreasing feed
grades, the amount of component in each size fraction change significantly from the
original survey conditions and the magnetic separation performance is required to change
accordingly to achieve the product specification. To account for these differences, a
method to correct these curves was established in which recoveries were adjusted in
proportion to the grade of the magnetic separation product. The overall recovery curve
shapes were maintained; as the recoveries were scaled in all size fractions based on the
specifications for the magnetic separation concentrate.
96
Before the simulation of each scenario, an initial run took place to determine the first
estimate of the magnetic separation feed grades and recoveries curves were corrected
based on the curves determined for ore type A. The curves determined for the three ore
types are presented in Figure 4.12.
(a) Coarse separation (b) Intermediate separation
(c) Fine separation

Figure 4.12. Recovery curves according to ore types
If the recovery curves were determined experimentally for each ore type and for different
grinding products, then these results could be incorporated into the modelling database,
improving the simulation prediction capabilities.
Splitters
The splitters were modelled as a two-way simple splitter model, which was used to divide
streams into two products in a fraction from 0 to 100%. The partition is perfect and both
products have the same descriptions (particle size distributions, percent solids and
component distribution). This model and the multi-scenario tool are key assets of MDK for
quickly simulating various changes to the master flowsheet and analysing the main
processing parameters outputs.
97
4.3 Simulation Results
Processing options for a magnetite ore with decreasing magnetite content were simulated,
using the Kiruna circuit survey data (see chapter 4.1) to establish the base case circuit that
was simulated in this case study. Changes in the feed characteristics that can impact the
gangue rejection stages and overall circuit performance were investigated using the
mineral multi-component approach (see chapter 4.2.1). The impacts of changes in feed
characteristics, such as size distribution, iron content and hardness, were simulated
through the base case circuit and circuit throughput and metal production limitations were
determined.
The simulation of alternative circuit configurations was aimed at tracking components

along the circuit to identify the best processing strategy for increasing the processing rates
for the lower grade magnetite ores that enables a decrease in the energy requirement to
process these relatively harder ores by shifting the processing load around the
comminution equipment.
This chapter incorporates results presented by Powell et al. (2014) and Foggiatto, Hilden
and Powell (2014b).
4.3.1 Base Case
The base case circuit (Figure 4.13) was established based on the Kiruna models and the
characteristics of the ore being processed during the survey (ore type A); however, it was
scaled-up to increase throughput and the flowsheet was simplified. These modifications
included: the AG mill trommel and screw classifier were combined into a single AG screen;
the secondary mill was modelled as ball mill in closed circuit with cyclones; and the AG
screen oversize returns directly to the AG mill.
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Figure 4.13. Base case circuit configuration – case study I
The ore is progressively upgraded, with three magnetic separation stages: a coarse
separation (CMS) before the AG milling that rejects gangue material from dilution that
occurs in the mine, an intermediate separation (IMS) that rejects silicate liberated before
ball milling and the fine separation (FMS) which processes the ore from the ball mill circuit
and generates the final concentrate.
The results obtained for the simulation of the base case circuit are presented in Table 4.3
and Table 4.4, which list mass and metallurgical balance results and process parameters,
respectively. The AG mill circuit feed was calculated as the sum of the screen undersize
and the coarse magnetic separation concentrate and the ball mill circuit feed was the sum
of the primary circuit underflow and the intermediate magnetic separation concentrate.
Table 4.3. Mass and metallurgical balances – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I
Feed % passing % % Recovery (%)

Stream
rate (t/h) 0.075 mm silicate magnetite Mass Silicate Magnetite
Main feed 2000 2.3 41.7 58.3 100 100 100
CMS waste 162 0.1 88.0 12.0 8.1 17.1 1.7
AG mill feed 1838 2.5 37.7 62.3 91.9 82.9 98.3
IMS waste 510 73.6 91.5 8.5 25.5 55.8 3.7
Ball mill feed 1328 53.9 17.0 83.0 66.4 27.1 94.6
FMS concentrate 1104 93.1 1.1 98.9 55.2 1.5 93.7
FMS waste 225 84.1 95.2 4.8 11.2 25.6 0.9
CMS - coarse magnetic separation

IMS - intermediate magnetic separation
FMS - fine magnetic separation
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Table 4.4. Main process parameters – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I
Power draw Specific energy Circulating

Equipment
(mm) (mm) (MW) (kWh/t) load (%)
AG mill 20.0 0.31 9.8 5.3 16
Ball mill 0.23 0.09 8.2 6.2 244
Total - - 18.0 11.5 -
The concentrate is produced at 1104 t/h rate, with 93.7% of the magnetite and 1.5% of the
silicate in the circuit feed. The metal production rate for the concentrate was 790 t of iron
per hour calculated using the following equation:
0.724 Equation 4.1
where the constant 0.724 represents the percentage of iron in pure magnetite.
Table 4.4 indicates that the specific energy was lower for the AG mill (5.3 kWh/t) than for
the ball mill (6.2 kWh/t). The comminution energy was evaluated using the methodology
which utilises a size specific energy graph (see chapter 3.3). The graph presents the
specific energy versus the generation of particles passing 0.075 mm, i.e. the difference
between the material passing in 0.075 mm in the feed and in the product of the unit or
circuit under analysis. The size specific energy graph for the base case is presented in
Figure 4.14.
Figure 4.14. Size specific energy graph – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I
Figure 4.14 compares the power consumption of different sections of the comminution
circuit to generate - 0.075 mm product. The slope of the line is the average which
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indicates that, on average, 12.9 kWh of energy are consumed by different units to produce
a tonne of - 0.075 mm material.
Size specific energy graphs were plotted for each component individually in Figure 4.15,
where the component specific energies were calculated based on the mill feed, load and
product composition and size distribution and power drawn by each component in each
comminution stage under evaluation. The power drawn by each component was
calculated based on their volume in the mill load. This was possible because the Bueno
multi-component AG/SAG mill model can describe the build-up of the hard components in
the mill load and provides estimations of the actual load composition.
The contribution of each processing unit to power consumption (i.e. the percentage of the
total power drawn by each component), which is called processing load distribution in this
thesis, are described below.
 AG mill circuit: 60% silicate and 40% magnetite; and
 Ball mill circuit: 18% silicate and 72% magnetite.
(a) silicate (b) magnetite

Figure 4.15. Component size specific energy graph – base case circuit – ore type A – case study I
Results show that the comminution of magnetite is less energy intensive than for silicates
as the average for the silicates was 15.7 kWh/t of - 0.075 mm and 10.6 kWh/t of
- 0.075 mm for magnetite.
Using the size specific energy methodology and power drawn by each component is a
novel way of assessing efficiency of multi-component ores, as discussed in chapter 3.5.3.
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4.3.2 Simulation of the Base Case Circuit Processing Lower Grade Ores
The results of the simulations of the base case circuit (Figure 4.13) treating two ores with
decreasing iron grades (ore type B and ore type C) can be found in Table A4.2 (in
Appendix 4). For each ore type, a series of simulations were carried out to determine the
feed rate of the circuit at which the simulated and measured to volumetric total AG mill
load were similar (maximum difference allowed of 0.3%). This limitation relates to flow
through the grate, and was established because if the simulated flow exceeds the
maximum, the mill will likely fill up with fines. When the mill is slurry pooling, the impact
breakage is reduced and breakage rates should vary and this variation of breakage rates
is not simulated by the model.
The simulation of increased amount of hard component (silicate) in the circuit feed resulted
in:
 20% reduction in ore type B feed rates and 35% reduction for ore type C as
compared to the ore type A,
 decrease in mass and magnetite recoveries to the FMS concentrate, and
 increase in mass and silicate recoveries to the CMS waste.
The FMS concentrate silicate content increased, achieving from 1.1% to 1.5% and 2.0%,
for ore types A, B and C respectively. Metal production rates dropped from 790 t of iron/h
(ore type A) to 507 and 294 t of iron /h, for ore types B and C respectively.
A comparison of magnetite and silicate recoveries to the FMS concentrate for each ore
type is given in Figure 4.16. It can be seen that as the FMS feed silicate grade increases,
magnetite and silicate recoveries to the concentrate decrease.
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Figure 4.16. Magnetite and silicate recoveries per ore type – case study I
Table A4.3 summarises the process parameters for the base case circuit simulations with
ore types B and C and indicates decreasing AG mill power draw for these ore types as a
result of increased amounts of silicate in the circuit feed, the accumulation of this
component in the AG mill load and decreased circuit throughput. In addition, the ball mill
circulating loads decreased with decreased circuit throughput, indicating that the AG mill is
the bottleneck of the circuit. The simulated power drawn by the silicates for ore type B
represented 75% and 36% of the total power drawn in the AG mill circuit and ball mill
circuit, while for ore type C these values increased to 84% and 46%, respectively.
The comminution energy was evaluated using size specific energy, which are shown in
Table 4.5 for ore types A, B and C, based on bulk and component specific data. It should
be noted that the energy figures are unvalidated predictions based on the simplified
models applied in these simulations. The size specific energy graph was plotted for the
three ore types in Figure 4.17.
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Table 4.5. Size specific energies – base case circuit – ore types A, B and C – case study I
% generated passing Specific energy

Ore 0.075 mm (kWh/t) (kWh/t of - 0.075 mm)
Circuit
type
Bulk Sil. Mag. Bulk Sil. Mag. Bulk Sil. Mag.
AG mill circuit 56.9 59.0 55.5 5.3 8.5 3.4 9.3 14.4 6.1
A Ball mill circuit 37.7 49.0 26.5 6.2 10.0 5.4 16.4 20.4 20.4
Whole circuit 89.1 75.0 81.1 11.5 11.8 8.6 12.9 15.7 10.6
AG mill circuit 59.0 61.6 56.8 6.3 10.0 3.0 10.7 16.2 5.3
B Ball mill circuit 38.4 49.4 27.2 8.8 13.6 7.4 23.0 27.6 27.1
Whole circuit 90.2 77.4 82.5 15.1 14.4 10.0 16.8 18.6 12.1
AG mill circuit 61.3 63.5 58.0 7.4 10.6 2.9 12.1 16.7 4.9
C Ball mill circuit 39.4 49.2 28.3 13.4 19.6 10.6 34.1 39.8 37.4
Whole circuit 91.4 77.6 83.7 20.9 16.2 12.5 22.8 20.9 14.9
Figure 4.17. Size specific energy graph – base case circuit – ore types A, B and C – case study I
Table 4.5 and Figure 4.17 indicate that the AG mill circuit generates more fines than the
ball mill circuit for all ore types. Both AG and ball mill circuits become less efficient as
silicate content in the circuit feed increases (higher values of ). However, the
magnetite component presented the opposite behaviour, with AG mill circuit
decreasing with feed silicate increase. This severely affected the ball mill circuit
performance at higher silicate contents (ore type C) and is reflected in relatively higher
values. These results show that the more hard material present in the fresh feed, the
more significant is the hard material build-up in the circulating load of both AG and ball mill
circuits.
The build-up of a hard material in the mill load and circulating loads is a function of the
components’ hardness and differences in specific gravities. The use of multi-component
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mill models allowed the description of the build-up of the hard components, providing more
realistic estimations of the true charge density, based on the balance between
components’ quantities and their respective specific gravities. This is a non-linear
response that single component mill models cannot predict.
4.3.3 Evaluation of Alternative Processing Options
Alternative processing circuit configurations were established in order to investigate their

response to feeds with decreasing iron grades as opposed to the base case circuit.
Flexibility was introduced to the circuit through the use of virtual splitters at strategic points
of the circuit to allow sensitivity testing of different operating regimes (see Figure 4.6). The
investigation of various scenarios to define the optimum configuration was achieved
through the application of the multi-scenario simulation tool available in MDK, as the circuit
configuration could be quickly adapted by changing the splitters’ settings. This allowed the
processing load to be shifted around the equipment of the circuit, aiming to obtain a
balanced throughput and final product size distribution and quality.
The circuit target product sizes to feed the magnetic separation stages were: at 40 mm
for the coarse magnetic separation (CMS), at 0.15 mm for the intermediate magnetic
separation (IMS), and at 0.06 mm for the fine magnetic separation (FMS). The FMS
concentrate specification was a maximum of 2.0% silicates at a metal product rate of
790 t of iron/h.
Simulation scenarios were established by considering the main circuit configurations

implemented in the past for processing magnetite ores and what combination of
processing equipment could offer increased throughput (and the metal production rates)
when the circuit treats lower magnetite grade ores. The main circuit configurations
implemented in the past for processing magnetite ores include: (a) conventional circuits –
stage crushing followed by primary and secondary milling; (b) autogenous grinding
circuits – primary crushing followed by AG/SAG milling and ball/pebble milling; (c) single
stage circuits – single stage AG milling (Devaney, 1985; David et al., 2011; McIvor &
Greenwood, 1996). In two-stage grinding circuits, magnetic separation stages are
incorporated to reject coarse non-magnetic minerals, reducing the concentrate
abrasiveness, liner and grinding media wear rates, and the amount of material that needs
to be ground to the final product size. Some of these circuits also have a regrind stage to
prepare rougher concentrates for cleaning separation process.
105
The selected scenarios are described as follows:
Scenario 1 – AG to SAG mill
In this scenario, the primary mill was simulated as a SAG mill as per specifications
presented in Table 4.6. Increased throughput is commonly obtained by the addition of balls
to the AG mill; however, this would require a mill upgrade (reinforced structure and extra
motor power) and the grinding media consumption contributes to increasing operating
costs. The use of pebble crushers to further increase throughput was not considered for
this scenario, as it may be infeasible to provide magnetic removal of steel ahead of
crushing due to lack of discrimination between magnetite and steel.
Table 4.6. Equipment specifications – SAG mill – case study I
SAG mill
Number 1
Diameter (m) 10.4
Length (m) 7.3
Installed power (KW) 12
Ball load (%) 5
Scenario 2 – AG screen oversize split
The second strategy to increase the throughput was to introduce a splitter to control the
amount of pebbles that return to the AG mill or are diverted to a pebble crusher, as
presented in Figure 4.18b. As the magnetite grade of the AG mill feed varies, there is a
corresponding change in the ratio of competent silicate to friable magnetite in the mill load.
If the mill feed contains excess silicate, then the throughput drops markedly shown in the
base case simulations in chapter 4.3.2. The AG mill screen oversize split is an on-line
control parameter tuned to maintain the correct mill filling.
Scenario 3 – AG screen oversize split, bottom screen undersize split, HPGR and HPGR
screen
The third scenario was a hybrid AG mill and HPGR circuit, as presented in Figure 4.18c.
Decreasing the AG/SAG mill feed size distribution typically provides an increase in
throughput (e.g. secondary crushing and high intensity blasting) and is a common practice
106
when the AG/SAG mill is the bottleneck of the comminution circuit (Staples, Lane, Braun,
Foggiatto & Bueno, 2015).
The primary screen ahead of the magnetic separation was modified to a double deck
screen, because HPGRs demand top-size control of the feed stream. The coarse
magnetite separation product forms the feed to the AG mill. The bottom screen undersize
is split between the HPGR and the AG mill. The bottom deck oversize along with the split
from the AG screen oversize are crushed and fed to the HPGR. The HPGR product is
screened, the oversize is fed to the SAG mill and the undersize is fed to the downstream
magnetic separation and ball milling circuit. The bottom screen undersize split was
adjusted in order to provide enough feed to the HPGR, while maintaining AG mill filling.
Also, the additional fine material present in the HPGR feed act as a cushion that absorbs
the compressing forces applied onto the material bed in the HPGR crushing zone.
The simulated HPGR specifications are presented in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7. HPGR specifications – case study I
HPGR
Number 1
Rolls diameter (m) 2.0
Rolls length (m) 1.5
Installed power (MW) 4.0
Scenario 4 – AG screen oversize split, bottom screen undersize split, HPGR, HPGR
screen and HPGR fines split
This scenario is similar to the hybrid AG mill and HPGR circuit simulated in scenario 3;
however, it includes a split at the HPGR screen undersize as presented in Figure 4.18d.
The benefits of splitting the HPGR screen undersize either to the IMS and ball mill circuit
or to the AG mill were investigated.
Besides providing a finer feed to the AG mill by HPGR crushing, forwarding the HPGR
screen undersize to the downstream circuit can also provide a change in the power split
between the comminution units.
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Scenario 5 – AG screen oversize split, bottom screen undersize split, HPGR, HPGR
screen, HPGR screen oversize and undersize splits
This scenario is similar to scenario 3; however, it includes splits at the HPGR screen
undersize and oversize as presented in Figure 4.18e. This split that divides the HPGR
screen oversize between the AG mill and the AG screen, allows either:
 providing relatively coarser material to the AG mill that may serve as grinding
media, or
 forwarding critical sized material to the AG mill discharge.
Scenario 6 – AG to SAG mill, bottom screen undersize split and HPGR
This scenario is similar to the SAG mill circuit simulated in scenario 1, but the primary
screen ahead the SAG mill was modified to a double deck screen with the top screen
oversize feeding the magnetic separation, the bottom screen oversize feeding a HPGR
and the bottom screen undersize being split between SAG mill and HPGR, as presented in
Figure 4.18f. The objective of this split is to control the quantity of fines in the HPGR feed,
as this material can help filling of the feed interstices and thus enhancing the transfer of
grinding energy into particle of all sizes, and absorbing pressure shocks due to ongoing
feed particle size variation and movement (Pownell, 2017). If the quantity of fine material in
the HPGR feed is not controlled, comminution efficiency can decrease while wear rates
can increase.
108
(a) scenario 1 (b) scenario 2
(c) scenario 3 (d) scenario 4
(e) scenario 5 (f) scenario 6
Figure 4.18. Simulation scenarios – case study I
109
4.3.4 Discussion
The simulations of alternative circuits aimed at defining the best option for maintaining the
metal production when treating low grade ores. The simulation of two identical processing
lines (base case circuit configuration) was used as the basis for comparisons with the
alternative circuit configurations. The process of optimising the circuit was automated
through application of the multi-scenario simulation tool available in MDK, with splitters
settings varying from 0 to 100% (with intervals of 10%). For each combination of splitter
settings, a range of throughput rates were simulated. Automation of the simulation
procedure also included post-simulation calculations to display relevant performance
parameters which aimed at:
 maintaining the AG/SAG mill load within a maximum difference of 0.3% between
simulated and measured values;
 ensuring that the simulated motor power of the comminution units did not exceed
the available power;
 guaranteeing that the ball mill circulating load would not exceed 300%;
 achieving the target grinding product size distribution in both primary and secondary
milling; and
 conserving the metallurgical performance in terms of magnetite recoveries for each

ore type.
Once the most favourable inputs were determined using the multi-scenario simulation tool,
each scenario was refined individually. Table 4.8 shows the final splitter settings for all
scenarios and ore types.
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Table 4.8. Splitter settings (% to AG/SAG mill) – ore types A, B and C – case study I
Ore Scenario
Splitter
type 1 2 3 4 5 6
AG/SAG mill screen O/S split 100 0 0 0 0 100
AG mill/HPGR feed split 100 100 50 25 10 20
B
HPGR fines split 100 100 0 100 100 100
HPGR flakes split 0 0 100 100 0 100
AG mill/HPGR feed split 100 100 50 0 10 30
AG/SAG mill screen O/S split 100 0 0 0 0 100
C
HPGR fines split 100 100 0 100 100 100
HPGR flakes split 0 0 100 100 0 100
The mass and metallurgical balances and the main process parameters of the simulated
circuits treating ore type B can be found in Table A4.4 and Table A4.5, respectively.
Similarly, Table A4.6 and Table A4.7 summarise the simulation results for ore type C.
The comminution energy was evaluated using the size specific energy as calculated for
the different sections of the circuit, which can be found in Table A4.8 for ore types B and
C. Scenario 6 resulted in the lowest average values for both ore types B and C
(10.7 and 18.8 kWh/t of - 0.075 mm).
Table 4.9 presents the parameters selected for evaluating the efficiency of the simulated
alternative circuits including the processing load distribution (i.e. the contribution of each
processing unit to total power consumption), the specific energy, the metal production rate
and the specific energy per ton of concentrate. The processing load was defined as the
contribution (percent) of each processing unit to the total specific energy.
Size specific energy graphs were plotted for each scenario for ore types B and C and are
presented in Figure A4.1 and Figure A4.2. These graphs show that the efficiency in terms
of generation of fines of AG mill circuit and ball mill circuit swapped for scenarios 4 and 5.
These results suggest that bypassing the HPGR screen undersize to the primary cyclone
and forwarding HPGR screen oversize to the AG mill discharge not only change the power
split between the comminution units but also the AG mill ability of generating - 0.075 mm
particles.
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Table 4.9. Alternative scenario evaluation – ore types B and C – case study I
Scenario
Ore 2 x Base
Parameter Processing unit
type Case 1 2 3 4 5 6
Circuit
AG/SAG mill 41.6 30.3 40.5 47.3 35.8 41.4 26.9
Processing Crusher - - 3.2 1.5 1.8 0.9 -

load (%) Ball mill 58.4 69.7 56.3 39.7 49.5 44.9 61.1
HPGR - - - 11.4 12.9 12.8 12.0
B
Specific energy (kWh/t) 15.1 14.3 13.9 14.6 12.9 12.9 13.8
Metal production rate (t of iron/h) 1014 859 571 697 697 730 1018
Metal specific energy (kWh/t of
33.2 31.2 30.3 27.3 28.1 28.5 29.5
iron in concentrate)
AG/SAG mill 35.7 26.3 34.8 44.3 32.0 38.7 23.9
Processing Crusher - - 3.1 1.5 1.6 0.8 -

load (%) Ball mill 64.3 73.7 62.1 45.1 56.6 50.8 66.3
HPGR - - - 9.1 9.8 9.8 9.8
C
Specific energy (kWh/t) 20.9 17.7 19.6 18.3 17.0 17.0 16.9
Metal production rate (t of iron/h) 586 566 327 406 406 421 655
Metal specific energy (kWh/t of
57.6 46.6 50.8 44.6 46.6 46.3 44.2
iron in concentrate)
Comparison basis: base case circuit processing ore type A: specific energy: 11.5 kWh/t; metal production
rate: 790 t of iron/h; and metal specific energy: 22.8 kWh/t of iron in concentrate.
The analysis of the simulation results indicates that:
 2 x base case circuit

o The simulation of the base case circuit processing ore types B and C resulted in
metal production rates below the rate obtained for ore type A (790 t/h) as these
ores have lower magnetite content. If the circuit was expanded to two identical
parallel lines (2 x base case circuit) in order to achieve similar metal production
rates as for ore type A, ore type B would achieve higher rates than that obtained
for ore type A and ore type C would still be below the target.
o The higher specific energies and metal specific energies achieved for ore types
B and C indicates that this configuration is less energy efficient option for
processing the lower grade ores compared to the alternative processing
options.
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 Scenario 1
o Due to the higher amounts of competent silicate component, an increase in
throughput was obtained when the primary mill was simulated in SAG mode for
both ore types.
o However, the SAG mill generated a lower quantity of material passing
0.075 mm and a coarser feed to the IMS and ball milling circuit. This resulted in
decreased rejection of silica before ball milling, regardless of the decreasing
silicate recovery rates at coarser size fractions established for the magnetic
separation models (Figure 4.12b).
o A second ball mill was simulated to process this coarser and harder feeds and
produce finer feeds to the FMS, as simulation predictions indicated high silicate
contents in the FMS concentrate.
o Simulation results indicate metal production rates above the target for ore type
B and similar values to the one achieved by two identical lines of the base case
circuit processing ore type C. In both cases, the ball mills contributed to around
70% of the processing load, i.e. each mill contributed to approximately one third
of the required power.
o Despite the specific energies for this scenario being lower than the two parallel
base case circuits, they were higher than most of the other scenarios, as power
requirements increased with the additional ball mill.
 Scenario 2
o The tactic to avoid returning critical sized material to the AG mill resulted in
increased throughputs with higher values achieved when higher percentage of
the AG screen oversize were split to the crusher.
o When compared to two parallel base case circuits, the mass balances of this
scenario indicate similar feed to the magnetic separation stages and thus
similar metallurgical performance. Nevertheless, a small increase in silicate
content was simulated for the FMS concentrate for both ore types B and C.
o The predicted total power draw was similar to the two parallel base case
circuits, but the calculated specific energy decreased.
 Scenario 3
o The inclusion of the second deck in the primary screen and the HPGR unit
provided a further reduction in critical sized material in the AG mill feed which
resulted in gains in throughput.
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o The highest throughput was achieved when the bottom screen undersize split
was set to split 50% to the AG mill and 50% to the HPGR, showing that the
removal of particles between 50 and 20 mm from the AG mill feed can be
beneficial in terms of throughput until a certain limit. In this scenario, the AG mill
circuit was less efficient than the whole circuit.
o The HPGR screen undersize was fixed to send the HPGR circuit product
directly to the IMS and ball mill circuit, resulting in lower rejection of silicates at
IMS and a coarser feed to the ball mill circuit.
o The higher amount of hard silicates in the ball mill circuit feed resulted in
increased circulating loads and the coarsest ball mill circuit feed and products.
The relatively coarser FMS feed worsened the quality of fine concentrate, as the
performance of magnetic separation units decreases as lower grade ores are
simulated (see Figure 4.12b).
o Compared to the other simulated scenarios, the specific energy per ton of iron
in the concentrate was the lowest for ore type B and relatively low for ore
type C.
 Scenario 4
o Different portions of the HPGR screen undersize returning to the AG mill were
simulated in this scenario and as higher amounts of HPGR screen undersize
split to the AG mill were simulated, finer feeds to the AG mill were obtained.
o Simulations showed that the finer the AG mill feed, the finer its product is. Thus,
the HPGR screen undersize was set to send 100% of the stream to the AG mill
for both ore types.
o The compounded effects of the bottom screen undersize split between AG mill
and HPGR were also investigated and a 25/75 split was determined for ore
type B and a 20/80 split for ore type C. In this condition, similar throughputs to
scenario 3 were predicted, however with a ball mill feed and product closer
to those achieved with two identical lines of the base case circuit.
o The FMS concentrate quality was similar to two parallel base case circuits and
the predicted specific energy decreased; however at lower metal production
rates.
 Scenario 5
o The option of splitting the HPGR screen oversize to the AG mill screen or to the
AG mill was investigated. This fifth scenario indicated that by tuning the bottom
screen undersize to send 10% to the AG mill and 90% to the HPGR, the
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throughput can be further increased to 2300 t/h for ore type B and 1850 t/h for
ore type C.
o Nevertheless, a coarser AG mill product was obtained, influencing the
performance of downstream magnetic separation and ball milling: the rejection
of silica before ball milling dropped, the ball mill circulating load increased, the
cyclone overflow coarsened and the FMS concentrate presented lower
magnetite grades.
o Scenario 4 and 5 showed similar calculated specific energy and the lowest in all
scenarios; however, with penalties to concentrate quality.
o The process load, which concentrated in the ball mill circuit in scenario 4, was
shifted to the AG mill circuit in scenario 5, for a better balance between
comminution units. Scenario 5 was the most energy efficient simulated circuit
configuration, with metal production rate being only 8% below target for ore
type B – presenting an attractive option for this ore type.
 Scenario 6
o The maximum throughput was obtained when the primary mill was simulated in
SAG mode with the HPGR crushing the bottom screen oversize, which was the
same throughput achieved for two identical lines of the base case circuit. In this
scenario, the HPGR is fed with a truncated feed, which is deficient in fine
fractions, and operated in open circuit. This configuration is typically not
recommended for harder ores (P. Rosario, personal communication, February
7, 2017). The ability to operate with truncated feed is ore specific and can result
in reduced throughput, increased wear and less grinding (Morley, 2010).
o Due to the addition of grinding balls, the primary mill product coarsened, and
the lower quantity of fine particles influenced negatively the rejection of silica
before ball milling. Similarly to scenario 1, a second ball mill is required to
achieve the required final product size and FMS concentrate quality.
o The addition of grinding media to the primary mill and a second ball mill allowed
throughput to be incremented and thus the lowest specific energies were
achieved for ore type C.
o The highest metal production rates were obtained for this scenario, even though
the metal production rate for ore type C was still 17% below target – presenting
an attractive option for this ore type.
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4.3.4.1. Cost Analysis
The most promising scenarios were further evaluated from an economic point of view. The
study to define the most cost-effective processing route for each ore type considered that:
 the use of the complementary strengths of HPGR and AG mill in scenario 5 would
have favourable operational versatility if the orebody has high variability. Frequent
shifts in ore type would result in instabilities in the AG mill load and throughput,
easily justifying the HPGR to provide a counterbalance capability to deal with
increasing ore hardness. Scenario 5 is a good option for the intermediate grade pre
type B, but only 53% of the target metal production rate was obtained for ore
type C; and
 scenario 6 is expected to be the most capital intensive option to implement;
however, this investment would have faster return as metal production rate are
higher. For ore type C, 83% of the metal production target was achieved and the
specific energy decreased by 45% compared to two parallel base case circuits.
Utilising the calculations presented by Foggiatto et al. (2014b), post-simulation calculations

were implemented in MDK to provide processing cost estimates. Energy consumption was
measured as the comminution energy, which is the electrical energy consumed by the
comminution machines; and the other equipment energy consumption, related to screens,
magnetic separators and material transport machinery (pumps and conveyors). Grinding
media and liner wear rates for the base case circuit processing the ore type A were
established based on operating data from similar operations. Media and liner wear rate for
the selected circuit scenarios were calculated using equations suggested by Pokrajcic
(2010), in which media wear rate is proportional to media load and power draw; and liner
wear rate is proportional to power draw. Based on the values determined for energy, water
and steel costs, their contributions to total processing costs were calculated and results
can be found in Table 4.10.
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Table 4.10. Processing cost estimates – case study I
2 x Base Case Circuit Alternative Circuits

Ore type A B C B C C
Scenario 5 5 6
Circuit 4000 3200 2600 2300 1850 2900
AG/SAG mill 3676 2846 2242 1688 1285 2499
Feed
Crusher - - - 918 761 -
rate (t/h)
HPGR - - - 2103 1681 1497
Ball mill 2656 1854 1210 1414 946 1452
AG/SAG mill 19.6 17.8 16.6 9.0 8.4 10.1
Crusher - - - 0.1 0.1 0.1
Power HPGR - - - 3.5 2.8 2.5

(MW) Ball mill 16.4 16.4 16.2 8.2 8.1 2x8.1
Other equipment 15.2 15.2 15.2 8.3 8.3 8.1
Total 51.2 49.4 48 29.0 27.7 37.0
Comminution specific energy (kWh/t) 11.5 15.1 20.9 12.9 17.0 16.9
Specific Comminution energy cost (AUD/t) 1.15 1.51 2.09 1.29 1.70 1.69
energy Other equipment specific energy (kWh/t) 4.7 6.7 10.0 5.4 7.9 4.9
Other equipment energy cost (AUD/t) 0.47 0.67 1.0 0.54 0.79 0.49
3
Water input (m /h) 1322 992 724 768 567 871
Water
Water cost (AUD/t) 0.27 0.26 0.23 0.28 0.25 0.25
SAG mill media (kg/t) - - - - - 0.18
AG/SAG mill liner (kg/t) 0.12 0.11 0.1 0.11 0.10 0.12
HPGR rolls (kg/t) - - - 0.05 0.05 0.05
Consu-
Secondary crusher liners (kg/t) - - - 0.01 0.01 0.01
mables
Ball mill media (kg/t) 0.32 0.46 0.7 0.30 0.45 0.29
Ball mill liner (kg/t) 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Steel cost (AUD/t) 0.53 0.57 0.62 0.51 0.54 0.65
Total processing cost per ton of feed (AUD/t) 2.42 3.00 3.94 2.62 3.28 3.08
Total processing cost per ton of iron in concentrate
6.14 9.46 17.43 8.25 14.40 13.65
(AUD/t of iron)
* Energy cost = 0.10 AUD/kWh; water cost = 0.83 AUD/m3; steel cost = 1.35 AUD/kg steel
(Pokrajcic, 2010)
Table 4.10 indicates that the lowest operating costs for ore type C was obtained for
scenario 6. The total processing cost obtained for the selected circuits were on the same
magnitude as the base case scenario. When processing costs were calculated on the
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basis of metal production rates, they dropped from 9.46 to 8.25 AUD/t of iron for ore type B
and from 17.43 to 13.65 AUD/t of iron for ore type C.
Magnetite and silicates, which are the minerals present in the LKAB iron ore, have
distinctive physical properties and breakage characteristics. When plant feed magnetite
grades change, the performance of milling and magnetic separation processes are
strongly influenced. The challenges in simulating the comminution and magnetic
separation circuit lay in the interactions between these minerals in the AG mills and the
effects of staged upgrade on secondary milling, due to changes in the mill feed mineral
content, hardness and abrasiveness.
The main modelling and simulation limitations in this case study are listed as follows:
 Components were assumed to be fully liberated and thus have independent

behaviour. This is a simplification of the reality, as these minerals are only fully
liberated when ground to finer sizes. However, modelling results have shown that
when the component responses are combined they can represent the characteristics
of bulk solids measured during the survey.
 The primary mill feed characteristics varied significantly in the selected simulation
scenarios. As shown in Figure 4.8, in the work carried out by Bueno (2013), the
breakage rates for feeds with increasing silicate contents retained similar trends
and values. Based on the assumption that this would hold true for even higher
silicate contents, fixed component specific breakage rates, as obtained in the model
fit, were used for simulating the primary mill. However, further research is required
to validate this assumption.
 As discussed in chapter 4.2.3, it was not possible to model the consumption of

pebbles (trommel oversize) by the secondary mill due to the absence of a pebble
mill model which includes the wear and product of the pebbles in MDK. The mill
was simulated as a ball mill and the model provides similar size distributions to
those measured for the pebble mill survey. However, the return of the trommel
oversize to the AG/SAG mill typically results in a reduction in throughput rates,
which would not be observed in the actual industrial circuit.
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 The simplicity of the multi-component efficiency curve model makes it an easy
model to fit to most separation datasets; however, it is only applicable when
separation characteristics do not change significantly with changes in operating
conditions. In the simulations in this case study, the feed size distribution to the
units modelled using this model have changed significantly despite other variables
being kept constant. The efficiency curve for each component would probably
change with changes in feed condition.
 The secondary mill breakage rates obtained for each component were considered
to be invariant with changes in component distribution due to feed grade. It is
known that the coarse end of the breakage function can vary with gross changes in
the amount of coarse material in the feed stream (as the amount of coarse material
in the feed is decreased, the breakage rate increase). However, this limitation is not
considered significant for changes of less than plus or minus 50% in the amount of
coarse material in the bulk feed, which is the case for the simulations presented in
this case study. Reductions in the coarsest knots were obtained during model fitting
for the finer component, i.e. magnetite (refer to Figure 4.11).
The mineral multi-component approach was successfully applied to model and to simulate
the selected circuits for treating lower grade ore types B and C (ore type A - 58.3%, ore
type B - 48.4%, and ore type C - 36.8% magnetite). This was achieved by individually
setting the minerals properties, tracking their behaviour throughout the processing circuit
units including size distribution and grade-sensitive magnetic separation, comparing
simulation predictions for the base case circuit (two identical lines in parallel) and the
alternative scenarios, and evaluating the effects on the processing performance while
accounting for variations in stream properties. The main outcomes were:
 The comminution circuit throughput is highly sensitive to increasing amounts of

silicate in the feed grade. It was possible with multi-component simulation to
incorporate the effect of increasing the content of harder silicates in the circuit feed
for the analysis of the energy efficiency when simulating various circuit
configurations. This was done by describing the feed as a two-component ore
comprised of a soft magnetite component and a more competent silicate
component.
119
 The use of minerals to represent a multi-component ore provides the means to
assess grinding efficiency in terms of the behaviour of the individual minerals in
each processing unit.
 A method to factor magnetic separation recovery curves according to the content of

silicate in the feed was developed and implemented in the simulation platform. The
ability of each scenario to respond to changing feed grade was implemented
through a customised simulation interface, in which the user is able to program
rules to automatically change the magnetic separation model parameters.
 The use of splitters in the circuit flowsheet was a scanning method for evaluating a
range of scenarios including AG to SAG conversion and HPGR pre-crushing. The
simulation of these various scenarios aimed at tracking components along the
circuit to identify the best processing strategy for increasing metal production rates
and decreasing specific energies while processing low-grade ores. Such
simulations highlight the value in operation of one option over another, and provide
justification for when more flexibility in the process design is needed.
 The size specific energy methodology was extended to evaluate comminution

energy in terms of metal production. The results indicated that the specific energy,
in terms of mass of iron in concentrate produced, can be decreased by up to 23%.
 Post-simulation calculations provided information on the processing costs and

showed that savings in processing costs calculated on the basis of metal production
rates are more significant than on the basis of mass of ore processed.
 The most appropriate method of comparing and optimising circuits was found to be
on the basis of specific energy and processing costs per unit of metal production.
Scenario 5 (secondary crusher, HPGR, AG and ball mill circuit) represented the
most efficient options for both intermediate-grade ore type B and lowest-grade ore
type C. The highest metal production rates were achieved in scenario 6 (HPGR,
SAG and ball mill circuit), which was also considered as a prospective option for ore
type C. Either the addition of a secondary crusher and a HPGR (scenario 5) or an
HPGR and a ball mill (scenario 6) are capital intensive options to achieve the
desired throughput and improved process efficiency and require a comprehensive
financial analysis to define the most effective processing route.
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5 Case Study II - Cadia
Newcrest’s Cadia Valley Operations (CVO) installed a HPGR pre-crushing facility ahead of
the SABC circuit in 2012. The HPGR has the characteristic of inducing micro-cracks in ore,
and therefore in effect, the product from the device has a lower hardness. Previous HPGR
trade-off studies have acknowledged but not quantified the micro-cracking benefits on
downstream units in an integrated circuit due to the lack of a suitable modelling framework.
This case study seeks to use a multi-component approach to effectively simulate the
micro-cracking phenomenon and its effects on comminution efficiency.
5.1 Circuit Description
Newcrest’s Cadia Valley Operations (CVO) is one of the largest gold mines in Australia.
CVO produces gold doré from a gravity gold circuit and gold-rich copper concentrates from
a flotation circuit. The Cadia complex consists of a number of deposits of which Cadia Hill,
Ridgeway, Ridgeway Deeps, and Cadia East formed the major mine reserves that fed the
two concentrators. One was focussed on higher grade ore from Ridgeway (now in care
and maintenance) and Ridgeway Deeps underground mines, and the other concentrator
treated lower grade ore from the original Cadia Hill open pit. Recently all production is from
the new Cadia East underground panel cave complex (Engelhart, Robertson, Lane, Powell
& Griffin, 2011). All work presented in this thesis was conducted on Concentrator 1
(previously known as the Low Grade plant).
The Cadia East ore is extracted using the panel caving mining method which is an
underground mining method commonly used for hard rocks allowing high mining rates to
be achieved at a relatively low cost. However, this method can result in products with fines
deficient size distributions compared to other underground and open pit mining methods
(Laubscher, 1994).
The Concentrator 1 consisted of a conventional SABC circuit (semi-autogenous grinding,

ball milling and pebble crushing circuit) described by Dunne and colleagues (2001). An
expansion project to upgrade the plant was required for processing the fines deficient and
more competent Cadia East ore (Engelhart et al., 2011). The strategy to achieve an
increased circuit throughput (20 Mt/y) and the required grind size (0.15 mm) consisted of
121
the following: (a) enhancing the SAG mill feed by using a feed bin to control the quantity of
coarse material that goes to the SAG mill; (b) converting the previous pebble crushers into
secondary crushers in closed circuit with screens; (c) adding a HPGR to processes the
secondary crushing stage product (screen undersize); and (d) implementing additional
capacity to ball milling, flotation and dewatering stages. The Cadia processing flowsheet
after the expansion is provided in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1. Concentrator 1 circuit configuration
The primary crushed ore from the underground mine is stockpiled and then is fed to a bin
that splits the material between the SAG mill (11.9 m internal diameter, 5.9 m EGL) and
two screens with aperture of 70 mm. The screen oversize feeds the secondary crushers
(MP1000) and the undersize is conveyed to the HPGR stockpile. The secondary crusher
product returns to the bin. The HPGR (2.4 m rolls diameter, 1.65 m rolls length) receives
the HPGR stockpile material. The HPGR centre product is conveyed to the SAG mill while
the edge material is returned to the HPGR stockpile. The portion of the bin product that
directly feeds the SAG mill is controlled by the speed of the dedicated conveyor belt that
links onto the HPGR product belt. The SAG mill product is screened by a trommel (with
35 x 15 mm apertures). The trommel oversize is conveyed back to the feed bin and the
trommel undersize is transferred by gravity into a sump. The slurry is pumped from the
sump to three ball milling circuits, which operate in closed circuit with cyclones. The
products from ball mill M2 and M3 (6.7 m internal diameter, 11 m internal length) return to
this sump and ball mill M4 (7.9 m internal diameter, 12.8 m internal length) returns to a
separate sump. There are two separate flotation circuits, one receives cyclones C1 and C2
combined overflows and the other processes the overflow from cyclones C3.
122
The new HPGR - SAG mill circuit is more complex to operate than the previous SABC
circuit, as it involves tuning additional equipment, but offers more control opportunity in
terms of maximising production as the feed type of size varies. To achieve increased
comminution performance and throughput, operational settings need to be tuned to control
the SAG mill feed size distribution and the mill filling. The MP1000 crushers are operated
with wider closed side setting (compared with previous pebble crushing duty) and screen
aperture is limited by the HPGR feed top size and the operating gap. Edge recycle is set to
maximise the comminution power utilisation and produce a finer feed to the SAG mill.
Surveys of the Cadia Concentrator 1 comminution circuit were conducted on two different
occasions as described by JKTech (2009) and AMIRA P9P project reports (Yahyaei,
Powell, Hilden, Dundar & Hulthen, 2013a; Yahyaei, Bonfils & Powell, 2013b; Yahyaei,
Powell, Hilden, Dundar & Hulthen, 2014). JKTech conducted two surveys when the
comminution circuit was operated in SABC configuration. These surveys provided
measurements of the performance of the SAG mill when fed with typical size distributions.
After circuit modifications, another survey was conducted (Yahyaei et al., 2013a, 2013b,
2014). This comprehensive survey around the Cadia Concentrator 1 circuit provided
measurements of the performance of the HPGR operated in conjunction with screening
and crushing stages before SAG milling. The objective was to evaluate the circuit
performance and to identify bottlenecks while treating Cadia East ore. As Cadia East is a
more competent ore, whether the circuit would be able to operate at the design throughput
was also evaluated. Twenty five sampling points were selected, covering the whole
comminution circuit.
The survey data was submitted to mass balance routines, in which:
 a simple two-way splitter was implemented to distribute the HPGR product into the
HPGR edge and HPGR centre;
 a three-way splitter represented the trommel undersize sump and provided feed to
the three ball mill circuits; and
 the HPGR stockpile reclaim rate was fixed as the average calculated for the period
of survey based on information from the supervisory system. During the period of
the survey, the average reclaiming rate was higher than that for the stockpile feed.
123
The SAG mill combined feed (including recycle) and product size distributions obtained for
each of these surveys are plotted in Figure 5.2. Appendix 5 provides the mass balance
results for the HPGR - SAG mill circuit.
(a) SAG mill combined feed (b) SAG mill product

Figure 5.2. Size distributions obtained for SAG mill combined feed and product – case study II
Figure 5.2 shows that the SAG mill feed is significantly finer with the hybrid HPGR - SAG
mill circuit and that the SAG mill product top size dropped from 100 mm to 40 mm, but
fractions finer than 1 mm were similar.
5.1.2 Secondary Crusher and HPGR Surveys
Additional surveys were conducted around the secondary crusher operating with different
closed side settings (CSS) and the HPGR operating with higher pressures than it was
operated during the comminution circuit survey (Yahyaei et al., 2013a), which provided
information and samples for three different conditions: 41, 33, and 102 mm for the crusher
closed side settings and 120, 125 and 140 bar for the HPGR operating pressure.
The effect of the secondary crushers’ CSS on their performance is summarised in Table
5.1. The secondary crusher feed and product samples obtained in separate surveys were
characterised and results show that with decreasing CSS the secondary crushers draw
more power and increase the reduction ratio.
2
Discussion with the research team highlighted that post processing of the data indicated that this 10 mm
CSS was not achieved, as indicated by the high value. As the actual CSS is unknown, it has been left as
reported in the references.
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Table 5.1. Main results from the secondary crusher surveys – case study II (Yahyaei, 2013a)
CSS Feed rate Reduction Power Specific Energy

(mm) (t/h) (mm) (mm) ratio draw (kW) (kWh/t)
41 1094 131.3 54.3 2.4 398 0.36
33 1082 131.3 37.5 3.5 424 0.39
10 1080 131.3 26.6 4.9 484 0.45
The crusher streams size distribution for all the three conditions surveyed are presented in
Table A5.2 and plotted in Figure 5.3. In this figure, the continuous line represents the feed
stream while dotted lines represent the products.
Figure 5.3. Impact of CSS on crusher product size distribution – case study II
The crusher product gets finer with smaller closed side settings and for CSS equal to 40
mm and 33 mm, size distributions are similar for the fractions passing 5 mm.
The effect of operating pressure on performance of the HPGR is summarised in Table 5.2.
Detailed results are presented in Table A5.3.
125
Table 5.2. Main results from the HPGR surveys at different pressures – case study II (Yahyaei et
al., 2013a)
Operating Rolls Power Specific

Feed rate Reduction
Pressure speed draw Energy
(t/h) (mm) (mm) ratio
(bar) (m/s) (kW) (kWh/t)
120 2.5 2514 35.9 15.9 2.2 3443 1.37
125 1.5 1606 33.7 13.7 2.5 2274 1.42
140 1.9 2061 34.9 12.6 2.8 3018 1.46
The rolls speeds where set to meet the production requirements at the time of each
pressure setting and only the first one at 120 bar correlated to a full circuit survey.
Results presented in Table 5.2 indicate that increasing the operating pressure improves
the reduction ratio, and that operating the HPGR at pressures lower than 140 bar results in
products coarser than design (i.e. of 12 mm). The product obtained at the lowest
HPGR operating pressure is significantly coarser, whilst the increase in specific energy
calculated for the highest HPGR operating pressure was minor.
5.1.3.1 Primary Crusher Product
The breakage properties of samples from the primary crusher product collected from the
stockpile conveyor were obtained for both sampling campaigns:
 samples from the open pit were submitted for DWT and Bond ball mill work index
tests and the results were presented in the study by JKTech (2009); and
 samples from Cadia East underground mine were obtained during the comminution
circuit survey in 2013 and submitted to the same breakage characterisation
testwork (Yahyaei et al., 2013). In addition, a standard compression piston press
test (JKTech, 2001) was conducted to characterise bed breakage, which provided
the appearance function and breakage energy for modelling the HPGR.
The breakage tests results are summarised in Table 5.3.
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Table 5.3. Summary of breakage test results – case study II
SABC surveys Cadia East ore - Design Cadia East ore - Survey
(JKTech, 2009) (Engelhart et al., 2011) (Yahyaei et al., 2013)
A×b 44.7 27.5 35.1

DWT
ta 0.26 - 0.23
BWI (kWh/t) 15.1 21.5 22.5
The size distribution of the primary crushed ore that was expected in the first five years of
the Cadia East mine plan, as used in the circuit expansion design, was obtained from a
study conducted by Kay, Powell and Hilden (2012a) before the circuit was commissioned.
Figure 5.4 presents a comparison between the size distributions of the expected feed in
the 5 year mine plan (FS1 being the finest and FS3 the coarsest size distribution in the
referred study) and belt cut sample obtained during the survey of the circuit processing
Cadia East ore (Yahyaei et al., 2013b). The survey and FS1 size distributions are almost
identical.
Figure 5.4. Primary crushed ore size distributions – case study II
5.1.3.2 HPGR
HPGR feed and product samples obtained in separate surveys around the HPGR circuit
with operating pressures varying between 120 and 140 bar were submitted to breakage
characterisation, which included the single particle breakage rotary breakage (RBT) and
Bond ball mill work index tests. The RBT test procedure is described in the work by Shi,
Kojovic, Larbi-Bram and Manlapig (2009). Table 5.4 summarises the characterisation
testwork results. The data shows that as pressure increases, HPGR products become less
127
competent or in reality temporarily weakened through cracking until further breakage
releases these HPGR-induced cracks.
Table 5.4. HPGR products breakage tests results – case study II
HPGR HPGR operating pressure (bar)

Breakage Parameter
feed 120 125 140
A 60.7 62.0 62.3 62.1
b 0.62 0.65 0.73 0.77
RBT
A×b 37.8 40.3 45.4 47.8
0.23 0.23 - -
HPGR feed - 22.5 22.3 22.6
BWI (kWh/t) *
HPGR product - 22.1 21.9 22.1
* tests results provided by Newcrest personnel (M. Powell, personal communication, April 17,
2015)
Figure 5.5 shows the specific energy and (which is the percent passing 1/10 of the
original particle size) graph for samples of the HPGR feed and products under various
pressures.
Figure 5.5. Specific energy and graph for HPGR products under various pressures – case
study II
The increments in A×b were calculated for each HPGR operating pressure and the results
are shown in Figure 5.6. The increments in A×b were calculated as the difference between
the 1 / (A×b) of the HPGR feed and product, divided by 1 / (A×b) of the feed. Similar
128
calculations were carried out for the BWI reductions, were reductions in BWI were
calculated as the difference between HPGR feed and product BWI divided by the feed
BWI.
Figure 5.6. A×b increment and BWI reduction for increasing HPGR operating pressures – case
study II
The reduction in BWI values of HPGR products was not significantly affected by the HPGR
operating pressure, reaching maximum reduction of 2.2%. On the other hand, increments
in A×b values of up to 21% were achieved. In addition, Figure 5.6 indicates that the higher
the HPGR pressure, the higher the difference in A×b and BWI of HPGR feed and product.
This shows that particles in the coarser range tested in RBT were more affected by the
high compression forces in the HPGR than the finer range of particles tested in the Bond
Work Index test.
These results are supported by the literature, as it has been recognised that the effects of
micro-cracking are felt more in coarser fractions as breakage in HPGRs occurs by the high
stresses generated locally at the contact points between particles of the tightly
compressed bed (Morley, 2006b; Fuerstenau, Shukla & Kapur, 1991).
The Cadia Concentrator 1 circuit was evaluated in this case study with the objective to
understand how the properties of the primary crushed ore and weakened ore (after HPGR
grinding) could be treated as two distinct components being fed to the milling section:
 component 1 is the coarse primary crushed ore from the stockpile; and
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 component 2 is the HPGR circuit product.
The circuit performance was assessed based on the experimental data obtained from
Cadia comminution circuit surveys and characterisation testwork. The influence of the
HPGR circuit product characteristics on downstream comminution grinding units was
investigated through modelling and simulation. The simulation challenge in this case study
rested on the interactions between the degree of weakening of the HPGR product and the
fresh feed to HPGR product ratio. Processing strategies that account for the weakening
arising from the HPGR treatment were proposed to control the characteristics of the SAG
mill feed and to increase throughput of the plant when processing underground ore from
the Cadia East mine.
Figure 5.7 outlines the scope of the research in this case study.
Figure 5.7. Schematic showing the scope of the research in case study II
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5.2.1 Stream Processing History Multi-Component Approach
The proposed modelling and simulation methodology aimed at tracking breakage

properties of the various streams that compose the feed to the SAG mill. The HPGR has
the capability of generating micro-cracks that facilitates a strength decrease of the rocks
(Daniel, 2007), and the intensity of this weakening can increase with operating pressures,
as observed in the HPGR surveys in chapter 5.1.2.
The two different streams composing the SAG mill feed were evaluated as separate
components. The primary crushed ore from the stockpile was selected as the first
component, and the second component was the HPGR circuit product stream, which had
its breakage characteristics changed by being processed under high pressures. Figure 5.6
indicates that as HPGR operating pressure changes, so does the breakage characteristics
of its product.
The multi-component structure was used to carry component breakage properties across
the circuit and to evaluate the influence of different proportions of components in the SAG
mill feed on grinding performance. This was done by using components as the streams
that had their properties changed after being processed. The ability to quickly switch
between components was implemented through the use of the component adjustment
model, which converts selected streams to a new component. This model was
implemented in MDK and allowed this modelling approach to be tested.
Figure 5.8 shows the conceptual flowsheet for the application of the proposed multi-
component approach. In this case, the SAG mill direct feed from bin is maintained as
component 1 and the HPGR product is adjusted as a separate component (component 2).
The circuit configuration for the ball mills and cyclones was the same as presented in
Figure 5.1. Before the flotation unit, the cyclone overflow can be adjusted, combining both
components into a single component and providing the flotation feed characteristics;
however, the flotation stage is not discussed in this thesis.
131
Figure 5.8. Conceptual flowsheet for the application of the stream processing history multi-
component approach
For each simulation scenario, an initial step took place to determine the breakage
parameters to be used for component 2, based on the weakening models set forth in
chapter 5.2.3, which were derived from characterisation testwork results obtained for the
HPGR surveys. Thus, the components have their own model parameters, and the SAG
mill and the ball mill feed breakage parameters vary depending on the selected HPGR
operating pressure.
5.2.3 Model Fitting
Breakage characteristics, size distributions, equipment sizes and survey measured data,
such as solid feed rates and equipment operating conditions, were used as inputs to
model fit the units in the Cadia circuit. JKSimMet was used for mass balancing and single
component model fitting, and MDK was used for multi-component model fitting and for
simulating different operating conditions.
The model fitting was initially carried out in JKSimMet, considering the Cadia ore as single
component with measured size distributions; percent solids and solids rates serving as
input data. The model parameters obtained in JKSimMet were used as basis of the MDK
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modelling utilising the multi-component structure along with educated assumptions to
adjust parameters attributed to each component (noting that some of the multi-component
models are the subject of ongoing research in the AMIRA P9 and associated projects and
thus are not fully implemented and parameterised). Developing the multi-component
model fit procedure was a complicated task as it is not possible to measure the
components in the SAG mill discharge stream after the adjustment of the HPGR product.
Therefore, the selection of model parameters does not have a unique solution and the
selection of the first guess values is of extreme importance. First guess values are the
starting set of parameters from where a fit starts, and it can make a difference in the ability
to find the best fit and minimum fitting error. A series of surveys with the circuit operating
under different modes are required to validate the models established in this case study.
A pre-modelling calculation spreadsheet was created in MDK to set the preliminary

estimates for the component model parameters. This spreadsheet contained model
parameters obtained in JKSimMet and attributed adjustments to each component,
according to intuitive trends for materials that are harder / softer or coarser / finer than the
average stream. The following assumptions formed the basis of these preliminary
calculations:
 the harder component has coarser size distributions than the softer component in
mill product streams; and
 breakage rates at coarse knots for the harder component are lower than the ones
for the softer component: reductions in breakage rates were proportional to the
reduction in breakage parameters (A×b for SAG mill and BWI for the ball mills).
Multi-component model parameters were calculated for each component in the SAG mill
feed individually, aiming to predict component breakage within SAG and ball mills and their
product characteristics, in a manner that calculated size distributions that match the survey
measured data. The model fitting procedure developed consisted of three steps as
described below. The stream connections and circuit units used in MDK are given in
Appendix 3 (Table A3.2).
1. The first step of model fitting was considered a test of the multi-component
structure. Identical model parameters obtained in JKSimMet were utilised for both
components, when the same model was utilised in MDK. In the case of different
models being used, models were adjusted, also considering identical model
parameters for both components.
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2. To account for the weakening caused by the HPGR, the second component
breakage characteristics were utilised in the second run of model fitting. The ore
was processed through the HPGR and the component composition per size fraction
was calculated for each circulating stream. Model parameters obtained in the first
step of modelling were fixed for component 1 while component 2 model parameters
were fitted.
3. The third fitting run consisted in refinement of the component 1 model parameters.
Model parameters obtained in the second step of modelling were fixed for
component 2 while component 1 model parameters were refitted.
Post-modelling calculations were carried out to evaluate simulated processing parameters

and model fitting errors and to assess the quality of the model fit in MDK. The sum of
weighted errors was the parameter selected to analyse size and component distribution
errors.
The particularities of the model fit for each of the models selected for the processing units
in the Cadia circuit are described below. The model parameters fitted for single and multi-
component models in JKSimMet and MDK are provided in Table A6.1 and Table A6.2,
respectively.
Secondary Crushers
The effect of the change in CSS obtained in surveys around the secondary crushers was
initially modelled in JKSimMet. The single component Andersen and Whiten’s model was
fitted to individual crusher surveys and derived parameters were used as an initial estimate
for the master-slave model fit. The model parameters obtained with the master-slave fit
were used as input to the secondary crushers multi-component modelling, and comparison
of the fitted model results are shown in Figure 5.9.
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Figure 5.9. Master-slave model fit in JKSimMet – secondary crusher – case study II
In the multi-component crusher model, the single component model parameters were
fixed, while the scale factors related to , and were fitted for each component
individually.
Screens and Cyclones
The screens and cyclones were modelled as efficiency curves, which is a simple model to
fit as it has no scaling capabilities. The basic assumption made for using this model is that
the classification characteristics do not change significantly with changes in operating
conditions. Thus, the values for parameters and for both components in the unit feed
as obtained in the model fit were used in the simulations. This simplification can have a
significant impact on the simulation results as the performance of the screens and
cyclones would in reality be affected by changes in feed rates or feed size distributions.
The mass balanced (points) and multi-component modelling predictions (lines) size
distribution curves for the screen and trommel streams are shown in Figure 5.10. The
results obtained for the cyclones are shown in the ball mill section in this chapter.
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(a) screen (b) trommel
Figure 5.10. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK– screen and trommel –
case study II
HPGR
The Morrell et al. (1997) HPGR model was initially fitted using the results from the surveys
around the unit and the master/slave mode available in JKSimMet, and the parameters
obtained were used as input in the multi-component model. A comparison of the fitted
model results with the experimental data is shown in Figure 5.11. In the multi-component
model fitting, the three component scale factors that relate to the parameter (pre-
crushing, high pressure and edge effect) were also fitted to refine the adjustment to the
experimental data.
Figure 5.11. Master-slave model fit in JKSimMet – HPGR – case study II
The HPGR power model uses the specific energy and associated from compression
tests and a power coefficient which relates the test specific energy to the specific energy
imparted by the HPGR. Morrell and Shi (1997) found that the power coefficient is
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reasonably constant over a range of specific energies, but increases rapidly beyond a
certain limiting value (Figure 5.12).
Figure 5.12. Relationship between power coefficient of the HPGR and specific energy for a
diamantiferous ore (Morrell & Shi, 1997)
Pre-modelling calculations were carried to determine the HPGR specific energies based
on HPGR operating parameters collected from the process supervisory system over a
period of 6 months prior to the Cadia survey. Based on throughput and measured power
draw, specific energies were calculated for various operating pressures and rolls speed to
reflect the plant measured data.
HPGR Weakening Models
The breakage parameters obtained for HPGR feed and product samples from the surveys,
where the HPGR was operated under different pressures, were used to develop HPGR
weakening models.
The HPGR weakening models were obtained through regression of the data provided in
Table 5.4. The developed equations are the following:
30 1 0.09 115 Equation 5.1
0.35 0.013 Equation 5.2
where and are expressed in percent of the HPGR feed

parameter, and is the HPGR operating pressure (bar).
137
SAG Mill
The single component model fit for all the surveys of the Cadia comminution circuit were
conducted in JKSimMet using the variable rates model. The multi-component SAG mill
modelling was not as straightforward, as it is not possible to measure components either in
the mill load or product. An empirical relationship between the percent of hard component
in a SAG mill feed and load was used in the multi-component SAG mill model fitting to
estimate the mill load composition and verify the quality of the model fit. Bueno (2013)
obtained a relationship between hard component in the mill feed and in its load from
locked-cycle laboratory test, pilot plant and industrial survey data obtained for the LKAB
Kiruna iron ore, which is reproduced in Figure 5.13. This was a major simplification that
made it possible to fit the SAG mill model, as components in this case cannot be
distinguished or measured after they enter the SAG mill. However, this curve should be
ore specific and vary with the relative competence of the components.
Figure 5.13. Relationship between the percent of hard component in a SAG mill feed and load
(Bueno, 2013)
The hard component (component 1) in the Cadia SAG mill feed was measured during the
survey and represented 14% of the feed mass. The multi-component SAG mill modelling
resulted in a mill load with 24% of hard component in the mill load, which is coherent with
Bueno’s results highlighted in the graph (black circle).
The single component breakage rates fitted for each survey can be found in Figure 5.14a
and the breakage rates for the multi-component Bueno model in Figure 5.14b.
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(a) Single component breakage rates obtained for (b) Multi-component component breakage rates
the variable rates model in JKSimMet obtained for the Bueno model in MDK
study II
Figure 5.14a indicates that the breakage rates of the coarser knot (R5) increases with
decreasing mill filling and with increasing ball to rock population ratio. An opposite
behaviour was fitted for knot R4, which can be attributed to the increased amount of
particles of 25 to 75 mm in the mill feed. The breakage rate of the coarser knot (R5)
relates to abrasive breakage forces in the mill (JKTech, 2001) and the pronounced dips in
R4 could indicate that critical size material is building up in the mill load.
Figure 5.14b shows that the breakage rate value of the coarser knot (R5) obtained for the
HPGR - SAG mill circuit variable rates model resulted in a high value compared to the
breakage rates obtained for both components of the multi-component SAG mill model.
This difference is attributed to the low amount of coarse fractions (+100 mm) at only 1% of
the mill feed and the model fit calculations which were carried out to minimise the sum of
errors (M. Powell, personal communication, June 4, 2015). The remaining variable rates
model breakage rate knots are similar to component 2 (HPGR product). The graph shows
very low breakage rate values in knot R4 for component 2 (HPGR product), which
suggests that this component contributes more to the critical sized material build up in the
mill load.
The size distribution curves for the SAG mill circuit streams, including the HPGR product,
are given in Figure 5.15 for the mass balanced dataset (points) and the modelling
predictions (lines), indicating a good fit for the SAG mill and HPGR models. The figure also
includes the SAG mill load as predicted by the multi-component model fitting.
139
Figure 5.15. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – SAG mill circuit streams –
case study II
Post-simulation calculations were conducted to adjust SAG mill filling and power draw
according to the additional mill internal volume added by feed and discharge cone angles
higher than zero, as these are not input parameters to the Bueno multi-component model.
Ball Mill
The single component model fit for all the three ball mills of the Cadia comminution circuit
were conducted in JKSimMet using the ball mill perfect mixing model using the bulk Bond
Work Index. In MDK, the modified multi-component ball mill perfect mixing model was
selected as in this model each component has its own Bond ball mill work index to
represent component hardness as measured in a laboratory test. As component size
distributions in mill feed or product cannot be measured, the multi-component model fit
utilised the calculated component distributions based on cyclone feed and trommel
undersize characteristics as obtained in the model fit of the units preceding ball milling.
Single-component breakage rates were used as initial parameters and subsequent
modelling steps took place to determine the component breakage rates, in a way that the
overall mill products and measured size distributions matched.
The breakage rates calculated for the single and multi-component ball mill perfect mixing
model are presented in Figure 5.16. The three ball mills were individually modelled,
however aiming at one model for ball mill 1 and 2 as these circuits are identical.
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(a) Single component breakage rates obtained in (b) Multi-component component breakage rates
JKSimMet obtained in MDK (ball mill 2 & 3)
(c) Multi-component component breakage rates obtained in MDK (ball mill 4)
Figure 5.16. Breakage rates obtained for single and multi-component ball mill model
The single component breakage rates are similar for the three surveys, except for the
finest knot (0.075 mm) obtained for the survey 2, which resulted in an abnormally high
value compared to the breakage rates obtained for the other surveys. This is likely due to
a sampling issue with this survey, as the ball mill product samples are easily biased.
Figure 5.16b and c indicates relatively lower breakage rates at finer sizes for component 1,
while the opposite occurs at coarser sizes. The difference at coarser sizes is attributed to
the model fit calculation routines – with the low amount of coarse fractions in the softer
component the breakage rate fit cannot reach a stable convergence value.
The size distribution curves for the ball milling circuit streams are given in Figure 5.17 for
both mass balanced dataset (points) and the modelling predictions (lines).
141
Figure 5.17. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting – ball mill circuit streams –
Case study II
The model fit results show a better fit for the ball mill 3 circuit, as the regression predicted
values are closer to the survey data values. The ball mill 2 and 3 model predicted a
relatively coarser mill discharge.
As described in chapter 5.1, modifications were made to the previous Cadia SABC circuit
(SAG mill - ball mill - pebble crusher) to prepare the circuit for this ore, which included the
allocation of the pebble crushers to secondary duty, the installation of a HPGR and screen
circuit and a bin that splits coarse material between direct feed to the SAG mill or to the
HPGR.
The evaluation of the influence of feed bin and HPGR operating settings on the
performance of downstream units was conducted using the stream processing history
multi-component approach presented in chapter 5.2.1 and the comminution survey data.
The circuit was evaluated with the objective to understand how the bin operating settings
affect the characteristics of the SAG mill feed and the mill performance, by tracking stream
components with different breakage properties. Feed bin and HPGR products have distinct
particle size distribution and breakage properties that are therefore accounted for when
modelling and simulating this circuit, as these products were considered to be separate
components. Different strategies to control the SAG mill feed stream were simulated,
which also included scalping coarse material to feed directly to the SAG mill.
This chapter incorporates results published by Foggiatto, Hilden and Powell (2015b).
142
5.3.1 Base Case
A base case scenario was established based on key information obtained from the
comminution circuit, the secondary crusher and HPGR surveys under a range of operating
conditions and breakage characterisation testwork. The model development of the base
case was done using the mass balanced data and assuming the HPGR stockpile feed and
product solid rates were the same, even though in practice the rates feeding the stockpile
and being reclaimed may vary according to the characteristics of the ore being processed.
The mass balance results is summarised in Table 5.5.
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Table 5.5. Mass balances – base case – case study II
Component 1 Component 2
Stream Parameter (ROM and secondary (HPGR Bulk
crushed ore) product)
Solids rate (t/h) 2500 0.0 2500
Coarse ore stockpile
(mm) 98.5 0.0 98.5
product
(mm) 39.3 0.0 39.3
Solids rate (t/h) 1145 2.5 1148
Secondary crusher
(mm) 59.6 53.0 58.6
product
(mm) 37.8 34.4 37.8
Solids rate (t/h) 0.0 2204 2204
HPGR centre product (mm) 0.0 17.2 17.2
(mm) 0.0 6.1 6.1
Solids rate (t/h) 399 2213 2612
+ 100 mm 8.97 0 1.37
SAG mill feed
(mm) 71.2 17.4 23.6
(mm) 37.4 6.12 7.75
(mm) 11.0 2.11 2.77
SAG mill product
(mm) 1.61 0.37 0.43
Solids rate (t/h) 36 76 112
Trommel oversize (mm) 25.7 29.5 27.6
(mm) 21.1 21.5 21.5
Solids rate (t/h) 363 2137 2500
Trommel undersize (mm) 7.81 1.77 2.19
(mm) 1.10 0.34 0.39
Combined ball mill (mm) 0.98 0.89 0.89

product (mm) 0.40 0.27 0.30
Solids rate (t/h) 2191 7777 9968
Combined cyclone
(mm) 1.42 1.25 1.25
underflow
(mm) 0.44 0.35 0.38
Solids rate (t/h) 384 2266 2650
Combined cyclone (mm) 0.24 0.14 0.15

overflow (mm) 0.12 0.05 0.06
- 0.15 mm 60.5 83.7 80.3
* component 1 is the coarse primary crushed ore from the stockpile, and component 2 is the
HPGR product stream
Table 5.5 indicates that the circuit is fed with primary crushed ore at a 2500 t/h feed rate
with 100% component 1. After the components were adjusted and recycles calculated, the
SAG mill feed contains component 1 and 2 in a ratio of about 20:80 and component 1 was
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much coarser than component 2, containing most of the material above 100 mm. Cyclone
cluster C3 overflow is coarser than design of 0.15 mm. The finer grind and increased
circulating load of ball mill M2 and M3 circuits limited the grinding capacity.
The assumptions for calculating each circuit’s process parameters in Table 5.6 include:
 the SAG mill when analysed individually has feed solids rate equal to the sum of the
bin and the HPGR circuit products;
 the HPGR circuit feed solids rate equals the centre product rate and segregation
effects on the HPGR stockpile product were not considered; and
 the combined ball mill circuit feed was the trommel undersize and the combined ball
mill circuit product equals the sum of the cyclone overflow from the three ball mill
circuits.
Table 5.6. Main process parameters – base case – case study II
Solids Power Specific energy Circulating

Circuit
(t/h) (mm) (mm) draw (MW) (kWh/t) load (%)
Secondary crushers 1148 124.1 58.6 0.44 0.38 -
HPGR circuit 2204 40.0 17.1 3.35 1.52 11%
SAG mill (M1) 2612 23.6 2.77 15.3 5.87 4%
SAG mill, sec. crushers
2500 98.5 2.19 19.1 7.65 -
and HPGR circuit
Ball mill (M2) and

628 2.19 0.13 9.7 15.41 462%
cyclone (C1) circuit
Ball mill (M3) and

553 2.19 0.10 9.7 17.50 579%
Ball mill (M4) and

1319 2.40 0.18 15.6 11.82 293%
Combined ball mill

2500 2.30 0.15 35.0 13.98 -
circuit
Whole circuit 2500 98.5 0.15 54.1 21.63 -
The total power draw of the comminution circuit was 54.1 MW, which indicates that 7 MW
of comminution power remained unutilised and a large proportion of the grinding work was
passed to the ball mills; therefore, there was an opportunity to increase the throughput or
producing a finer grind product. The power utilisation of the secondary crushers was only
37%, thus the crushers could be operated with a tighter closed-side setting to provide a
145
finer feed to the HPGR. Since the survey the SAG mill power has been steadily ramped up
(Paul Griffin, personal communication, 25 July, 2016).
The comminution energy efficiency of the base case was evaluated using the size specific
energy graph where the specific energy versus the generation of particles passing
0.15 mm was plotted (Figure 5.18).
Figure 5.18. Size specific energy graph – base case – case study II
Figure 5.18 compares power consumption of different sections of the comminution circuit
to generate - 0.15 mm product. The slope of the line is the average which indicates
that, on average, 27.9 kWh of energy is consumed by different units to produce a tonne of
- 0.15 mm material.
Size specific energies were calculated for each component individually and the overall
for components 1 and 2 resulted respectively in 40.9 and 24.8 kWh of per tonne of
- 0.15 mm produced. The power drawn by component 2 represented 73% of the total
power draw, while contributing to 82% of the total generation of particles passing 0.15 mm.
5.3.1.1 Comparison between Single and Multi-Component SAG Mill

Simulations of the Base Case Scenario
The SAG mill model parameters fitted to the SABC circuit survey 1 were used to simulate
the HPGR - SAG mill circuit feed (base case) using single and multi-component framework
in JKSimMet and MDK, respectively. A simplified flowsheet (Figure 5.19) was used for
comparing the SAG mill performance prediction capabilities of both techniques with
measured data from the HPGR - SAG mill circuit survey. In both simulations, the trommel
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undersize solid rate (2500 t/h), the SAG mill operating conditions and its feed size
distribution were identical. The single component modelling and simulation in JKSimMet
were carried out using averaged breakage parameters (A×b and ); and component
specific breakage parameters (see chapter 5.1.3) were used while applying the stream
processing history multi-component approach in MDK.
Figure 5.19. Flowsheet for simulations comparing single and multi-component SAG mill models
The method to determine breakage properties input to the single component SAG mill
variable rates model and account for the weakening caused by the HPGR was to utilise a
weighted average of the breakage properties of the streams combined to feed the mill (bin
and HPGR product). The mathematical validity of simple weighted averages of A×b
parameters is an issue that has been discussed among industry experts and JKMRC
researchers, but has not been thoroughly addressed in the published literature. The use of
A×b weighted averages may bias the results of a SAG mill simulation processing different
blends of ores with varying impact resistance. The correct form of the average should be
based on 1 / (A×b) to ensure the units are consistent (C. Bailey, personal communication,
December 16, 2015). Bueno (2013) argued that if the average of a parameter is based on
mass weighting, the units of the parameters being averaged must have mass in their
denominator. The unit used for A×b is tonnes/kWh, so the correct average is based on its
reciprocal. A comparison of the methods for averaging A×b for two samples of relatively
high and low A×b values is given in Figure 5.20.
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Figure 5.20. Example of different methods for averaging A×b
The average A×b was calculated using the weighted average of the inverse values of A×b
(i.e. the harmonic average) according to the mass proportion of each stream (i.e.
component) in the combined mill feed, while the average was calculated using simple
weighted average. Simulations were conducted using bulk single component and bulk
multi-component breakage parameters (calculated based on the sum of the components)
listed in Table 5.7 and main outputs of these simulations are summarised in Table 5.8.
Table 5.7. Single and multi-component breakage parameters – case study II
Breakage Single Multi-Component HPGR - SAG Mill

Parameters Component Component 1 Component 2 Circuit Feed
A×b 39.7 * 37.8 40.4 35.1

ta 0.25 ** 0.23 0.25 0.23
* calculated inverse weighted average of components 1 and 2

** calculated weighted average of components 1 and 2
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Table 5.8. Single and multi-component SAG mill simulation results – case study II
HPGR -
Single
Multi-component SAG Mill
component
Circuit
Parameters
MDK
JKSimMet Survey
Component 1 Component 2 Bulk
Power draw (MW) 14.9 - - 15.2 14.8
SAG mill
Total filling (%) 19.3 - - 18.7 19.0
Solids rate (t/h) 2741 417 2381 2798 2631
SAG mill
(mm) 21.7 67.4 16.2 21.1 21.1
feed
(mm) 6.7 37.3 5.99 6.53 6.6
SAG mill (mm) 2.3 24.4 2.25 3.68 2.3

product (mm) 0.29 4.27 0.27 0.36 0.54
Solids rate (t/h) 241 130 168 298 128
Trommel
(mm) 48.7 44.0 36.1 38.6 26.8
oversize
(mm) 32.6 29.1 27.4 28.0 19.7
Solids rate (t/h) 2500 287 2213 2500 2500
Trommel
(mm) 1.29 6.68 1.66 1.71 1.82
undersize
(mm) 0.22 0.72 0.21 0.24 0.48
The simulations aimed at achieving similar SAG mill total filling and power draw; however,
major differences in simulation outputs were obtained for the trommel oversize solid rate
due to differences in both single and multi-component simulated mill product size
distributions. The difference between simulated trommel oversize rates in both single and
multi-component simulation (241 and 298 t/h) and the survey data (128 t/h) demonstrates
limitations of both SAG mill models fitted to survey of a SABC circuit to simulate by-modal
feeds to the SAG mill and ab-normal milling conditions such as those simulated for the
HPGR - SAG mill circuit, This highlights the need for an upgraded SAG mill model, such
as the model proposed by Hilden, Powell and Bailey (2015).
Figure A6.1 (in Appendix 6) compares SAG mill feed, load and product size distributions
obtained using single and multi-component simulation. It shows that single and multi-
component simulations resulted in similar SAG mill product size distributions; however, not
perfectly matching the measured data and finer SAG mill load for the single component
simulation.
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5.3.2 Multi-Component Simulations of Increasing HPGR Operating
Pressures
Simulations were carried to evaluate the effects of increasing HPGR operating pressures
on the SAG mill performance. Model parameters were kept constant and breakage
parameters were updated for each HPGR operating pressure, as presented in Table 5.9.
The breakage parameters included the A×b obtained for HPGR products surveyed under
different operating pressures and an estimated A×b value calculated for an operating
pressure of 160 bar using the HPGR weakening model (see chapter 5.2.3).
Table 5.9. Breakage parameters – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations – case
study II
125 bar 140 bar 160 bar

Breakage
Component Component Component
Parameters
1 2 1 2 1 2
A 66.2 62.1 66.2 61.9 66.2 62.9
b 0.52 0.71 0.52 0.74 0.52 0.78
A×b 37.8 44.1 37.8 45.8 37.8 49.1
ta 0.23 0.25 0.23 0.26 0.23 0.28
The abrasion parameter ( ) is an arbitrary single multiplication factor developed by Leung

(1987) which is also required for breakage characterisation in the SAG mill model. It is
used to generate an ore dependent abrasion appearance function by correlating the
experimental values to the other values and generate an adjusted entire size
distribution. Due to the limited amount of coarse particles obtained during the surveys, it
was infeasible to run abrasion tests on the HPGR product samples.
High values are typically associated with high A×b values, and testwork results showed
a decrease in A×b of ores processed at higher HPGR operating pressures. With the
objective of capturing the effects of the HPGR operating pressure on the abrasion
breakage in the SAG mill, values were assumed to be proportional to A×b value for
each HPGR operating pressure.
HPGR specific energies based on HPGR operating parameters collected from the process
supervisory system over a period of 6 months prior to the Cadia survey were used as input
data, depending on a combination of rolls speed, operating pressure and rolls gap.
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The simulation scenarios included four HPGR operating pressures: 120 (base case), 125,
140 and 160 bar. The simulation procedure was to adjust the SAG mill feed throughput to
achieve a mill filling of 19.1% in all scenarios, which was the mill filling measured during
the comminution circuit survey. The main outputs of the simulations are given in Table
A6.3 and Table A6.4 (in Appendix 6) and indicate that higher throughputs and lower SAG
mill specific energies can be obtained by increasing HPGR operating pressures. The finer
size distributions obtained for the HPGR product (Figure 5.21) reflected in the SAG mill
feed and . Despite these outcomes, the SAG mill product, the trommel undersize as
well as the combined cyclone overflow maintained the desired size distribution as a result
of the interactions between the HPGR and the SAG mill.
Figure 5.21. HPGR product size distributions – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations –
case study II
The comparison of HPGR product size distributions measured in the HPGR surveys
(Figure 5.11) and simulated using the multi-component model (Figure 5.21) were more
accurate for lower operating pressures. At relatively higher operating pressures, the
simulated size distributions were coarser than expected.
Using feed and product size distributions, the generated percent passing 0.15 mm was
calculated for selected units and sections of the comminution circuit simulated with
different HPGR operating pressures. These values were then plotted against specific
energy values, as presented in Figure 5.22.
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Figure 5.22. Size specific energy graph – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations – case
study II
The results displayed in Figure 5.22 suggest that the downstream comminution stages
become more efficient at generating fines when the HPGR operates at higher pressures.
The size specific energy ( ) was calculated for all HPGR operating pressures as the
slope of the line forced to pass through the origin and the specific energy and point for the
whole circuit and resulted in 27.9, 26.8, 25.9 and 25.7 kWh/t of - 0.15 mm for 120, 125,
140 and 160 bar, respectively, which is a significant reduction in required comminution
energy for a given duty and well worthwhile being able to simulate.
5.3.3 Evaluation of Alternative Circuit Options
Alternative processing options were analysed with the intention of increasing comminution
circuit throughput and fully utilising the comminution equipment available power (see Table
5.6. This was done by including a coarse screening stage to avoid +100 mm material
being crushed before SAG milling and a variable splitter to control the amounts of coarse
material fed to the SAG mill; and by testing various HPGR feed screen apertures to
provide finer feed to the HPGR.
Four simulation scenarios were established by considering the circuit bottlenecks and what
combination of processing equipment could offer processing and control advantages when
the circuit treats competent Cadia East ore.
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Scenario 1
Higher proportions of the bin product to the SAG mill were simulated to obtain coarser mill
feed and, therefore, filling the mill with a higher rock load. At higher rock loads, it was
possible to increase the circuit throughput and draw more power.
Scenario 2
The second scenario included a pre-screening stage. The primary crushed ore from the
stockpile was screened at 100 mm with the oversize directed to the SAG mill and the
undersize to the bin to obtain a higher SAG mill rock load, as shown in Figure 5.23.
Figure 5.23. Simulation scenario 2 – case study II
Scenario 3
This scenario included the pre-screening stage and the HPGR feed screen aperture was
reduced from 70 to 50 mm (original design) to provide finer feed to the HPGR. The finer
feed to the secondary crushers enabled the simulation of smaller closed-side setting.
Tightening the secondary crushers’ CSS provided a finer crusher product and HPGR feed,
and the HPGR was simulated at higher operating pressure. Also, the trommel aperture
was reduced to maintain the pebble recycle rates and provide a finer transfer size from the
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SAG mill circuit to the ball mill circuit, which limited further increasing the circuit
throughput.
Scenario 4
The comminution circuit simulated in this scenario was the same as in scenario 3, but with
higher SAG mill speed, lower SAG mill ball load and smaller grate aperture. It was
expected that the frequency of ball-charge interactions would reduce by simulating a lower
ball load in the SAG mill, and the rock load would increase by reducing the grate
apertures. Preliminary simulations used MDK’s multi-scenario tool to establish the lowest
ball load that obtained a fine transfer size from the SAG mill circuit to the ball mill circuit.
The main variables of each scenario are given in Table 5.10.
Table 5.10. Simulation input – case study II
Scenario Base case 1 2 3 4

Pre-screening circuit no no yes yes yes
Bin split (%) 11 22 20 10 10
Secondary crushers CSS (mm) 41 41 41 30 30
HPGR screen aperture (mm) 70 70 70 50 50
HPGR operating pressure (bar) 120 120 120 160 160
SAG mill ball load (%) 15 15 15 15 12
SAG mill speed (% of critical speed) 68 68 68 68 74
Circuit fresh feed (t/h) 2500 2650 2800 2800 2850
In order to simulate the selected scenarios, the SAG mill breakage rates were interactively
adjusted according to the variable rates model relationships between R1-R5 and the
simulated operating conditions and the discharge rate was corrected based on the SAG
mill grate, and rotation speed. The database collected from the supervisory system
over 6 months of operation prior the circuit survey was used to correct the HPGR power
draw predictions through pre-modelling calculations for each scenario depending on the
HPGR operating conditions.
5.3.4 Discussion
The simulation scenarios were set up in MDK using the stream processing history multi-
component approach and the following assumptions we made:
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 the HPGR stockpile feed and product solid rates were the same, even though in
practice the rates feeding the stockpile and being reclaimed may be different;
 the breakage properties of the streams feeding the SAG mill vary according to the
HPGR operating pressure of each scenario;
 the HPGR specific energy and the HPGR product breakage characteristics were
corrected according to the operating pressure;
 as the SAG mill was fitted to an abnormally low rock load (4% rock filling), using the
modelled breakage rates would not provide accurate predictions of the SAG mill
performance at high rock filling;
 the actual SAG mill filling and power draw should be determined in post-simulation
calculations, as the Bueno multi-component model does not account for the mill
internal volume added by feed and discharge cone angle;
 the sharpness of the cyclone efficiency curve was increased to provide an overflow
of 0.15 mm in the three ball milling circuits assuming cyclone performance can
be improved. This increase was limited by the circulating loads of each ball mill
circuit; and
 the ball mill M4 circuit receives a relatively coarser feed due to the pump sump split
configuration and segregation in the pump sump, which can be simulated by using
the two-way splitter model based on survey conditions.
The SAG mill breakage rates were adjusted according to the relationship between R1-R5
and the SAG mill operating conditions used in the variable rates model (JKTech, 2001).
The breakage and discharge rate adjustments were an interactive task, where simulations
followed external calculations of adjusted rates for both components to allow for change to
mill filling. The first step of the simulation procedure was to increase the SAG mill feed
throughput to achieve a higher mill filling. Then, a new set of SAG mill model breakage
rates were calculated according to the simulated mill filling and re-simulated using the
corrected breakage rates. These steps were repeated until mill filling from simulation and
external calculation converged.
The simulations and post-calculations results are presented in Tables A6.4 and A9.6 and
the main observations were as follows:
 The simulation of a higher bin split to the SAG mill in scenario 1 provided a coarser
SAG mill feed with 4.2% above 100 mm (in the base case it was 1.4%); in
scenarios 2 to 4, the pre-screening circuit provided a SAG mill feed with lower
percent of critical size material and higher contents of coarse material, which is
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highlighted in the size distribution curves plotted in Figure 5.24 (above 12% in these
scenarios, which is in the normal range for a SAG mill).
Figure 5.24. SAG mill feed size distributions – scenario 4 – case study II
 The coarser SAG mill feed in scenario 2 resulted in a coarser product, an increased
trommel oversize rate and the highest SAG mill total filling (28.8%). The coarser
transfer size from the SAG mill circuit to the ball mill circuit led to higher circulating
loads in the ball mill circuit and coarser cyclone overflow. Nevertheless, the overall
specific energy was lowest of the simulation scenarios.
 A finer transfer size from the SAG mill circuit to the ball mill circuit was simulated for
scenarios 3 and 4, which resulted in lower ball mill circulating loads and finer
cyclone overflow.
 The lowest SAG mill load was obtained in scenario 4 (25.4%), even though smaller
grate apertures were simulated to increase the rock load. At lower ball loads, the
frequency of high energy ball-charge and ball-liner interactions are minimised,
which allowed the SAG mill speed and, thus, the circuit throughput to be increased.
 The comminution power utilisation increased gradually from scenario 1 to 4, as
higher feed rates were simulated. The HPGR power increased with higher operating
pressures in scenarios 3 and 4.
 Similar total specific energies were calculated for scenarios 3 and 4. However, the
simulation of lower ball load, smaller grate aperture at higher feed rates in
scenario 4 produced a finer ball mill feed and thus, reduced the circulating load.
The size specific energy graph including simulation results for all scenarios is given in
Figure 5.25.
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Figure 5.25. Size specific energy graph – scenarios 1 to 4 – case study II
The results displayed in Figure 5.25 shows that the ball mills M2 and M3 are the less
efficient in generating material passing 0.15 mm then ball mill M4. This is due to the ball
mill M4 receiving relatively coarser feed and producing similar cyclone as the other ball
mills. Scenarios 3 and 4 presented overall higher grinding efficiency than the other
scenarios, with values of 27.1 and 27.2 kWh/t of - 0.15 mm, respectively.
As presented in chapter 5.1.3, the material processed through the HPGR is weakened
compared to fresh feed stream. The SAG mill feed comprises the HPGR centre product
and the direct feed from the bin, thus varying HPGR pressure or proportion of these
streams can change the mill feed breakage characteristics. The main challenges in the
simulation of this circuit were tracking the breakage properties of the streams that
compose the SAG mill feed and accounting for the interaction between these streams and
their impact on the mill performance. However, modelling and simulation challenges were
encountered in this case study, which are listed as follows:
 Components are separate flows that could be sampled and their breakage
characteristics measured independently. Once these streams are combined and
processed through grinding mills, it is not possible to physically separate the
components and measure their properties. The method developed to model fit the
downstream comminution units is based on using the measured breakage
characteristics of the components and bulk information on the circuit streams in
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association with trends observed in typical model fit parameters of relatively softer
and harder ores.
 Although the knowledge that simulated changes in the performance of screens and
cyclones would affect the model parameters of these units, the efficiency curves
determined in the model fitting were kept constant in all simulations. This avoids the
introduction of additional variables that could bias the interpretation of simulation
results.
 The only way of evaluating the quality of modelling results is by combining

component responses and comparing results with bulk solids measured from
survey data. Despite the good agreement between measured and modelled data, to
validate this modelling approach and simulation results, additional surveys under
the conditions of the simulated scenarios are required.
The processing history multi-component approach was successfully applied to model and
to simulate the Cadia comminution circuit. This was achieved by evaluating the effects of
increasing HPGR operating pressures and product weakening on the SAG mill
performance. The main outcomes were:
 The data, model and simulator capabilities required to determine the effect of
HPGR micro-cracking on downstream equipment performance was investigated.
Ore weakening was incorporated for the first time by allowing the HPGR model to
modify the competence of the product components.
 The description of components of different competences ensured a more accurate

description of the SAG mill feed and model fit compared with a single-component.
 Using a more realistic multi-component description of the ore, a number of process

modifications were considered in order to increase throughput. The simulation of
different scenarios demonstrated that the stream processing history multi-
component approach provides a means to account for weakening of processing
streams and to thoroughly assess the energy efficiency of grinding circuits in terms
of component competence and hardness.
 The component adjustment model was implemented in MDK and was essential to
test this modelling approach by providing the ability to quickly switch between
components with different breakage characteristics.
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 Changes in circuit configuration and operating conditions aimed at providing a
coarser feed to the SAG mill, improving the SAG mill performance, increasing circuit
throughput and analysing the effects of feed breakage properties on the
downstream grinding circuit performance. The use of splitters in the flowsheet and a
customised simulation interface was particularly useful for analysing a range of
scenarios and determining the best circuit configurations that resulted in higher
processing performance.
 The simulation results indicated that the circuit throughput can be expanded by up
to 14%, while providing product with size distribution similar to the base case
scenario, by optimising the bin split, crusher gap, HPGR pressure, screen aperture
and ball mill circuit circulating loads. These circuit changes do not require major
new capital equipment but may require some targeted upgrades of material
handling points around the circuit. Instead they present more appropriate feed size
to each major process unit allowing the HPGR to operate at a higher pressure and
the SAG mill to operate with a higher filling level.
 The size specific energy methodology was extended and calculated for individual
components and was proved to be a useful approach to evaluate the circuit
efficiency.
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6 Case Study III - Telfer
The third case study aims to simulate the feed ore to a plant where there is a distinct
grade-by-size distribution. At Newcrest’s Telfer operations, gold in the ROM feed is in
some ore types biased towards the finer or intermediate fractions, and leads to the
potential to upgrade the plant feed by using coarse screening. The rejection of low-grade
coarse particles has the potential to significantly reduce the specific energy used for
grinding, in particular when expressed in terms of energy per gold gram. The
appropriateness of using multi-component simulation to represent gold deportment by size
is investigated in this case study. Multi-component simulations that include a simple
separation by size of component with different gold content were used to predict the extent
to which the plant feed grade can be upgraded and the compounded effects on
downstream grinding performance.
6.1 Circuit Description
The Telfer processing plant has two trains: train 1 processes a mixture of underground and
open pit ore, while train 2 processes open pit ore. All work in this thesis was conducted
using data from train 2.
The Telfer gold ore processing plant (train 2) consists of a SABC comminution circuit, with
gravity separation and flash flotation stages to recover coarse liberated gold particles from
recycle streams. Figure 6.1 shows the circuit configuration.
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Primary crushed
ore stockpile
O/F O/F
Pebble crusher SAG mill 33" cyclones To flotation 26" cyclones To flotation
U/F U/F
O/S O/S
Pebble stockpile Trommel Screen Fines oveflow
U/S U/S
conc ta i l s
Cyclone feed sump Falcon Flash Flotation ‐ RG Rougher tails split
ta i l s conc
conc
Knelson
conc
Flash Flotation ‐ CL
ta i l s
coa rs e
Ball mill
fi nes
Figure 6.1. Telfer circuit configuration
The grinding circuit is fed from a single reclaim conveyor that receives the material from
the three coarse ore stockpiles (COS), together with the pebble crusher product. The three
stockpiles of primary crushed ore from different sources provide the ability to storage ores
with similar properties separately and to blend these ores at different ratios as it is fed to
the plant.
The SAG mill product is screened by a combination of trommel and screen. The undersize
discharges into a cyclone feed sump, while the oversize is conveyed to the pebble
stockpile. The material from the pebble stockpile feeds the pebble crushers (usually one
on duty and the other on standby). The pebble crusher product discharges onto the
stockpile reclaim conveyor and feeds the SAG mill.
The ball mill follows from the trommel screen undersize and operates in closed circuit
configuration with cyclones. The cyclone nest contains ten 26 inch and two 33 inch
cyclones connected to the same distributor. Cyclone overflow streams are combined to
feed the downstream flotation circuit, with typical varying from 90 to 130 µm. The
combined cyclone overflow feeds a copper flotation stage, which is not discussed in this
thesis.
The 26 inch cyclone underflow is diverted to a flash flotation / gravity circuit including flash
flotation rougher, Knelson concentrator and flash flotation cleaner circuits. The flash
flotation rougher has two products: a concentrate that feeds the Knelson concentrator and
the tails. The tails are classified by size in two products: a fine tail that is returned to the
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cyclone feed sump and a coarse tail returns to the ball mill feed. The Knelson concentrator
has two products: the concentrate which is sent to the gold room and the tails that feed the
flash flotation cleaner stage. The flash flotation cleaner concentrate is combined with the
final copper/gold flotation concentrate and the tails feed the ball mill.
The 33 inch cyclone underflow, which is coarser than the 26 inch cyclone underflow, is
used to provide feed for another gravity circuit that include screens and Falcon
concentrators. Two screens are fed with cyclone underflow, producing oversize streams
that report to the ball mill feed and undersize streams that are combined and fed to the
Falcon concentrators. Falcon concentrators produce a concentrate which is sent to the
gold room and tails that are returned to the cyclone feed sump.
A survey was conducted through the comminution circuit, as described by Kay, Garcia and
Harison (2012b). This survey provided a measurement of current comminution circuit
performance allowing comminution models to be fitted. The sample points selected for the
survey were: coarse ore stockpile (COS) reclaim conveyor (fresh feed), SAG trommel
oversize and undersize, pebble crusher feed and product, cyclone feed, combined cyclone
overflow, 33” cyclone overflow, 26” cyclone underflow, 33” cyclone underflow, ball mill
discharge, gravity screen oversize and undersize.
All samples collected during the surveys were screened and gold was assayed by size.
Fresh feed and pebble crusher feed solid throughput and cyclone feed flowrates were
obtained from the data registered in the process supervisory system. The comminution
circuit survey did not include the streams around the flash flotation and Knelson
concentrators.
6.1.2 Integrated Mass and Metallurgical Balance
Mass and metallurgical balances were conducted in JKSimMet using data from the
comminution circuit survey. The procedure adopted consisted of three steps:
 solid rates, water, percent solids and size distribution were balanced. In this step,
missing throughput and sizes were calculated;
 metallurgical balance using head assays, with fixed solids throughput and size
distributions; and
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 using fixed solids rates, size distributions and head assays, gold by size was
balanced for all the streams.
The mass and metallurgical balances results can be found in Appendix 7.
Breakage characterisation tests (DWT and BWI), were carried out on feed and trommel
oversize samples, obtained during the comminution circuit survey, and results are shown
in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1. Breakage characterisation testwork results – case study III
Breakage Parameter Fresh feed Trommel oversize

A 52.5 66.8
b 1.15 0.58
DWT
A×b 60 39
0.34 0.13
BWI (kWh/t) 10.3 11.5
Breakage characterisation results show that the trommel oversize is of more competent,
abrasive and harder than the fresh feed.
6.1.4 Ore Variability
The Telfer ore body compromises two different main production sources on either side of a
large doubly plunging anticline - Main Dome and West Dome (Rowins, Groves &
McNaughton, 1998). Three main mineralisation types are present at Telfer – reefs,
stockworks and disseminations. Gold and minor copper occur as a series of vertically
stacked strata-bound to stratiform gold-copper sulphide quartz-carbonate reefs linked by
zones of intense stockwork and sheeted veins (Benson, Headley & Hille, 2007). Stockwork
zones are the bulk of open pit production (Figure 6.2).
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Figure 6.2. Stockwork mineralisation at high-grade reef sample (Carrasco-Tapia, 2013)
Carrasco-Tapia (2013) described that during blasting and primary crushing stockwork
mineralisation tends to preferentially break along veins and mineralised fractures at a wide
variety of scales. Given the occurrence of valuable minerals in these veins, this leads to
preferential concentration of this material in finer size fractions. To understand the
preferential gold deportment of different ores after blasting and primary crushing, Telfer
conducted an extensive program of size-by-size belt cut sampling. A total of 103 belt cuts
from the Telfer SAG mill feed were obtained and submitted to size analysis and assay by
size (S. Walters, personal communication, August 18, 2014; Carrasco-Tapia, 2013).
Samples were collected from the SAG feed conveyor belt and submitted to screening and
assay by size. Significant variability in size distribution and gold assay can be observed in
the results in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2. Variability of size and gold distributions for belt-cut samples
Size Percent retained (%) Au Grade (ppm)

(mm) Maximum Minimum Average Maximum Minimum Average
100 37.2 1.6 14.9 5.43 0.01 0.30
50 58.7 5.0 30.3 6.18 0.03 0.27
19 55.7 3.4 27.3 2.34 0.02 0.39
9.5 25.6 4.6 9.6 6.16 0.09 0.69
2.3 47.7 4.4 9.8 8.48 0.01 1.58
< 2.3 36.5 3.1 8.2 15.20 0.27 3.21
This information was used for analysing the variability of the material that feeds the plant.
Statistical techniques were used for grouping samples with similar properties, as
presented by Carrasco-Tapia (2013). The groups were determined according to the
magnitude of size by size grade deportment for different feed samples. Combined physical
164
properties were determined utilising Carrasco-Tapia’s sample groups: the grouped size
and gold distributions were tabulated and Figure 6.3 compares the characteristics of these
groups.
(a) Size distribution (b) Gold distribution

Figure 6.3. Size and gold distributions for grouped samples
All four groups have similar size distribution; however, some of the ore types exhibit
significant preferential gold deportment to fine sizes. The gold distribution curves in Figure
6.3b indicate that group A contains more gold in finer fractions than other samples and
group D in the coarser fractions.
Figure 6.4 shows the Bougainville diagram for Telfer grouped samples and it includes a
base line to indicate no preferential size by size metal deportment. As response curves
move away from this line, the stronger the grade deportment signature.
Figure 6.4. Bougainville diagram for Telfer grouped samples (redrawn from Carrasco-Tapia, 2013)
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A strong preferential gold deportment by size for groups A, B and C is observed in the
Bougainville diagram for Telfer samples. Group D represents samples without grade
deportment signature for particles above 50 mm.
The preferential gold deportment to fine sizes of some of the Telfer ore types was
exploited by screening to reject coarse waste early in the process, due to the potential to
upgrade feed to the circuit and increase overall production (Kay et al., 2012b). The
objective of this case study was to identify the limitations of the conventional circuit
configuration when dealing with variable feed grades and propose a pre-concentration
circuit to upgrade the SAG mill feed and increase the gold production rates to the
downstream flotation circuit.
Based on the experimental data obtained from the Telfer gold ore processing plant (Kay et
al., 2012b), models of the units in the circuit were fitted. Multi-component models
integrated in the MDK platform were used to model and simulate the integrated circuit
(pre-concentration and comminution processes). Similar to the work of Foggiatto et al.
(2012), a multi-component approach was proposed to track components carrying different
amounts of gold; however in this case only two components were used to represent the
ore: the softer, fractured ore with veins rich in gold and a harder, coarser ore with little
gold.
A schematic outlining the scope of the research in this case study is presented in Figure
6.5.
Figure 6.5. Schematic showing the scope of the research in case study III
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6.2.1 Mineralisation Multi-Component Approach
As described previously, the Telfer gold ore is a hard silicate with prominent sulphide
veining that displays strong grade segregation by size effect when crushed. The veins
have a significantly lower hardness, and though all the components contain some gold, it
is of a much higher grade in the veins. To model this ore, two components were defined: a
high grade soft component that represents the vein material and a harder component with
low gold grade.
A limitation of MDK’s 2G multi-component structure is that it does not allow a grade

distribution within a component. To overcome this limitation, the main assumption of
mineralisation multi-component approach was that each component has the same gold
grade in all the size fractions and the combination of the components represent the grade
by size obtained from measured data. The overall grade distribution is mimicked by
defining these components each with a fixed grade but these components have different
hardness and responses to separation processes.
When the hard and soft components are reduced to a fine size, the particles have an
average grade similar to the feed grade. A stronger grade deportment differential should
be observed after the application of relatively low energy levels, and at higher energy
levels, the harder component also breaks and the overall grade of the fine size fractions
decrease. In both cases, when grade by size of the comminution product is calculated, a
continuous grade-by-size profile is obtained, matching that of measured data from the
industrial survey.
The characteristics of each component were determined in a manner that the stream data
matches the overall measured data, as it is not possible to measure their characteristics
separately once the material is comminuted. The circuit feed distribution of components
was determined in pre-modelling calculations, where the minimum error was determined
based on the highest and lowest values obtained in the Telfer comminution circuit streams
and the difference between predicted grade distributions and the survey measured assays.
The conceptual flowsheet for the application of the mineralisation multi-component

approach is given in Figure 6.6. Similarly to the flowsheet in Figure 4.6, splitters are used
to establish the simulation scenarios, and to evaluate different pre-concentration circuit
options by sorting streams (0% for rejecting or 100% for accepting) to different processing
167
routes. The proposed pre-concentration circuit options were quickly evaluated using the
multi-scenario tool available in MDK. The quality of the screens and trommel oversize was
evaluated according to the different size by size preferential gold deportment responses of
the Telfer SAG mill feed grouped samples (described in chapter 6.1.4).
Figure 6.6. Conceptual flowsheet for the application of the mineralisation multi-component
approach
6.2.3 Model Fitting
Breakage characteristics, equipment sizes and operating conditions, and survey mass and
metallurgical balance data such as solid rates, size distributions and gold assay by size
were used as inputs to model fit the units in the Telfer circuit.
As shown previously in Figure 6.5, the modelling activities were divided into the following
stages:
 single component modelling of the comminution circuit modelling using JKSimMet;
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 multi-component modelling of comminution circuits, applying the mineralisation
multi-component approach; and
 developing models for the pre-concentration circuit.
6.2.3.1 Comminution Circuit Single Component Modelling in

JKSimMet
Initially, a simplified flowsheet including only the main comminution equipment was fitted in
JKSimMet, see Figure 6.7. To facilitate model fitting of the comminution units, it was
assumed that the circuit could be simplified by discounting the effects of the gravity circuits
and flash flotation. This was also done because data on gravity and flash flotation circuit
was not obtained during the survey. The validity of this simplification relies on the
assumption that concentrate recovery in these circuits are negligible and do not affect the
breakage behaviour of the components.
It also should be noted that the pebbles generated by the trommel is not equal to the
pebble crusher production rate. This is due to the large pebble stockpile capacity in the
circuit. As JKSimMet does not allow pebble reclaim solid rates to be different from the
trommel oversize rates. One way of overcoming this limitation is by using a separate
pebble reclaim feeder and conduct the model fit using actual measured solid rates of
pebbles into the SAG mill, as depicted in the flowsheet.
Figure 6.7. Telfer comminution circuit model fit in JKSimMet
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The detailed results of the model fit in JKSimMet are provided in Table A8.1 and Figure
A8.1 (Appendix 8).
6.2.3.2 Comminution Circuit Multi-Component Modelling in MDK
To begin with, MDK modelling was conducted using the multi-component models with
identical model parameters for both components and component distributions calculated
based on the feed gold grade by size data, and using the flowsheet presented in Figure
6.6. The comminution model parameters obtained in JKSimMet were used as first
estimates of the MDK modelling utilising the multi-component structure. In this exercise,
the complete comminution circuit was modelled, including splitters, separate cyclone nests
(26” and 33”) and gravity circuit screens (Figure 4.6). The stream connections used in
MDK are provided in Appendix 3 (Table A3.3).
The circuit feed distribution of components determined in pre-modelling calculations for the
base case ore are described in Table 6.3.
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Table 6.3. Feed component characteristics – base case circuit – case study III
Size Size & Components Distributions (%) Bulk & Components Gold (ppm)
(mm) % retained Veins Low-grade rock Bulk Veins Low-grade rock
106 6.2 5.2 94.8 0.27 5.0 0.01
75.0 14.4 7.0 93.0 0.36 5.0 0.01
63.0 7.0 4.9 95.1 0.22 5.0 0.01
53.0 6.1 3.2 96.8 0.21 5.0 0.01
45.0 5.7 3.5 96.5 0.22 5.0 0.01
37.5 5.9 4.5 95.5 0.20 5.0 0.01
31.5 4.9 5.5 94.5 0.28 5.0 0.01
26.5 4.9 4.9 95.1 0.26 5.0 0.01
22.4 5.2 3.5 96.5 0.19 5.0 0.01
19.0 4.4 3.5 96.5 0.17 5.0 0.01
16.0 3.0 5.6 94.4 0.36 5.0 0.01
13.2 2.6 8.4 91.6 0.35 5.0 0.01
9.5 4.7 8.2 91.8 0.42 5.0 0.01
6.7 3.5 5.8 94.2 0.30 5.0 0.01
4.8 3.3 5.4 94.6 0.28 5.0 0.01
3.4 1.8 10.6 89.4 0.54 5.0 0.01
2.4 1.5 10.4 89.6 0.53 5.0 0.01
1.70 1.2 12.0 88.0 0.61 5.0 0.01
1.18 1.1 12.8 87.2 0.65 5.0 0.01
0.85 0.8 14.0 86.0 0.71 5.0 0.01
0.60 0.7 14.5 85.5 0.73 5.0 0.01
0.425 0.5 14.7 85.3 0.75 5.0 0.01
0.300 0.6 15.2 84.8 0.76 5.0 0.01
0.212 0.6 41.2 58.8 2.07 5.0 0.01
0.150 0.6 41.2 58.8 2.07 5.0 0.01
0.106 0.8 21.9 78.1 1.10 5.0 0.01
0.075 0.9 21.8 78.2 1.10 5.0 0.01
0.053 0.9 21.9 78.1 1.10 5.0 0.01
0.038 0.5 21.6 78.4 1.09 5.0 0.01
pan 5.8 12.0 88.0 0.61 5.0 0.01
The MDK model fitting outputs were similar to balanced data and highlighted the similarity
between MDK’s multi-component models and JKSimMet single component models. Figure
6.8 shows balanced and fitted size distributions for the trommel undersize and the cyclone
overflow.
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(a) Trommel undersize (b) Cyclone overflow
Figure 6.8. Multi-component modelling in MDK with identical components – balanced and fitted
size distributions
Based on model parameters obtained in the preliminary fitting, model parameters of the
softer, high grade component (veins) and the harder, low grade component were adjusted
in a manner that gold distribution by size of measured streams matched the modelled
ones. Adjustments to model parameters were made according to intuitive trends for
materials that are softer than the average stream and aiming at the best fit for size and
gold distribution. The following assumptions formed the basis of these preliminary
calculations:
1. the harder component breaks into coarser size distributions than the softer
component in comminution stages; and
2. the efficiency ( ) of any separation by size unit was considered the same for all the
components. Conversely, the cut-size ( ) was affected by the difference in
component densities.
The model fit procedure was an iterative task as the fitted size and component distribution
data were used to calculate the gold grade by size after each model fit run. The calculated
gold distributions were based on the fixed gold grade and size distribution of each
component. The models were adjusted in a manner that the overall behaviour is similar to
the results obtained in the industrial surveys (minimum error between fitted and mass and
metallurgical balance data), thus including the error not only of mass by size but also the
error for gold content by size of each stream of the circuit.
The details of the model fitting are described as follows for each of the models selected for
the processing units in the Telfer circuit.
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SAG Mill
Bueno’s multi-component model was selected to model the SAG mill. The single
component variable rates model parameters obtained in JKSimMet were used as input to
the multi-component model. The main assumptions to model component breakage rates
were: (1) the low-grade component and the bulk ore have the same breakage rates and
(2) the vein component is less competent and has higher values A×b and .
A comparison between single component breakage rates fitted for single component
JKSimMet model and for the multi-component Bueno model is presented in Figure 6.9.
study III
Figure 6.9 indicates similar breakage rates for both the low grade rock component
modelled using the multi-component model and the bulk single component model, with
small differences only for the breakage rates of the coarser knots (R4 and R5). The finer
rate at R1 practically coincides for both components and bulk single component, as
particles at these size fractions exhibit similar characteristics to those of coarse ball milling
(predominantly impact breakage).
Component 1 showed higher breakage rates at knots R2, R3 and R5 than component 2
and similar values at R1 and R4. The breakage rate of the coarser knot (R5) obtained for
the veins component resulted in a high value compared to the breakage rates obtained for
the low grade rock component and for the single component bulk solids. The differences
obtained for knots R2 and R3 are attributed to the relatively finer particle size distribution
of the vein component (Figure 6.10) and the low amount of coarse fractions (+100 mm) at
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less than 0.1% of the mill feed and the pronounced dip in the rate at R3 is associated with
the critical size which may be building up in the mill load.
Figure 6.10. SAG mill feed particle and component size distribution – case study III
A comparison of the SAG mill fresh feed and discharge size distribution and gold content
per size obtained in the mass and metallurgical balances (points) and multi-component
model fit (lines) is shown in Figure 6.11, indicating good agreement between the datasets.
(a) Cumulative percent passing (b) Cumulative gold distribution

Figure 6.11. Size and gold distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – SAG mill
fresh feed and discharge – case study III
Trommel, Screen and Cyclones
The trommel and cyclones were modelled using the multi-component efficiency curve
model. The main assumption for conducting the model fit was that the parameter was
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the same for all the components, while was adjusted for the vein component based on
component composition.
This assumption was based on the work by Collins (2016), which has shown that
components do not behave independently of each other in the classification process of a
multi-component ore. Thus, the components with varying contents of high density gold
should present different behaviours in the classification units.
Collins (2016) conducted experiments under the same operational conditions in a cyclone
rig with the feed consisting of silica alone and silica in a mixture. The results of this work
showed that the for the silica classified alone was finer than when classified in a
mixture (Figure 6.12), suggesting that the presence of the denser component was
displacing some of the silica and causing an alteration in for the lower density
component.
Figure 6.12. Corrected partition curves comparison for quartz (Collins, 2016)
The quality of model fitting of the trommel, cyclones and cyclone underflow screen and
size split were evaluated by comparing size distribution of feed and product streams
obtained in mass balance (points) and multi-component model fit (lines), which are shown
in Figure 6.13.
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(a) Trommel
(b) Cyclone 33” (c) Cyclone 26”
(d) Cyclone underflow screen (e) Cyclone underflow size split
Figure 6.13. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – trommel, cyclones,
cyclone underflow screen and size split – case study III
The model fit results for the trommel showed the best agreement of mass balance and
model fitting results; however more significative differences occurred for the cyclone 33”
streams and the coarse fractions of the separations of cyclone underflow. This is an
important result as these errors can be a consequence of removing the gravity separation
and flash flotation units from the grinding circuit model fit. As discussed in chapter 6.2.1,
the model fitting aimed at minimising the error between measured and predicted size and
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gold distributions. Therefore, the metallurgical balance did not account for particles with
high gold grade removed from the circuit in these separation stages.
Pebble Crusher
The Andersen and Whiten’s model was used to model the pebble crusher. In the multi-
component crusher model, the single component model parameters were fixed as bulk
properties, while the scale factors related to , and were re-fitted for each
component individually.
The size distribution curves for both pebble crusher feed and product streams given in
Figure 6.14 for both mass balanced dataset (points) and the modelling predictions (lines)
and indicated the good agreement between these datasets.
Figure 6.14. Size distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – pebble crusher feed
and product – case study III
Ball Mill
The multi-component perfect mixing ball mill model was used in this case study. The
appearance function was determined for the overall mill feed and component specific
scale factors were the selected parameters for model fitting. Similarly to the SAG mill, the
main assumptions of the ball mill modelling were: (1) the low-grade component and the
bulk ore have the same breakage rates and (2) the vein component is relatively softer, with
lower values of Bond Work Index.
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The results from mass balance (points) and model fitting (lines) in terms of size and gold
distribution curves for the ball mill feed and product are shown in Figure 6.15 and indicate
the good agreement of results.
(a) Cumulative percent passing (b) Cumulative gold distribution

Figure 6.15. Size and gold distributions from mass balance and model fitting in MDK – ball mill
feed and discharge – case study III
6.2.4 Pre-Concentration Circuit Models
MDK was used for simulating four different feeds being processed through pre-
concentration circuit options prior to SAG milling, which included a low grade stockpile,
screens and grade detectors.
As the pre-concentration circuit does not exist, screening models had to be developed
based on theoretical models. The screens were modelled as efficiency curves and based
on models developed in JKSimMet by the author using data from a series of industrial
surveys, which are plotted in the graph in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6.16. Efficiency curve parameters relationship for screening simulation
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The strategy was to utilise the same parameter for both components, as discussed
previously in this chapter, which was determined according to the selected (cut size)
using the graph provided in Figure 6.16. Screen apertures varying from 75 to 20 mm were
simulated using the multi-component size distribution feeds determined in the simulation of
the base case circuit (chapter 6.3.2). The was defined for the overall feed by analysing
the top size of the simulated undersize streams, which were later corrected according to
the components’ densities.
The gold distribution by size for the screening products were an outcome of the
simulations, determined in post-simulation calculations using the overall size distribution
and the proportion of components in each size fraction.
Powell and Hilden’s (2013) fixed output multiplier model was used to consider different
operating states of stockpiles. The grade detectors were modelled as a two-way simple
splitter model, which was used to divide streams into two products as an accept or reject
unit, i.e. either 0 or 100% could be used as input this model depending on the grade
deportment by size of each ore type determined in the variability analysis.
Circuit options for upgrading the mill feed were investigated at Telfer gold ore operation
while dealing with variable ore types. The ore types have similar size distributions but
variable feed grades and gold distributions by size, which can influence breakage
properties of these ores. Circuit options incorporating a pre-concentration circuit for
rejecting coarse gangue were investigated through simulation, aiming at defining a circuit
that is adaptable to changes in feed characteristics and provides a gold upgrade to the
downstream flotation circuit.
The mineralisation multi-component approach was used for tracking components with
different gold contents and breakage characteristics along the circuit. The strategy was to
decrease the energy requirement to process these harder ores by removing liberated or
low grade coarse silicates before energy intensive grinding stages.
This chapter incorporates the pre-concentration concept published in the work by

Foggiatto et al. (2012).
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6.3.1 Base Case
The base case circuit (Figure 6.17) models were established based on the survey data
obtained from Telfer circuit. As data on gravity recovery was not available, the gravity
circuit was not implemented. The use of the stockpile model available in MDK allowed
accounting for the difference between the rates of trommel oversize and pebble return to
the SAG mill.
Primary crushed
ore stockpile
O/F O/F
Pebble crusher SAG mill 33" cyclones To flotation 26" cyclones To flotation
U/F U/F
O/S O/S coa rs e
Pebble stockpile Trommel Screen Fine overflow

U/S U/S fi nes
Cyclone feed sump
Ball mill
Figure 6.17. Base case circuit configuration – case study III
The ore is processed through a SABC circuit with two sets of size separation stages which
would provide feed to gravity separation and flash flotation, which were not surveyed
during the comminution circuit survey (refer to chapter 6.1.1).
The mass and metallurgical balance results and process parameters obtained for the
simulation of the base case circuit are described in Table 6.4, Table 6.5 and Table 6.6,
respectively. In Table 6.4, the recovery of pebbles from stockpile is higher than the
generation of pebbles, and therefore, mass recoveries to trommel undersize and cyclone
overflow are higher than 100%. Similarly, in Table 6.5 the grade of the pebbles is higher
than the feed as the material in the stockpile had higher grades than the circuit feed.
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Table 6.4. Mass balance – base case circuit – case study III
% in stream % passing 0.15 mm Mass recovery (%)

Solids
Stream Component Component Component
(t/h) Bulk Bulk
1 2 1 2 1 2
Main feed 1323 5.5 94.5 11.4 27.0 10.4 100.0 5.5 94.5
Pebble return 215 6.7 93.3 0.7 0.6 0.7 16.3 1.1 15.2
SAG mill product 1538 5.7 94.3 51.1 59.1 50.6 116.3 6.6 109.7
Trommel O/S 105 2.0 98.0 3.0 10.0 2.9 7.9 0.2 7.8
Trommel U/S 1433 5.9 94.1 54.7 60.3 54.3 108.3 6.4 101.9
Pebble crusher product 215 6.7 93.3 3.4 13.0 2.8 16.3 1.1 15.2
Ball mill product 1528 36.5 63.5 54.3 37.0 64.3 115.5 42.2 73.3
Combined cyclone U/F 2009 35.5 64.5 34.1 37.3 32.5 151.8 53.9 97.9
Combined cyclone O/F 1433 5.9 94.1 81.2 97.4 80.2 108.3 6.4 101.9
* Component 1 is the softer high-grade and component 2 the harder low grade component
Table 6.5. Metallurgical balance – base case circuit – case study III
Au (ppm) Au deportment (%)

Stream
Stream Passing Retained
Bulk Bulk Passing Retained
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Main feed 0.28 0.66 0.24 100.0 26.4 73.6
Pebble return 0.34 0.30 0.34 19.7 0.6 99.4
SAG mill product 0.29 0.34 0.25 119.7 58.8 41.2
Trommel O/S 0.11 0.34 0.10 3.0 9.4 90.6
Trommel U/S 0.31 0.34 0.27 116.7 60.1 39.9
Pebble crusher product 0.34 1.27 0.31 19.7 12.7 87.3
Ball mill product 1.83 1.25 2.52 745.4 37.1 62.9
Combined cyclone U/F 1.78 1.93 1.70 952.9 37.0 62.9
Combined cyclone O/F 0.31 0.36 0.05 116.7 96.8 3.1
Table 6.6. Main process parameters – base case circuit – case study III
Power Specific
Solids Circulating
Circuit draw energy (kWh/t of
(t/h) (mm) (mm) load (%)
(MW) (kWh/t) -0.15 mm)
SAG mill circuit 1433 81.7 0.78 12.6 8.8 19.9 16%
Ball mill circuit 1433 0.78 0.14 12.1 8.4 31.8 107%
Whole circuit 1433 81.7 0.14 24.7 17.2 24.3 -
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The gold grades in Table 6.5 were calculated based on fixed of 5 ppm for component 1
and 0.01 ppm of gold for component 2.
The comminution energy was evaluated using the methodology at the marker size of
150 µm. The size specific energy graph for the base case is given in Figure 6.18. The
graph indicates that the SAG mill circuit is generating more particles below 0.15 mm than
the ball mill at the same input energy level. The size specific energy ( ) determined
for the ore was 24.3 kWh/t of -0.15 mm.
Figure 6.18. Size specific energy graph – base case – case study III
Component specific energies were calculated based on the power consumed by each
component based on the proportion of its volume in each comminution circuit that was
evaluated: SAG mill load with 1.3% and ball mill load with 4.5% of component 1). Table 6.7
indicates the various parameters calculated for each component and comminution circuit
feed and product.
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Table 6.7. Component size specific energy ( ) – base case circuit – case study III
Parameters SAG mill Ball mill Whole SAG mill Ball mill Whole
circuit circuit circuit circuit circuit circuit
Component in the feed (%) 5.9 5.9 5.9 94.1 94.1 94.1
Component rate (t/h) 85.0 85.0 85.0 1347.9 1347.9 1347.9
Component feed passing
20.6 51.3 20.6 128.6 731.8 128.6
0.15mm rate (t/h)
Component product passing
51.3 82.8 82.8 731.8 1081.0 1081.0
0.15mm rate (t/h)
Generated passing 0.15mm
30.7 31.5 62.2 603.3 349.1 952.4
material (t/h)
Generated passing 0.15mm

36.1 37.1 73.1 44.8 25.9 70.7
material (%)
Specific energy (kWh/t) 2.0 6.4 8.4 9.2 8.6 17.8
Power draw (MW) 0.2 0.5 0.7 12.4 11.5 24.0
(kWh/t of -0.15 mm) 5.6 17.2 11.5 20.6 33.1 25.2
The specific energy was 11.5 kWh/t and 25.2 kWh/t for components 1 and 2, respectively.
The power consumed by component 1 represented 1.4% of the total SAG mill circuit
power and 4.5% of the total ball mill circuit power. Component 1 represented 5.5% of the
feed mass and required 3% to the calculated power draw for the whole circuit.
6.3.2 Simulation of the Base Case Circuit Processing Variable Ore Types
The base case circuit was simulated treating four ore types with varying gold feed grades
and gold by size distribution, in which the stockpile feed and product were considered to
be equal to the trommel oversize. This was done by using the stockpile model in “off
mode” (see Figure A1.9 in Appendix 1). The main feed solid rates were determined in a
way that the SAG mill volumetric load would match 28.3% (same as obtained in the model
fitting in chapter 6.2.3).
The circuit feed distribution of components was determined in pre-modelling calculations

based on the grade distributions calculated for each ore type. The resulting gold
distribution by component for the four ore types are presented in Figure 6.19.
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(a) Base case ore (b) Ore type A
(c) Ore type B (d) Ore type C
(e) Ore type D

Figure 6.19. Feed component characteristics – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case
study III
The results of these simulations are provided in Table A8.3 and Table A8.4 (in Appendix 8)
and indicate that:
 the circuit throughput varies significantly depending on ore type (from 972 t/h for ore
type B to 1323 t/h for the base case ore);
 the gold production rate to downstream flotation circuit varies significantly

depending on ore type (from 12.1 oz/h for the base case ore to 44.5 oz/h for the ore
type D);
184
 the trommel oversize solid rates varied in a narrow range between 76 and 103 t/h,
despite the varying feed rates determined for the different ore types;
 a correlation between feed gold grade and circuit throughput was not observed
(Figure 6.20a); and
 the relationship between feed gold grade and the ball mill circulating load is
presented in Figure 6.20b, i.e. as feed gold grade increases, so does the ball mill
circulating load.
(a) Feed grade vs throughput (b) Feed grade vs ball mill circulating load
Figure 6.20. Relationship between feed grade and throughput and ball mill circulating load – case
study III
Interestingly, this relationship is strong and follows a linear trend despite the
differences in throughput simulated for each ore type. It shows that the higher the
feed grades, the higher the amount of high grade (and high density) component 1 in
the cyclone underflow.
Table A8.5 shows the process parameters for the base case circuit (scenario stockpile off)
and it indicates that ore types A, B, C and D presented relatively coarser in the SAG
mill feed than the base case ore. An analysis of the complete dataset of SAG mill feed size
distribution also indicates that the base case ore has significantly more fines than the other
ore types. As a consequence, relatively higher specific energies were calculated for ore
types A, B, C and D than for the base case ore, based on their lower throughputs.
The comminution energy was evaluated using the size specific energy graph, which is
plotted in Figure 6.21 for all ore types including the ore obtained in the base case survey.
185
Figure 6.21. Size specific energy graph – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case study III
Similarly to the base case ore, the SAG mill circuit is more energy efficient in generating
particles below 0.15 mm than the ball mill circuit for all ore types under analysis. This
graph suggests that the comminution efficiency is not related to the feed grade, as the
most efficient scenarios were obtained for the base case (0.28 ppm of gold in the feed)
and ore type D (1.10 ppm of gold in the feed). The results displayed in Figure 6.21 shows
values of:
 Base case ore: 26.2 kWh/t of - 0.15 mm;
 Ore type A: 27.4 kWh/t of - 0.15 mm;
 Ore type B: 31.3 kWh/t of - 0.15 mm;
 Ore type C: 28.2 kWh/t of - 0.15 mm; and
 Ore type D: 25.7 kWh/t of - 0.15 mm.
6.3.3 Pre-Concentration and Comminution Circuit Options
The pre-concentration circuit was evaluated by inserting screens and grade detectors
before energy intensive grinding stages, taking advantage of the gold deportment by size
of some of the selected Telfer ores. The circuit options included:
 using a single deck screen and an online grade detector on the screen oversize
conveyor;
 using a double deck screen and online grade detectors on both top and bottom
deck screen oversize conveyors;
186
 using a stockpile of low grade material to control the feed rates of coarse material to
the SAG mill while maintaining the mill total filling; and
 using an online grade detector to sort pebble crusher products with low gold content
to the low-grade stockpile or to the SAG mill if gold content is higher than 0.5 ppm
of gold.
The online high throughput grade detectors, such as the device developed by CSIRO
(2016) and by Scantech (H. Kurth, personal communication, January 14, 2017), is a
technology suitable for bulk ore analysis for copper, zinc and iron ores as well as various
other commodities; however, not able to directly measure gold grades as low as 0.20 ppm.
According to Kurth, concentrations down to 100s or 10s of ppm can be detected accurately
depending on the element, but no elements can currently be measured in conveyed flows
at single ppm levels by any technique. Alternatively, measurements of copper or sulphur
can enable Au content to be calculated if it is associated with a mineral component in the
ore such as pyrite or chalcopyrite.
The alternative circuits presented in this case study are thus currently not fully proven and
the performances are hypothetical. They are intended to demonstrate the potential
benefits of crushing and sorting low-grade ores at coarser rock size in order to minimise
specific energy consumption in comminution and to reduce processing costs per unit of
gold.
6.3.3.1 Assessment of Pre-Concentration by Screening
The evaluation of pre-concentration circuits relies on the SAG mill belt-cut analysis results
obtained by CRC Ore (S. Walters, personal communication, August 18, 2014; Carrasco-
Tapia, 2013), which indicated variable preferential gold deportment for some ores. Thus,
there is an opportunity to upgrade the SAG mill feed gold content as some ores are
amenable to pre-concentration through online sorting.
Options of using a single deck screen (40 mm) or a double deck screen (45 and 19 mm,
60 and 19 mm, 60 and 40 mm, 80 and 19 mm, and 80 and 40 mm) and grade detectors
were evaluated. The bottom screen enabled an increase in circuit throughput as
intermediate size material that has little gold could be discarded. When the SAG mill is the
circuit bottleneck, discarding coarse low grade material can result in lower SAG mill filling,
enabling.
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The objective was to simulate the response to pre-concentration of variable ore types and
demonstrate quantitatively the improvements in process performance and metal
production. The investigation of various screen apertures to define the optimum option for
each ore type was achieved through the application of the multi-scenario simulation tool
available in MDK, as the various options between number of decks and screen apertures
could be simultaneously simulated.
The component composition data provided by the simulations allowed gold grade by size
to be calculated for each stream of the circuit. Based on these results, grade detectors
were adjusted according to the gold distribution in their feed, where the model was
programmed to alternate between “accept” and “reject” modes for each ore type under
analysis.
Figure 6.22 illustrates the effect of screen apertures on the oversize upgrade (ratio of
oversize to feed grade) and recovery of gold (ratio of oversize to feed mass of gold) for all
ore types.
(a) top deck oversize (b) bottom deck oversize
(c) top deck oversize (d) bottom deck oversize

Figure 6.22. Gold recovery for pre-concentration options – scenario 1 – case study III
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The results from the simulations of the pre-concentration circuit (presented in Table A8.6)
were analysed in terms of recovery of gold to the top and bottom deck screen oversize and
respective gold grades indicate that:
 increasing the top deck aperture resulted in increasing oversize grades for ore
type D, while it had no significant effect for other ores;
 the base case ore and ore type A presented gold assays below 0.2 ppm in the top
size oversize for all simulated apertures;
 the base case ore screen oversize have similar low grades for both 19 and 40 mm
apertures; and
 using a smaller bottom deck aperture for ore types A, B and C resulted in higher
upgrades to the screen undersize.
The screening circuit selected for simulating Telfer ore types utilised top and bottom deck
apertures of 45 and 19 mm and the operating strategy for each ore type was the following:
 base case ore – fraction + 19 mm considered as waste;

 ore type A – fraction + 45 mm considered as waste;
 ore types B and C – fraction + 45 mm stockpiled as SAG mill coarse, low grade
feed; and
 ore type D – fraction - 45 +19 mm stockpiled as SAG mill coarse, low grade feed.
6.3.3.2 Simulation Scenarios
The following scenarios were established to demonstrate the use of the mineralisation
multi-component approach:
Scenario 1 – Double deck screen, oversize grade detectors and low grade stockpile
The circuit consists of a pre-screening stage at 45 and 19 mm with online grade detectors
implemented at top and bottom deck screen oversize to define their destination: SAG mill
feed, low grade stockpile or waste. The material sent to the low grade stockpile would then
feed the SAG mill. The reclaim of the coarse ore and low grade stockpiles can be used to
control throughput and maintain SAG filling.
Scenario 2 – Double deck screen, screen and trommel oversize grade detectors and low
grade stockpile
Another grade detector was implemented into the circuit to analyse trommel oversize gold
content. The trommel oversize material is usually harder than average SAG mill feed and,
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if there is not enough gold content, then the costs to process this stream by crushing and
returning it to the mill may not be justifiable. However, if this material contains some gold it
can be used to maintain a consistent feed to the SAG mill when processing ores that have
fine sizes discarded in the pre-concentration circuit (which is the case of the ore type D).
The crushed pebble streams that have enough gold are returned to the SAG mill,
otherwise it can be rejected to the low grade stockpile.
Figure 6.23a and b show the selected flowsheets for the application of the proposed
mineralisation multi-component approach.
(a) scenario 1
(b) scenario 2
Figure 6.23. Alternative circuit configurations – case study III
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Simulations were carried in MDK using the mineralisation multi-component approach to
discard low grade (below 0.20 ppm), coarse material from the pre-concentration circuit
and, in scenario 2, recycle pebble crusher products with gold grades below 0.50 ppm to
the low grade stockpile. In these simulations, segregation in the stockpile was not
accounted for as the stockpile feed and product had the same solid rates, size and gold
distributions. Similarly to case study II, post-simulation calculations were conducted to
determine the a more accurate estimation of SAG mill filling and power draw, as the Bueno
multi-component model does not account for the mill internal volume added by the feed
and discharge cone angle.
The simulation procedure was to increase or decrease the circuit fresh feed throughput
and low grade stockpile reclaim to achieve the product size distribution and the mill filling
obtained in model fitting. This methodology included iterative post-simulation calculations
for each scenario so that the total feed to the low grade stockpile and coarse ore stockpile
reclaim were consistent with results from simulations of all ore types. Figure 6.24 shows a
block diagram indicating the calculation routine to determine the characteristics of the low
grade stockpile material used as input to the simulation of scenarios 1 and 2.
Figure 6.24. Methodology to determine the low grade stockpile characteristics – case study III
The content of the low grade stockpile is calculated based on the weighted average
(based on throughput, size and component distribution) by size of the simulated streams
as obtained for each ore type. This ensures mass and grade conservation in each
simulated scenario.
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As shown in Figure 6.24, the first estimate of the low grade stockpile characteristics was
obtained from the simulation of the pre-concentration circuit under the operating strategy
selected for each ore type (see chapter 6.3.3.1) and using the simulated solid rates
(coarse ore stockpile reclaim) from the base case circuit (stockpile off) obtained for each
ore type (presented in chapter 6.3.2). In scenario 1, the low grade stockpile feed was
calculated as the sum of the simulated pre-concentration products (grade analyser
accepted streams) simulated for each ore type. Iterative simulations and calculations were
then conducted as a means of obtaining an approximation of the stockpile assuming equal
availability for all ore types. The main assumption to determine the circuit throughput and
the stockpile characteristics was that all ore types are available at the desired rates. In
scenario 2, the low grade stockpile product was calculated in a similar way, as the sum of
the simulated pre-concentration concentrates of all ore types.
If information on the actual available volume of each ore type in the orebody had been
provided, the characteristics of the low grade stockpile material could be determined
based on the actual quantities of the ore types in the orebody and the outcomes of the
presented simulations could be different.
The breakage parameters were not determined for the screening products individually.
Using the breakage characteristics of the different size fractions can be an improvement to
this multi-component approach, which would require a larger number of components, each
representing a stream of the pre-concentration circuit with its own breakage parameters
and gold content.
6.3.4 Discussion
The results of the first scenario simulations and post-calculations are provided in
Table A8.7 and Table A8.8. Simulation results for the different ore types in these tables
indicate that the trommel oversize solid rates varied in a narrow range between 74 and
121 t/h, and the feed rates to the SAG mill ranged widely between 916 and 1589 t/h (which
are equal to trommel undersize rates). The pre-concentration product was produced at an
average rate of 860 t/h and gold upgrades varied between 17 and 97%. The calculated
waste stream, as combined for all ore types, resulted in a stream produced at a rate of
2200 t/h with 0.17 ppm of gold.
The low grade stockpile feed presented 0.30 ppm at 2564 t/h solid rate in scenario 1, as a
consequence of relatively lower gold upgrades to the SAG mill feed obtained for higher
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grade ore types. For example, only 5% upgrade was simulated for ore type D (SAG mill
feed grade equal to 1.13 ppm of gold) while 48% for the base case ore type (SAG mill feed
grade equal to 0.42 ppm of gold). The average low grade stockpile reclaim rate was
2564 t/h.
Table A8.9 summarises the process parameters for the simulation of scenario 1 for all ore
types. Contrarily to results in Table A8.5, in scenario 1, the simulated specific energies for
the base case ore and for ore types A, B, C were relatively lower than for ore type D. This
table also indicates similar SAG mill circuit circulating loads for all ore types (from 6.5 to
8.1%), and a significantly lower ball mill circuit circulating load for the base case ore. The
feed to the SAG mill presented considerably coarser size distributions in scenario 1 than in
the base case scenario (stockpile off), with ore type A showing SAG mill feed of
62.2 mm, as a consequence of the coarse of the low grade stockpile product
(114 mm).
Table A8.11 and Table A8.12 provide the second scenario simulation and post-
calculations results. Simulation results for the different ore types, indicating feed rates to
the SAG mill between 999 and 1655 t/h and trommel oversize solid rates varying from 78
to 127 t/h. The pre-concentration concentrate was produced at a lower average rate
(844 t/h) but with same gold upgrades as scenario 1 as the ores fed to the circuit were the
same. The calculated waste stream, as combined for all ore types, resulted in a stream
produced at a rate of 2233 t/h with 0.17 ppm of gold, the same grade as in scenario 1.
The gold grades calculated for the pebble crusher products of all ore types showed that
only ore type D would produce a stream with grades above 0.50 ppm of gold, the cut-off
grade established for the pebble crusher product grade detector. Therefore, in the
simulation of ore type D, the pebble crusher product was recycled to the SAG mill instead
of being stockpiled. The low grade stockpile feed presented 0.30 ppm at 2843 t/h solid
rate. Gold upgrades to the SAG mill feed varied from 17% for ore type D (SAG mill feed
grade of 1.30 ppm of gold) and 49% for the base case ore type (SAG mill feed grade equal
to 0.42 ppm of gold).
Table A8.13 shows the scenario 2 process parameters simulated for all the ore types. In
this scenario (except ore type D), the whole circuit specific energy was calculated as the
sum of the SAG mill and ball mill circuit specific energies, as the feed rate to these circuits
were not identical.
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In scenario 2, the simulated specific energies for the base case ore and ore types A, B, C
were relatively lower than for ore type D. The pre-concentration of ore type D provided a
much coarser feed to the SAG mill, which had a negative impact on throughput. In
addition, simulated specific energies obtained for scenario 2 resulted in lower values than
scenario 1 for all ore types. Despite that, ball mill circuit circulating loads in scenario 2
were similar to scenario 1. Ore types A and B presented the higher ball mill circuit
circulating loads and consequently the coarsest cyclone overflow size distribution ( of
0.192 and 0.195 mm, compared to 0.128 mm for the base case ore).
The of the reclaim from the low grade stockpile was 104 mm for scenario 2,
considerably coarser feed to the SAG mill than in the base case (stockpile off) but not
significantly finer than scenario 1.
Figure 6.25 shows the size distributions in terms of percent retained by size obtained for
simulations under scenarios 1 and 2, including the base case circuit (dotted line). Ore
type A, B and C showed similar size distributions.
(a) Scenario 1 (b) Scenario 2

Figure 6.25. SAG mill feed size distributions – case study III
The processing strategies established in both scenarios 1 and 2 for the pre-concentration
of the different ore types resulted in SAG mill feeds with little material in the size range
between 15 and 40 mm in simulations of ore type D, which also presented abnormally high
amounts of material coarser than 80 mm. This had a negative impact on the throughput
achieved for this ore, which was lower than the base case circuit (stockpile off) in
scenario 1 and similar to the base case circuit (stockpile off) in scenario 2.
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6.3.4.1. Comparison between Base Case Circuit and Pre-
Concentration and Comminution Circuit Options
The parameters selected for evaluating the performance of each simulated scenario
included the processing load (defined as the contribution (percent) of each processing unit
to the total specific energy), the specific energy, the metal production rate and the specific
energy per ton of comminution product (i.e. cyclone overflow), which are given in Table
6.8.
Table 6.8. Circuit scenario evaluation – case study III
Ore type
Processing
Scenario Parameter Base
unit A B C D
Case
Processing load SAG mill 50.8 50.7 50.6 50.7 50.9

(%) Ball mill 49.2 49.3 49.4 49.3 49.1
Base
case – Specific energy (kWh/t of ore) 18.6 21.2 25.2 22.5 19.6
stockpile Cyclone overflow production rate (t /h) 1323 1159 972 1088 1256
off
Cyclone overflow gold rate (oz of Au/h) 12.1 30.9 22.0 15.3 44.5
Specific energy (kWh/g of Au in overflow) 65.4 25.5 35.7 51.5 17.8

(%) Ball mill 49.3 49.0 49.0 49.1 49.4
Specific energy (kWh/t of ore) 20.5 15.5 15.5 15.6 26.7
1
Cyclone overflow production rate (t /h) 1194 1589 1587 1580 916

(%) Ball mill 50.8 50.8 50.8 50.9 49.3
Specific energy (kWh/t of ore) 19.9 15.6 15.0 14.9 24.5
2
Cyclone overflow production rate (t /h) 1233 1575 1646 1655 999
The comparison of the selected performance parameters listed in Table 6.8 for the base
case circuit with stockpile model off (feed and product with same solid rates) and the
scenarios with pre-concentration indicates that:
 Despite the modifications to the grinding circuit feed caused by the pre-
concentration circuit, the processing load was well balanced between SAG and ball
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mill (50/50) in all scenarios. Indeed this result was expected as the simulations
aimed at fully utilising the available power.
 The gold production rates to downstream flotation circuit were between 33 and
110% higher for the upgrading circuits (except for ore type D) and relatively higher
rates were simulated for scenario 2.
 As discussed in chapter 6.2.3.1, ore type D was the only ore type that presented a
high grade fraction + 45 mm being directly fed to the SAG mill and the fraction - 45
+19 mm stockpiled as SAG mill coarse, low grade feed. Therefore, the feed of the
SAG mill presented a relatively higher amount of coarse material and bimodal
distribution. As a consequence, the addition of low grade stockpile material
(0.27 ppm in scenario 1 and 0.37 ppm in scenario 2), which is significantly lower
than ore type D pre-concentration product (1.3 ppm), did not contribute to
increasing the gold rates to downstream flotation circuit when processing this ore.
Despite of the upgrades to the mill feed, rejecting the intermediate size fraction also
resulted in lower throughput and gold production rates for both scenarios, indicating
that this ore does not require pre-concentration.
 Simulations of ore type A resulted in the highest gold production rates to

downstream flotation circuit in both scenarios 1 and 2. However, the gold production
rates simulated for this ore under scenarios 1 and 2 were similar. The reason was
the relatively higher contributions of the low grade stockpile material to the SAG mill
feed in scenario 2 (38% in scenario 1 and 42% in scenario 2).
 The pre-concentration strategy of rejecting the +45 mm low grade fraction and
adding a blended stockpile material to the SAG mill feed showed to be effective for
ore types A, B and C. These ores presented higher throughput rates than the base
case scenario (stockpile off), which resulted in lower specific energies in both
scenarios 1 and 2.
 In scenario 1, the low grade stockpile material contributed 14% to the ore type D
total feed of the SAG mill, while in scenario 2, increased throughput and metal
production rates were obtained by not reclaiming the low grade stockpile material to
the SAG mill feed. Consequently, higher specific energies were simulated for
scenarios 1 and 2 (compared to the other ore types), which was an opposite
behaviour compared to the base case scenario (stockpile off).
 The energy consumed per grams of gold in cyclone overflow followed an
exponential increase with grinding circuit feed grade in the base case scenario
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(stockpile off), as shown in Figure 6.26a. The specific energy per grams of gold in
cyclone overflow were higher for the base case ore type in both scenarios 1 and 2;
this is comprehensible because the feed to the grinding circuit had the lowest gold
grades for this ore type (Figure 6.26b). This figure also shows that the specific
energies per grams of gold in cyclone overflow in both scenarios 1 and 2 was lower
than the base case scenario (stockpile off), except for ore type D. This reinforces
the conclusion that this ore is not amenable to the proposed pre-concentration
circuit.
(a) scenario base case (stockpile off) (b) all scenarios

Figure 6.26. Specific energy per gram of gold – case study III
The size specific energy graph for the simulated scenarios 1 and 2 are plotted in Figure
6.27a and b, each of which presenting the specific energy versus the generation of
particles passing 0.15 mm in selected sections of circuit (represented by points). For each
ore type, a line was drawn between zero and the point that represents the whole circuit
and if the points are under this line, the section of circuit is producing less - 0.15 mm
material at same specific energy compared to the whole operation.
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(a) scenario 1 (b) scenario 2
Figure 6.27. Size specific energy graphs – scenarios 1 and 2 – case study III
The results displayed in Figure 6.27 indicate that the SAG mill circuit was more energy
efficient than the ball mil circuit in generating material passing 0.15 mm in both scenarios.
Compared to the base case scenario (Figure 6.21), the base case ore and ore type D were
less energy efficient than in scenarios 1 and 2, suggesting that rejecting the intermediate
fraction - 45 +19 mm has a negative impact in the generation of fine particles. These
graphs also suggest that the comminution efficiency is not related to the feed grade, as the
less efficient scenarios were obtained for the base case (lowest gold in feed) and ore type
D (highest gold in feed).
Size specific energies were calculated for each component and the results are shown in
Table A8.14 (in Appendix 8). The values calculated for the softer component 1 is
relatively lower than component 2 (component with little gold) for both SAG mill and ball
mill circuits. From this data, polynomial relationships between the mill feed gold grade and
component 1 were established for the SAG mill circuit in all scenarios (see Figure
A8.2). This behaviour was also observed for ball mill circuits in scenarios 1 and 2, but for
the base case scenario (stockpile off), the ball mill circuit showed an inverse behaviour.
The Telfer ore is a hard silicate with prominent sulphide veining and presents significant
mineralisation variability. Preferential breakage along fractures and veins liberates barren
particles that can be rejected as waste in pre-concentration circuits. Predicting the
processing performance of various ore types and accounting for the preferential
deportment of gold to fine sizes were the main challenges in the simulation of this circuit.
Setting properties of gold veins and host rock separately offered the advantage of
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exploiting screening and sensor based sorting techniques, and the size by size preferential
gold deportment responses of different ore types.
The modelling and simulation limitations of this case study are listed as follows:
 Component gold grades were determined based on the highest and lowest values
obtained in the Telfer comminution circuit streams. Component distributions were
then calculated for each size fraction based on these values. If different component
gold grades had been selected, then component distributions obtained through
simulation could vary too. Therefore, a survey database with various ore types
being processed would be required to validate the modelled component gold grade
values.
 The effects of the gravity circuits and flash flotation could not be modelled because
survey data was not available. Thus the modelled circuit flowsheet did not
incorporate these separation stages and the validity of this simplification for the
comminution circuit relies on the fact that the mass recoveries to the concentrates
of these circuits are negligible. Nevertheless, it has an important effect on the
metallurgical balances and multi-component model fitting. If information on the
gravity and flotation models had been included in the circuit, it would be possible to
extend the analysis presented in this work to evaluate the production of gold
concentrate and doré.
 The size distribution of the SAG mill feed (base case ore and ore type D) varied
considerably from the conditions in which the model was fitted, as shown in Figure
6.25. Implementing variable breakage rates corrections to the multi-component
SAG mill model could improve the simulation predictions and would allow various
mill loads to be simulated. Also, the capability of the Bueno model to accurately
simulate bimodal feeds requires to be further investigated.
 In both scenarios 1 and 2, the circuit throughput was determined based on the
assumption that all ore types are available at the desired rates in a way that the low
grade stockpile feed and reclaim rates were the same. If information on the actual
available volume of each ore type in the orebody had been provided, the outcomes
of the presented simulations could be consistent with the actual proportion of these
ore types in the ore body.
 Breakage parameters were not determined for the various screen sizes. Had the
material from each size fraction of the pre-concentration circuit been submitted to
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breakage characterisation, then this multi-component approach could be applied to
a larger number of components, each representing a stream of the pre-
concentration circuit with its own breakage parameters and gold content.
The mineralisation multi-component approach was successfully applied to model and

simulate the selected pre-concentration and comminution circuits for treating Telfer ore
types. The success of this demonstration was achieved by comparing simulation
predictions and processing performance of the base case circuit and the proposed circuit
scenarios. A summary of the main outcomes are listed as follows:
 The gold deportment by size was incorporated in the modelling and simulation
outcomes by using components of different competence and gold content. This was
addressed in a novel manner, without the need of liberation information, by
describing veins as a higher grade, soft component and the host rock as a lower
grade, more competent component.
 The simulation of the base case circuit treating Telfer ore types, which vary in gold
feed grades and gold by size distribution, demonstrated that the mineralisation
multi-component approach provides a more detailed assessment of the efficiency of
grinding circuits in terms of component breakage behaviour and gold deportment.
Simulations results showed that changes in feed component distribution (and
grade), limited the base case circuit throughput and gold production rate to
downstream flotation circuit in some cases (ore types A, B and C).
 Using this multi-component description of the ore, a number of process screening

options were considered in order to pre-concentrate the different ore types from
Telfer and increase gold rates through the comminution circuit. The simulation of
different ore types demonstrated that mineralisation multi-component approach
provides a means to track the deportment of gold as the ore is broken into finer
particles and to incorporate these results in the evaluation of various scenarios.
 Processing strategies for the pre-concentration of the different ore types were
determined by analysing detailed information on gold distribution by size of selected
streams obtained from post-simulation calculations. The gold distributions were
calculated for each size fraction of the stream based on the component distribution
by size and fixed gold grade attributed to each component.
 The simulation of the selected scenarios facilitated the understanding of the

compounded effects of feed hardness and gold distribution on pre-concentration
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and downstream grinding circuit performance. Using the processing strategies for
each ore type provided gold upgrades to the SAG mill feed of up to 1.49 times the
circuit fresh feed and thus, increased gold production rates to downstream flotation
circuit.
 The comminution energy was evaluated using a size specific energy graph
methodology based on the power consumed by each component and the
assumption that it is proportional to the component volume in each comminution
device. This allowed the energy efficiency of components to be evaluated in terms
of generation of fine particles.
 The results indicated that the specific energy, in terms of grams of gold produced to
be processed by the downstream flotation circuit, can be lowered by up to 60%.
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7 Modelling Approaches for Exploiting Multi-Component
Characteristics of Ores
This chapter discusses the challenges for the modelling and simulation of the processing
circuits of the three case studies in terms of the limitations of the current single component
methods, the issues related to prediction capabilities and the potential role of multi-
component approaches in improving these predictions and increasing process knowledge.
It also incorporates a discussion of the usefulness of the multi-component approaches
applied in this thesis, as well as a comprehensive analysis of the current capabilities and
limitations of the single and multi-component models used in this thesis.
The survey data from three industrial plants, described in chapters 4, 5 and 6, included
experimental data from the circuit streams, equipment data, operational parameters
observed during the sampling periods and the breakage characterisation results. These
datasets formed the basis for analysing the modelling and simulation challenges of each
case study and developing three approaches for multi-component in MDK, which are
described in the following sub-chapters.
7.1 Simulation Challenges in Each Case Study
Each case study presented different issues when using single component modelling
techniques and simulation challenges arose from these issues, as outlined in Table 7.1.
Multi-component concepts were established to address these issues and simulation
approaches were proposed to confidently quantify processing performance changes due
to varying feed characteristics, operating conditions or circuit configuration.
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Table 7.1. Simulation challenges and advantages of multi-component approaches
Case Study LKAB Cadia Telfer
The minerals present in Once material is The Telfer processing circuit is

this ore, magnetite and processed through the complex compared to many
silicates, have distinct HPGR, its product stream other gold operations because
physical properties and is weakened compared to of significant mineralisation
Issues breakage characteristics. fresh feed stream. variability. The ore is a hard
silicate ore with prominent
sulphide veining, and the veins
have a significantly higher gold
content and lower hardness.
When plant feed The SAG mill feed Preferential breakage occurs
magnetite grades comprises two streams, along fractures in comminution
change, so do the bulk the HPGR centre product devices, which liberate gold
properties of the ore and and the direct feed from particles. The main challenges
the performance of the bin. The proportion of in the simulation of this circuit
milling and magnetic each stream composing are:
separation processes. the mill feed can be
- accounting for the different
The challenges are to controlled to a certain
breakage properties of the
simulate: extent by using variable
mineralised zones and for their
speed conveyors. The
- the interactions gold content,
main challenges in the
Current between the minerals
simulation of this circuit - predicting the processing
Simulation present in this ore that
are: performance of various ore
Challenges directly affect the AG mill
types, and an accurate gold
performance, - tracking the breakage
distribution by size of
properties of the streams
- the removal of relatively comminution circuits.
that compose the SAG
more competent barren
mill feed,
silicates in separation
stages and the - accounting for the
corresponding changes in interaction between these
hardness, abrasiveness streams properties and
and mineral content must their impact on mill
be tuned to simulate performance.
downstream processes.
Multi- Utilise minerals as Utilise streams with Utilise mineralisation type to

Component components. different processing history define the components.
Concept as components.
Magnetite and silicates The HPGR product Setting properties of gold veins
properties can be set weakening effects on SAG and host rock separately can
individually and their milling can be analysed by offer the advantage of
behaviour can be tracked using processing history exploiting:
throughout the processing as component definition.
- screening and sensor based
Advantages circuit units. Depending on The optimum milling
sorting techniques,
of the Multi- the unit feed magnetite performance may be
Component content, model parameters defined by the proportion - characteristics of different ore
Approaches may be tuned based on of direct fresh feed and types with varying
real plant data HPGR product in the SAG mineralisation intensity and the
measurements. mill feed. corresponding preferential
breakage and gold deportment
of the relatively softer vein
component.
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Component types listed in Table 7.1 were determined based on the characteristics of the
selected ores observed in measurements provided in chapters 4, 5 and 6 and educated
assumptions based on published information. As this is an evolving area of study, the
appropriate ore characterisation for multi-component modelling is not conducted as
standard on bulk samples of the various streams. Some responses were specially
obtained for this study but others had to be estimated based on best current knowledge
and data, exposing areas for future development.
Each case study was categorised according to the component type as follows:
 Case study I: information obtained from the LKAB’s Kiruna processing plant survey
included data not only for the bulk sample, but also for the selected minerals, in this
case magnetite and silicates.
 Case study II: data obtained in Cadia Concentrator 1 processing plant formed the
basis of this case study, including streams that have different processing history
and their properties change along the processing route.
 Case study III: data from the Newcrest Telfer circuit surveys was used to model
and simulate ore components with different characteristics such as size distribution,
hardness, mineralisation intensity and gold content.
There are no published templates to conduct simulations of varying blend of two or more
components, or sufficiently detailed experimental data to validate approaches taken in this
thesis. The best reasonable approaches are taken, with improved techniques forming the
basis of future validation work.
7.2 Applicability of the Concepts Developed in this Thesis
Case studies were used to develop specific multi-component concepts which were based
on the characteristics of the ores processed in each selected operation. It was shown that
if the properties of each component under scrutiny can be measured and components
have significant differences, then multi-component approaches can be applied to model
the circuit and simulate various processing options to take advantage of such differences.
Understanding the interactions between components and their influence on the
performance of processing units also proved to be a meaningful way of exploiting multi-
component characteristics of ores.
However, the proposed multi-component methodologies are not strict procedures for
selecting components to represent the ore characteristics, defining alternative processing
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routes or analysing the processing performance of various simulation scenarios. The
concepts developed in this thesis can be adapted and applied to many processing plants,
as discussed below.
Mineral multi-component approach
The concept of utilising minerals as components to represent an ore is not new, as

discussed in the literature review (chapter 2). Many researchers have investigated the
behaviour of mineral mixtures and developed comminution and processing models in
which the components are the individual minerals. As discussed in the same chapter,
considerable effort has been applied to develop simulation tools using size-by-component
multi-component structures (such as JKSimSand, USIM PAC, LIMN and JKSimFloat) and
successful applications of these simulators can be found in the literature, in which
components can be easily separated and have significant difference in their densities, as
minerals sands and coal, or magnetic susceptibilities, as sulphide and iron ores.
However, most of these simulators do not meet all the key capabilities required for the
work this thesis, including: multi-component simulator structure and state-of-art models,
based on a user-friendly spreadsheet environment, multi-scenario function and a
framework that allows rapid implementation and testing of new models. For being a
versatile simulation tool with a broader database of multi-component models (revived from
older simulators from the JKMRC and recently developed under the AMIRA P9 project),
the MDK was selected to be used in this thesis. It this case comminution and separation
processes were concurrently analysed, covering an entire processing plant, rather than
only a section, while utilising latest generation models. This allowed studying how
magnetic separation affects the downstream grinding circuit performance by simulation of
the integrated circuits.
The advances in modelling and simulation capabilities provided by using the MDK were
demonstrated, including the ability to simulate integrated circuits using high quality models,
the implementation of models that have parameters programmed to change according to
the unit’s feed characteristics and automated pre- and post-modelling calculations. These
allowed automated simulation of multiple scenarios to be carried out and simulation results
of a range of scenarios to be scanned based on results obtained for components
individually.
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This method can be applied to many other plants in the minerals industry, as long as the
components present sufficient difference in their characteristics – be it in hardness,
density, magnetic susceptibility or other measurable physical property.
Stream processing history multi-component approach
The stream processing history multi-component approach aimed at capturing changes to

stream properties after it passes through a processing unit. Streams with different
breakage characteristics were modelled as separate components, by implementing the
component adjustment model in MDK. This model was the caveat of the assessment of
the effects of a HPGR operating conditions on its product breakage characteristics.
The ability to easily transform streams to new components and then recombine streams
into a single component after the temporary weakening is released from the rock is an
entirely novel approach. It proved to be an effective way of exploiting multi-component
characteristics of streams in a processing circuit.
Even though the data, model and simulator capabilities requirements were investigated for
a comminution circuit featuring a HPGR, the proposed multi-component approach is not
limited to this equipment or circuit configuration. It has a realistic potential for integrated
evaluation of cutting edge pre-weakening technologies, such as microwave and high
voltage pulses, and the entire mineral processing circuit. Such evaluations will allow
defining the most effective location of these units in the circuit, which can provide not only
reductions in energy consumption but also improve the performance of downstream
concentration processes.
Mineralisation multi-component approach
The mineralisation multi-component approach was used to model and predict preferential
deportment of high-grade material in comminution circuits by defining components as ores
with different hardness, response to separation processes, mineralisation and metal
content. Each component has the same gold grade in all the size fractions and the
combination of the components mimic the overall grade distribution of the ore.
A hypothetical gold deportment model was fitted, such that when typical energies are
applied, the softer rocks with higher gold content break into finer fragments than the harder
component containing little gold. When grade by size is calculated in post-modelling
calculations, a continuous grade-by-size profile is obtained for comminution products. This
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novel approach is physically realistic, does not require liberation data, allows determining
the grade by size and conserves head grade through comminution processes.
This multi-component methodology used to track components with different breakage

characteristics and gold content allowed the analysis of the performance of a pre-
concentration circuit and its effects on downstream grinding circuits.
This concept is a promising method for various ore deposits with both disseminated and
vein-style mineralisations. It is of particular interest to represent sulphide ores, and has the
potential to be applied to represent components that:
 are softer and result in lower metallurgical recoveries in flotation due to higher
levels of oxidation;
 present different texture and response to comminution processes; and
 have minerals of interest with varying grain sizes and thus the optimum liberation
size also varies according to the ore type.
7.3 Advantages and Limitations of Models Used in this Thesis
This section provides the compilation of advantages and limitations as identified for the
single and multi-component models and used in this thesis (Table 7.2).
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Table 7.2. Advantages and limitations of models used in this thesis
Model
component type
Unit Model Advantages Limitations
Single Multi
For a given ore and a set of

operating conditions, the
appearance function and
breakage rates are considered
to be constant and therefore,
the perfect mixing model
Includes an additional structure predicts that
function which links the throughput is linearly related to
discharge rate equation the load mass. However, it has
Variable (A1.6) to the grate design, been shown that this is not true
 in practice (Morrell et al. 2001),
rates model grate open area and mill
speed (Morrell and where throughput can reach
Stephenson, 1996) via the maximum level in the range of
constant. 20-40% mill filling depending on
ore hardness and operating
conditions.
The existing model structure
cannot accept multiple sets of
breakage rates for different
feed components.
AG/SAG Even though it is known that

mill Leung’s assumption of constant
breakage rates is not valid
when the operating conditions
vary significantly (Morrell and
Morrison, 1989), the existing
implementation of Bueno’s
multi-component model relies
Breakage rates and on this assumption. This was
discharge functions can be found to be reasonable when
fitted individually for each determining the load mass and
Bueno’s component.
 power draw, but for the product
model
The model is able to predict size distribution the method
accumulation of the harder was proven to be insufficient.
components in the mill load. An old version of Morrell’s
power model is implemented
and therefore needs to be
updated.
Mill volume calculations do not
account for additional internal
volume from feed and
discharge cone angles.
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Table 7.2. Advantages and limitations of models used in this thesis (continuing)
Model
component type
Single Multi
Once the appearance

matrix is fitted, the
Components with different
breakage rates and the
hardness are not accounted for,
 discharge rate along with a
and the bulk Bond ball mill work
specified feed may be used
index is used.
to estimate any ball mill
product.
Perfect-
mixing Bond ball mill work index is
model measured for the bulk feed, not
for independent components.
 There are two separate sets of

Ball mill
parameters that are back-fitted
to scale the breakage rate data:
a scale-factor and the
relative hardness.
The user can use Bond

work indexes measured for
Modified the individual components Based on the basic relative
perfect- as direct input to this model.
 response functions of the
mixing
Breakage functions are perfect mixing model.
model
fitted for each component
separately.
The stockpile or bin model

allows it to fill or empty
according to the scenario
under evaluation. This
model can be particularly
useful in determining short This model is used to mimic
Powell and term operating strategies, different operating states;
Bin and
Hilden’s   according to ore type being however, dynamic simulation
stockpile
model processed and mine would help in day-to-day
schedule, which allows control.
establishing the time
required to empty the
stockpile when a different
ore types are planned to be
treated.
This model is useful when a

It is external to comminution
new component is
Component models, thus needs to be
Component introduced to the structure
adjustment  implemented in models of
transfer unit after a stream is processed
model processing units that can cause
and has its properties
a damage-induced weakening.
changed.
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Model
component type
Single Multi
The efficiency of separation

is more or less sharp
The efficiency of separation is
depending on the
 not affected by changes in
distribution function
component properties.
parameters, which can be
easily tuned.
Efficiency
curve
Has individual distribution Simplistic model that does not
function parameters for include machine specific
each component, parameters or considers effects

representing different of varying feed composition or
performances according to operating conditions on
component density. separation efficiency.
Cyclone
The cyclone performance is
driven by cyclone geometry,
feed properties and
operating conditions.
 Allows predicting changes
Nages- in cyclone performance
wararao’s without the requirement of
model extensive experimental
work.
A set of parameters is The influence of feed percent

 modelled for each solids on the behaviour of the
component. cyclone is not accounted for.
Bulk breakage parameters are

used, thus does not account for
changes in component
 properties.
Andersen
and Lacks equipment-specific
Crusher parameters.
Whiten’s
model
Each component may have
a different probability of Simple multi-component

being broken and has its functionality is not validated.
own appearance function.
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Model
component type
Single Multi
These recovery curves can The efficiency of separation is

be easily tunned according not affected by changes in
to any selected parameter, component properties.
 for example, feed grade Simplistic model that does not
and different operating include machine specific
Flotation, conditions of separation parameters, or feed properties
Two-way units.
magnetic that affect separation efficiency.
splitter
and gravity
model
separator Each component has its
own recovery by size curve,
which may represent the

behaviour of different ore
types treated in a
separation unit.
This model lacks the ability to

respond correctly to high
circulating loads and is not
suited to high percentages of
fines in the feed.
 It uses specific energy as input,
and has limited capability of
changing this value according
Morrell and to combinations of rolls speed,
HPGR
Shi’s model operating pressure and gap
between rolls.
Multi-component
implementation relies on back-
It is the only multi- fitted scaling factors and is not
 component HPGR model validated.
available in MDK.
Does not reflect damage-
induced weakening on product.
The efficiency of separation is

not affected by changes in

component properties or
operating conditions.
Two-way
Useful for controlling
simple
Splitter volumetric flows. Different
splitter
model components are equally
split to equipment that have Different components are

limited capacity and to equally split.
optimise processing load
between comminution
equipment.
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Model
component type
Single Multi
Simplistic model that does not

consider machine specific
parameter effects on separation
efficiency. Separation efficiency

remains fixed for all operating
conditions and is not affected
by changes in feed
Trommel Efficiency
composition.
and screen curve
Has individual distribution
function parameters for
each component,

representing different
performances according to
component properties.
In all case studies, the ores were represented using two components, even though MDK
structure is prepared to allow using up to 15 components. For example, in the work by
Foggiatto et al. (2012), the mineralisation multi-component approach was applied using
three ore component types: a high grade soft component and two low grade hard
components with similar breakage behaviour however with different contents of gold. This
was the first application of the proposed methodology, which was based on a simplified
comminution flowsheet and hypothetical models, but demonstrated the capability of
handling three components.
As discussed in the model fitting chapters (4.2.3, 5.2.3 and 6.2.3) many assumptions were
made to enable back calculating component specific model parameters. The complexity of
this task is particularly higher when there is a great number of components and adjustment
parameters.
7.4 Conclusions
The challenges for modelling and simulating the processing circuits of the three case
studies have been discussed in terms of the limitations of the current single component
methods and the corresponding issues related to prediction capabilities. Multi-component
approaches were proposed aiming at accounting for the characteristics of the components
used to represent these ores and their processing behaviour.
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Comminution and separation processes were modelled in MDK using the different multi-
component approaches, with each component having its own breakage and separation
responses. In comminution devices, the energy is applied equally to all components,
causing softer component to break preferentially into finer sizes, as illustrated in the
schematics in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1. Multi-component particle breakage schematic
A method for correcting recovery curves in separation stages was proposed for case
study I, which was based on the feed grade to each separation stage. This was a
simplifying assumption adopted for the sake of the demonstrations in this thesis, and the
author recognises the necessity of extensive laboratory testwork and plant data to
determine these curves in future applications of the different multi-component approaches.
The multi-component unit models used in this thesis (Table 3.1) consider each unit as a
number of parallel units and utilises models that were originally developed to optimise
existing circuits using packages such as JKSimSand, JKSimMet and JKSimFloat. The
problem is that models can be unreliable if the input variations are too large because most
of these models can only be used for the simulation of relatively narrow range around
survey conditions at which data was obtained to back-calculate model parameters.
Therefore, the results from simulations applying the multi-component approaches

developed in each of the three case studies (described in chapters 4, 5 and 6) should be
looked at carefully at this stage, as some of the models used in this study have had limited
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or no testing and validation, with little real world application. Ultimately, the aim of the
simulations in this thesis is to demonstrate multi-component capabilities of providing
increased process knowledge and meaningful data for the optimisation of existing circuits
and evaluation of innovative processing circuit configurations.
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8 Conclusions and Recommendations
This final chapter presents an overview of the work carried in the thesis, including the main
conclusions of the thesis and suggests further work that can be conducted to expand
multi-component modelling and simulation capabilities.
8.1 Summary
There is a tendency in the minerals industry to design circuits for treating massive low
grade orebodies that feature the largest equipment available in standardised circuit
configurations, which are low in capital cost and minimise project risks. However, the
drawback of this practice is that just applying current technology will not achieve significant
reductions in energy requirements or improvements in metallurgical recoveries or, in some
cases, even achieve the nominal capacity. In fact, the literature describes a number of
projects that have under-performed and not achieved throughput targets under their
design conditions (Staples et al., 2015).
The lack of flexibility evident in many crushing and grinding circuits and the limited
availability of simulation packages that allow simulating of innovative circuits to treat large
throughputs of low grade ores using state-of-art models and exploiting their multi-
component behaviour were the main motivations of this thesis.
Alternative processing options were proposed in this research for selected mining
operations and evaluated through scenario simulation using measured plant survey data,
to construct case studies for the demonstration of novel multi-component modelling
approaches. The ores of these selected operations were defined as mixtures of
homogeneous components to provide a practical means of modelling the processing
circuits without requiring full liberation data and allowed tracking key ore characteristics
around the circuit.
The MDK was selected as the tool for exploiting multi-component characteristics of these
ores by modelling and simulating integrated circuits featuring comminution and separation
stages (e.g. flotation, magnetic separation), which enabled the assessment of interactions
between comminution and separation processes. The MDK was selected for being a
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versatile simulation tool with a wide database of multi-component models, some of each
have received relatively little real-world application or testing, as discussed in chapter 2.5.
This thesis contributes to the investigation of multi-component simulation methods and
testing the latest multi-component models available in MDK, focusing on the required data
for suitable model fitting, modelling limitations and techniques for tracking particle
properties and thus providing a meaningful evaluation of the processing performance of
multi-component feeds.
Industrial plant data was obtained for three mining operations, and each dataset included
the description of the processing circuit configuration, the survey experimental data, the
results of sample characterisation, as well as the survey mass balance results.
Based on circuit survey data and sample characterisation results, different multi-
component approaches were developed to trial the ability of different circuit designs to
respond to variable stream properties and quantify the potential of these circuits to
transform processing capability of variable ore feeds. The definition of each component
depended on ore characteristics, the ability to measure component properties and the
differences between these properties. Component types were selected based on the
differing properties of the components of the selected ores being processed in each case
study – minerals, ore types or processing stream, and elements (assays) – and specific
techniques were developed for each case. The modelling methodologies and models
developed for each case study were described, and the capabilities and limitations of
these models discussed.
The properties of multi-component ores were exploited through multi-component

simulations to enable the assessment of interactions between comminution and separation
processes and the meaningful evaluation of innovative processing circuit configurations.
While conducting simulations of these processing circuits, the capabilities of dealing with
multiple components in the feed, accommodating different competencies of ore and
tracking grades reporting along the different potential processing routes were tested using
the 2G structure of MDK. The multi-component approaches were implemented in MDK
and served as a means to simulate and compare the ability of the alternative circuits
proposed to provide improved energy efficiency. The size specific energy method
developed by Powell et al. (2003-2010) was extended and shown to be appropriate for
assessing and comparing energy efficiency of multiple components of an ore.
The MDK was also used for running large numbers of consecutive simulations, using the
multi-scenario tool, where each scenario was presented with a different set of input
216
parameters, allowing simulations to be carried out more rapidly. This tool is shown to be
useful for analysing various simulation results tabulated in a customised format. This
automated simulation process allowed optimised scenarios to be established, by varying
the input parameters to find an operating point that minimises or maximises an objective
function, such as downstream grinding energy efficiency or separation units (flotation,
density, magnetic separation and pre-screening) recoveries.
8.2 Major Conclusions from Each Case Study
This section presents a breakdown of the most important conclusions that were drawn
from each case study of the thesis. It highlights some of the issues facing the development
of multi-component approaches for modelling and simulating integrated comminution and
separation circuits and provides an assessment of the performance of alternative circuit
configurations as proposed for each case study.
8.2.1 Case Study I
Processing options for a magnetite ore with decreasing magnetite contents were
investigated in this case study. As the magnetite content decreases, the silicate content
increases and the ore becomes more competent. Consequent changes in the grinding
product characteristics can impact the gangue rejection stages and overall circuit
performance.
The mineral multi-component approach was applied in this case study to investigate the
impacts of changes associated with decreasing feed grades, such as in size distribution
and hardness, on circuit throughput and metal production rates. It was demonstrated that it
is possible to appropriately model the processing of mixtures of minerals (in this case,
magnetite and silicates) through a full circuit containing milling and magnetic separation
stages. In order to account for changes in the magnetic separation performance of each
ore type and assuming that the magnetite would be in a more inter-granular form in lower
grade ores, a correction in the recovery curves was proposed based in the feed grades of
the magnetic separation stages.
The simulation of the base case circuit processing lower grade ores showed that the shift
in ore type would result in a rapid increase in AG mill load and drop-off of up to 60% in
throughput, easily justifying an upgrade to the circuit with increased operational costs due
to grinding media or the investment in additional comminution equipment. The simulation
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of the different scenarios provided results such as the size and component distributions of
comminution and magnetic separation products, highlighting the key asset of introducing
flexibility to the circuit, which is the ability to deal with long-term change in ore type through
advanced simulation.
It was indicated that the mineral multi-component approach allows assessment of the
efficiency of grinding circuits in a thorough manner, as component specific parameters
such as the could be calculated from simulation results. In addition, the simulation of
different circuit scenarios facilitated the understanding of the integrated effects that feed
composition has on grinding circuit performance, metal recovery and metal production
rates. The analysis of simulation results for different ore types indicated which processing
options were able to achieve increased throughput and improved process efficiency.
Post-simulation calculations were conducted to provide the processing cost of the

simulated scenarios and to establish the most cost-effective processing options. These
calculations indicated that the total processing cost per ton of ore obtained for the selected
circuits were of the same magnitude as the base case scenario; however, significant
reductions in operating costs were obtained when alternative flowsheets were simulated
and processing costs were calculated on the basis of metal production rates (ton of iron in
the concentrate). A full economic assessment is required to better understand the
investment requirement to implement the selected process flowsheets, the additional gains
in concentrate production and their effects on the profitability of the operation, including
information on ore type reserves, mining costs and operating costs.
8.2.2 Case Study II
The effects of increasing HPGR operating pressures and product weakening on the SAG
mill performance were explored in this case study by simulating different scenarios to
improve Cadia SAG mill performance and increase throughput. The stream that has been
processed through the HPGR is weakened compared to the direct stream from the bin.
The SAG mill feed is composed of the HPGR and bin product, thus the proportion of these
streams and HPGR operating conditions can influence the mill feed breakage
characteristics and the grinding performance.
The processing history multi-component approach was successfully applied to model and
to simulate the Cadia comminution circuit in this case study. It was confirmed that it is
feasible to use multi-component simulations to track breakage properties of the streams in
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circuits such as the Cadia comminution circuit and capture the weakening of ore effects
after being processed through a HPGR. The influence of the HPGR product characteristics
on downstream comminution units such as the SAG and ball mills was investigated
through simulation, providing useful information to analyse the performance of the
components feeding the grinding circuit.
The stream processing history multi-component approach provided the means to assess
the grinding efficiency of the comminution circuit when the HPGR operates under varying
pressures. Simulations of increasing HPGR operating pressures indicated that higher
pressures resulted in comparatively finer SAG mill feed, higher throughputs and lower
SAG mill and HPGR specific energies.
The simulation of circuit modifications to obtain a coarser feed to the SAG mill provided a
better understanding of the interactions between bin split and HPGR operation and the
HPGR, SAG and ball mill performance. The SAG mill feed was coarsened by varying the
bin split and by adding a pre-screening stage located prior to the bin. The direct addition of
coarse material (screen oversize) to the SAG mill was shown to be an efficient strategy to
increase mill filling; however, it resulted in a coarser SAG mill product, impacting
negatively on the ball milling circulating load and cyclone oversize size distribution, which
could potentially affect the downstream flotation stages. Utilising lower ball loads and
smaller grate apertures was shown to be a more efficient condition to produce finer SAG
mill products at relatively higher throughput, while increasing mill filling, comminution
power utilisation and throughput.
Even though the flotation stage is not discussed in this thesis, this stage could be
implemented in MDK for a more comprehensive analysis. The component adjustment
model, which was the key feature for applying the stream processing history multi-
component modelling approach, can be used to merge components with different
breakage properties into a single component, providing the flotation feed characteristics;
and then to divide the flotation feed stream into components that differ in flotability
characteristics.
8.2.3 Case Study III
Pre-concentration by screening options were investigated for upgrading the SAG mill feed
from Telfer, based on the characteristics of different ore types. The characterisation of
SAG mill feed belt-cuts showed that the Telfer ores present variable feed grades and gold
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distribution by size. Based on measured data from the comminution circuit survey,
component physical and breakage properties were determined and component
distributions were calculated for each ore type. The mineralisation multi-component
modelling approach was used for tracking components with different gold contents and
breakage characteristics along the circuit. Ores with similar properties were grouped using
statistical methods and operating strategies for each group were established for increasing
gold production rates and decreasing the energy requirement per gram of gold fed to the
downstream flotation.
The pre-screening circuit was initially investigated through multi-component simulation of

various screen apertures. Then simulations were conducted to analyse the influence of the
pre-screening circuit operating strategies on the downstream comminution circuit. Grade
detectors were implemented in the circuit to either remove low grade coarse material
before energy intensive grinding stages or to stockpile coarse material with enough gold to
justify its processing. The simulation of these pre-concentration circuits provided better
understanding of the gold deportment in comminution circuit streams and the extent to
which SAG mill feed can be upgraded to increase gold production rates without detriment
to the particle size distribution of the cyclone overflow.
Two pre-concentration circuit scenarios were simulated aiming at increasing throughput

and gold production rate to downstream flotation circuit; however resulted in relatively
coarser cyclone overflow. The analysis of the simulated gold by size of cyclone overflow
showed that the gold content of the fraction + 0.15 mm was below 0.16 ppm in both
scenarios, which suggests that coarser particles, which are difficult to recover in
downstream flotation, have low grade compared to the finer particles and therefore would
not contribute significantly to gold losses. Stockpiling coarse material from the pre-
screening circuit and trommel oversize was shown to be an efficient solution to
consistently provide lower specific energies based both on tonnes of processed ore and
rates of gold provided to the downstream flotation circuit.
The simulations utilised to demonstrate the mineralisation multi-component approach

provided a comprehensive assessment of the efficiency of the grinding circuits when pre-
concentration strategies are implemented. It was shown that the preferential deportment of
high-grade components to finer size fractions can be adequately modelled and simulated
using 2G multi-component structure available in MDK. This approach facilitates the
understanding of the effects of varying feed component distributions on pre-concentration,
comminution performance and energy efficiency, as well as on the gold distribution by size
220
of selected streams, such as the screening products and cyclone overflow, without the
need of full liberation data.
8.3 Conclusions
The hypotheses central to this thesis were that: (a) multi-component simulations of
complex processing circuits with ores defined as mixtures of homogeneous components
can provide a practical means of modelling circuits without requiring full liberation data,
and allow key ore characteristics to be tracked around the circuit; and (b) the properties of
multi-component ores can thereby be exploited through multi-component simulation to
enable the assessment of interactions between comminution and separation processes
and the meaningful evaluation of innovative processing circuit configurations.
In chapters 4, 5 and 6, these hypotheses were tested in three case studies by using multi-
component structures to model and simulate processing circuits and investigate the
influence of each component on the performance of comminution and separation
processes. The simulation results were assessed in terms of component size and metal
distribution in each stream of the processing circuit and metallurgical and energy efficiency
of different circuit flowsheets and operating strategies.
In a number of the simulation scenarios developed in the case studies, there was a need
to assume certain data from other operations or similar ores. This reflects the pervasive
problem encountered in simulating alternate circuits or incorporating more advanced
component modelling, arising from incompatible ore characterisation between models and
a current lack of drive in the industry to analyse the mineral base of ores in sufficient detail
to allow more advanced component modelling. Developing the tools and demonstrating
the value of more advanced multi-component simulation is a key objective of this thesis,
which may ensure that the collection of such data quality can be justified in the future.
The demonstration of the multi-component modelling and simulation methodologies

provided the means to exploit the characteristics of multi-component ores by:
 understanding the ore characteristics, their interactions in comminution and

separation processes and the extent of multi-component modelling capabilities
applied to both breakage and separability of the components within the ore; and
 simulating a wide range of processing circuit configurations, able to respond to

variable stream properties, and using a multi-component size specific energy
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methodology to assess the performance of individual components and transform
processing capability of these circuits.
The methods applied to the case studies are specific to each selected operation. However,
these ideas have the potential to be applied to other multi-component ores, as the
proposed multi-component methodologies do not present strict procedures for carrying out
the processing performance analysis for the simulation of innovative processing circuits.
8.3.1 Contributions to Knowledge
The major contributions to knowledge in the field of mineral processing simulation were:
 the development and verification of methodologies for exploiting multi-component

characteristics of ores in process modelling; and
 using these methods in the simulation of comminution circuits, which can be used
to model: the processing of mixtures of minerals having different competence, the
weakening of ore as it passes through a HPGR and the preferential deportment of
high-grade material to a fine size fraction after crushing and grinding stages.
The associated contributions to knowledge of this work were:
 the investigation of the requirements with respect to the data, model and simulator
capabilities for using an integrated (comminution and separation models) platform
for multi-component modelling;
 a comprehensive analysis of the capabilities and limitations of multi-component

models available in MDK;
 a scanning method for evaluating a range of scenarios and for simulating circuits
that respond to fluctuations in stream properties;
 conceptual design of alternative circuits that provide improved metal production

with low specific energy and size specific energy requirements; and
 extension of the size specific energy methodology to assessing efficiency of multi-

component ores.
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8.4 Recommendations
As outlined in chapters 4, 5 and 6 there is a need of more research in the development of

advanced multi-component comminution models to incorporate changes in ore properties
of streams from certain processing units. These models need to incorporate all the
relevant particle properties, which may be specific to the ore characteristics or the
comminution circuit flowsheet, into the models used to represent a comminution circuit.
These comminution models should allow the change of properties such as:
 damage-induced weakening after HPGR and other pre-weakening (for example,

high voltage pulses and microwave) treatments, and
 ore reverting to its native strengths after damage-induced weakening is released

after further breakage.
More work is also required to further validate the assumptions underpinning the empirically
derived multi-component modelling approaches and extend their applicability. It is
recommended that future work:
 Determine whether the assumption that component specific breakage rates, as

obtained in AG/SAG mill model fit, can be fixed does hold for varying component
types and proportions when simulating similar operating conditions.
 Implement the breakage rates equations from the JK variable rates SAG mill model
(JKTech, 2001) into the Bueno multi-component SAG model to accommodate
operating variations such as the addition of grinding media, changes in mill total
load and feed rates to the multi-component model.
 Implement in MDK a multi-component pebble mill model that accounts for pebble
breakage characteristics and their consumption rates such as the one described by
Söderman et al. (1996) and determine if these influence the mill performance and
the mill feed components breakage rates.
 Develop a multi-component HPGR model with improved capabilities of simulating

various operating conditions, in which the component adjustment model is
embedded and operating conditions have a weakening effect on the product.
 Validate the simplistic method developed to correct recovery curves according to

the separation feed grade. These curves should be determined for different feed
compositions and size distributions, thus generating an extensive database and
improving the simulation prediction capabilities.
223
 Conduct a series of surveys with the Cadia circuit operating in substantially different
conditions to validate the multi-component models established for HPGR, SAG and
ball mills.
 Determine a methodology for improved model fitting when component size
distributions in comminution products cannot be measured once they have been
processed (such as damage-induced weakening).
 Investigate how best to quantify, characterise and incorporate mineralisation
components into the modelling framework. Simulations predictions of materials with
different proportions of components need to be benchmarked against historical
plant data to validate component characteristics such as grade and breakage
properties, so to guarantee sufficiently accurate outcomes.
 Characterise the products from various screen sizes to account for breakage
parameters of the different size fractions and apply the mineralisation multi-
component approach, in which each component has its own breakage parameters
and metal content, and explore the downstream effects of selectively process
streams of pre-concentration circuits.
224
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240
Appendix 1
Single and Multi-Component Models Used in this Thesis
Perfect Mixing Ball Mill Model
In the perfect mixing ball mill model – PMM (Whiten, 1976), mill contents are related to mill
product with a discharge rate for each size fraction.
Equation A1.1
where is the mass flow of size fraction in the product, is the discharge rate of size
fraction , and is the mass of size fraction in the load.
The PMM balance equation is described by the equation that follows:
∑ Equation A1.2
where is the mass flow of size fraction in the feed, is the breakage rate of size
fraction , and is the fraction of size material broken into size (appearance function).
Figure A1.1 shows the concept of the ball mill model.
Figure A1.1. Concept of the ball mill model (JKTech, 2006)
1
Combining the two equations above and assuming steady state, ⁄ 0. Thus the
equation of the balance in each size fraction is:
∑ Equation A1.3
∗
The discharge rate is scaled to the term , to account for variations in residence time due
to mill volume and volumetric feed rate ( ).
∗
Equation A1.4
where and are diameter and length of the mill.
The breakage within the mill is controlled by the selection rate of each size for breakage
and the way the particles are broken:
 the ratio ⁄ is calculated for each size fraction, according to measured data from
mill feed and product;
 the appearance function is calculated from breakage tests, such as DWT and RBT.
∗
A full set of / values is represented by a cubic spline function, which is defined by 3 to
4 spline knots.
Power calculation is independent from breakage and follows the procedure developed at
the JKMRC by Morrell (1992), which considers the motion and magnitude of the mill
charge.
Multi-Component Perfect Mixing Ball Mill Model
The multi-component ball mill model was conceptualised by Morrison (M. Andrusiewicz,
personal communication, October 27, 2015) and first published in the JKSimFloat manual
(JKTech, 1993b).
In this model, the mill is divided in a number of parallel mills and each component is
treated separately. There are two separate sets of parameters that are fitted to scale the
∗
breakage rate data: bulk / function and scale-factor and component relative
hardness scale factors.
∗
Scale-up is achieved by correcting the / function by component scale factors that
account for mill diameter, load fraction, rotating speed and bulk BWI.
A1 - 2
Modified Multi-Component Perfect Mixing Ball Mill Model
The multi-component ball mill perfect mixing model presented above was modified to allow
components to have their own breakage rates, with BWI values attributed individually to
each component and BWI scaling factors used to represent component hardnesses.
∗
Scale-up is achieved by correcting the component / functions by scale factors that
account for mill diameter ( ), load fraction ( ), fraction of critical speed ( ) and BWI. The
∗
/ function of each component is multiplied by component specific BWI scaling factor as
follows:
. .
∗ ∗ Equation A1.5
The concept of the modified ball mill perfect mixing model is to fit component specific
breakage rates in a way that the overall fitted data matches the measured data from plant
surveys. The mill is divided in a number of parallel mills with same diameter and the mill
length is scaled according to the volumetric proportion of each component in the mill feed.
The model calculations are carried for each component separately, and the final product is
the sum of all components. Figure A1.2 shows the concept developed for modifying the
existing multi-component ball mill model.
Figure A1.2. Concept of the modified multi-component ball mill model
This model concept was established by the author, and coded and implemented in the
MDK by Andrusiewicz (M. Andrusiewicz, personal communication, March 3, 2015). The
A1 - 3
split in two virtual mills allows attributing different harnesses to each component and
account for their individual breakage rates. The main assumptions of this model are that:
 the grinding process can be accurately modelled and simulated by attributing

breakage rates for each component;
 the proportion between the components in the mill load do not significantly change
from those used in the model fit; and
 thus the interactions between components do not vary significantly either.
Leung’s AG/SAG Mill Model
The model developed by Leung (1987) is based on the perfect mixing model (Whiten,
1974), described in chapter 2.4.1. The PMM was used to describe the size reduction
processes inside the mill at steady state, and the breakage and discharge mechanism
functions were combined to describe the size reduction and throughput of the mill. Leung’s
model general structure is presented in Figure A1.3.
Figure A1.3. Leung’s AG/SAG mill model structure (JKTech, 2014)
The three main components of this model are:
 appearance function – high energy ore specific appearance functions are related to
mill diameter and charge, and low energy ore specific appearance function is
A1 - 4
obtained through a tumbling test, and the two appearance functions are combined
using a weighted average equation;
 discharge rate – a simple form for the classification function is described and
parameters are fitted for the mass transfer law proposed by Austin et al. (1976):
Equation A1.6
where and are constants, is fraction of the mill occupied by below grate
size material, and is the volumetric discharge rate in equivalent mill fills per
minute.
The form used for the classification function is shown in Figure A1.4. There is no
classification for material up to size after which the function decreases to zero
at the grate size , and a linear interpolation on a log scale is used between
and .
Figure A1.4. AG/SAG Leung model – classification function (Leung, 1987)
The discharge rate consists of two components; the mass transfer to the grate and
the classification at the grate. It can be expressed as
Equation A1.7
where is the fraction of the load presented to the grate per unit time and is
the classification function.
 breakage rate – the breakage rates are back-calculated at five spline knots (128,
44.8, 16, 4.0 and 0.25 mm) using the plant survey data, appearance function and
discharge rates. By re-arranging the PMM model, the breakage rate for each size
is calculated using the following equation:
∑
Equation A1.8
A1 - 5
Two constant breakage rates were used for autogenous and semi-autogenous
mills, which were obtained using a cubic spline interpolation.
AG/SAG Mill Variable Rates Model
The Variable Rates Model underlying model is still identical with that developed by Leung
(1987) except that:
 grinding rates have been related to mill diameter and operating conditions, and
 a model that includes grate geometry describes slurry holdup.
Morrell and Morrison (1996) investigated the intrinsic interdependence between breakage
rates at different sizes, in combination with the effect of selected operating variables. The
work resulted in the following set of equations that was later implemented in the variable
rates AG/SAG model.
1 2 ln 3 ⁄ Equation A1.9
2 3 ln 4 Equation A1.10
3 4 ⁄ Equation A1.11
4 5 Equation A1.12
5 3 Equation A1.13
where are breakage rates (hr-1) at 5 standard knot sizes, are coefficients
determined using least-squares regression (Morrell & Morrison, 1996), is the mill volume
occupied by grinding balls and associated voids (%), is a RPM scaling factor, is a
fraction of critical speed scaling factor, is a ball diameter scaling factor, and is the
recycle ratio.
The slurry transport through the mill is described by a function which relates the hold-up of
slurry, grate design, grate open area and mill speed to the volumetric discharge rate
through the grate (Morrell & Stephenson, 1996):
. . . .
ɸ Equation A1.14
where is fractional slurry hold-up, is the volumetric flowrate of the mill (m3/hr), is the
mean relative radial position of the grate apertures, total area of the grate apertures
(m2), ɸ is the fraction of critical speed, and is the mill diameter (m).
A1 - 6
The classification function was also improved to include pebble port ratios in the variable
rates model, following the classification curve shown in Figure A1.5.
where:
is the particle size below which particles
always pass the grate
is the size of the grate through which largest
particles pass
is the size of pebble port
is the fraction open area of pebble ports
compared with grate
Figure A1.5. AG/SAG mill variable rates model – classification function (redrawn from JKTech,
2001)
The size reduction part of the model predicts what the mass of rock and the quantity of
slurry will be in the mill for a given feed rate. The power model uses this information to
predict what the volume, density and position of the charge will be. Power calculation
follows the model developed by Morrell (1992) where the gross power draw of the mill is
assumed to have two components: (1) the power delivered to the charge no-load power
and (2) the power to overcome drive train and bearing losses; and is represented by the
following equation:
Equation A1.15
The equations for the calculation of no load power and net power can be found in Morrell
(1992, 1993).
Bueno’s AG/SAG Mill Model
Bueno’s multi-component model structure (2013) was developed by modifying Leung’s

AG/SAG model (1987) to accommodate parallel computation for each ore type, allowing
for the specification of the data on a component by size basis. The model accommodates
iterations of different components, which present independent breakage characteristics. At
a particular mill load, changes in the breakage behaviour are driven by the load
composition and the components’ physical properties. In addition, the model is able to
predict accumulation of the harder components in the mill load.
A1 - 7
The Bueno model main assumptions were that components are fully liberated and have
independent breakage and transport functions. When the component responses are
combined, the model still observes the underlying Leung’s breakage and discharge
relationships for the bulk solids and water.
The major features of this model are listed below:
 more accurate calculation of specific comminution energy ( );

 independent breakage functions (A, b and ) for each component;
 independent breakage and discharge rates for each component;
 accounts for the effect of blending in the mill power draw calculation.
Even though it is known that Leung’s assumption of constant breakage rates is not valid
when the operating conditions vary significantly (Morrell & Morrison, 1989), Bueno’s multi-
component model also relies on this assumption. The simulations in this thesis required
manual tuning of the breakage rates to accommodate the operating variations as it is not
yet fully implemented in the JK variable rates SAG mill model platform.
The main features of the Bueno model are compared against Leung’s model in Table
A1.1.
Table A1.1. AG/SAG mill multi-component model structure (Bueno, 2013)
Features Leung’s Model (1D) Bueno’s Model (2D)

Framework 1D Perfect Mixing Model 2G Perfect Mixing Model
Single ore specific parameters
Appearance function Multiple ore specific parameters
(A, b and )
Uses load bulk density and

Breakage energy calculation Uses feed bulk density
component specific density
Multiple discharge rates, using

Transport and discharge Single discharge rates component specific and
parameters
Breakage rates Single breakage rates Multiple breakage rates

Morrell (1992) model using bulk Morrell (1992) model using bulk
Mill power calculation
feed density mill load density
Andersen and Whiten Crusher Model
In this model, the crusher is simplified to a single breakage zone with particles that have a
probability of entering and re-entering this breakage zone (Whiten, 1972). The feed
A1 - 8
material enters the crusher and is first classified, with particles smaller than the CSS of the
crusher avoiding breakage and moving on as product and particles larger than the open
side setting (OSS) of the crusher being broken, while particles in between the CSS and
OSS report to breakage but with a probability of being broken that decreases with size.
The schematic representing this model is shown in Figure A1.6.
Figure A1.6. Schematic of crusher model (Lynch, 1977)
The steady-state mass balances at the nodes give the equations:
Equation A1.16
Equation A1.17
where , and are vectors representing the mass flowrates in each size fraction, is the
classification function and is the breakage distribution function.
Whiten (1972) combined these two equations:
Equation A1.18
where is the unity matrix.
The classification function is the probability of a particle being selected for breakage, which
was described by Whiten used as set of functions (op. cit.): is the particle size below
which all particles will by-pass breakage and go directly to the product, is the size
above which all particles will be broken, and an exponent describes the shape of the
classification function for particles between the and sizes.
0 for Equation A1.19
A1 - 9
The initial estimate of the classification function in model fitting sets equal to the CSS,
to the largest particle in the product (should be close to OSS), and equal to 2.3. The
breakage function is determined from single particle breakage testing and it is a size
distribution dependent upon the nature of the material broken.
The breakage function is determined from single particle breakage testing such as the
DWT. The breakage is represented by the parameter , which describes the whole of the
test product size distribution.
The general form of the model parameter regression equations was as follows (Andersen,
1988):
80 Equation A1.22
80 Equation A1.23
80 Equation A1.24
where is the crusher gap (mm), is the throughput (t/h), 80 is the 80% passing
size of the feed (mm), is the length of the liner face (mm), is a measure of the liners
conditions (hours of service), is the eccentric throw of the crusher (mm), and , ,
and are constants.
The power draw is also determined based on the power required by laboratory breakage
devices to achieve the same size reduction as seen in actual crushers (Andersen and
Napier-Munn, 1988; Morrell et al., 1992). The power required by a crusher can be
predicted using the following expression:
Equation A1.25
where is the power drawn by the crusher under load (kW), is the calculated pendulum
power (kW), is the power drawn by the crusher under no load (kW), and is a
dimensionless constant for a particular crusher, obtained by regression. The process for
determining the pendulum power is covered elsewhere (Napier-Munn et al., 2005).
Multi-Component Crusher Model
The multi-component crusher model is a multi-component version of the Andersen/Whiten

model, conceptualised by Morrison and implemented in MDK by Andrusiewicz (M.
Andrusiewicz, personal communication, October 27, 2015). The crusher is considered as a
number of parallel crushers and each component is treated separately. There three
A1 - 10
separate sets of scale factors that are fitted for each component: , and . The
breakage function is determined from single particle breakage testing, and these scale
factors and bulk properties are used to calculate component specific parameters, as
shown in the equations below.

Equation A1.26

Equation A1.27

Equation A1.28
In addition, a component specific power scaling factor (

) is used to correct the
pendulum power of each component and power drawn by the crusher under load ( ) is
calculated as follows.

Equation A1.29
∑
Equation A1.30
Morrell, Tondo and Shi’s HPGR Model
The Morrell et al. (1997) HPGR model consists of three breakage processes (pre-crushing,
high pressure and edge effect) and one splitting process between the edge and
compressed bed zones, as presented in Figure A1.7.
Figure A1.7. HPGR model structure (Morrell et al., 1997)
The three breakage zones within the HPGR are defined as:
A1 - 11
 in the pre-crusher zone, particles that are bigger than the critical size ( ) are
broken directly by the roll faces similarly to a crusher. The critical gap is expressed
as:
.
0.5 Equation A1.31
where is the rolls diameter (m), is the working gap (m), is the flake density
(t/m3), and is the bulk ‘‘compacted’’ density (t/m3).
 the edge effect defines the proportion of coarse material in the HPGR product
resulting from breakage at the edge of the rolls. The edge effect is a consequence
of the pressure gradient across the width of the rolls and in the zero confinement of
the ore at the edges of the rolls. The material is comminuted in single particle mode
similar to the pre-crusher zone and the fraction of material is represented by the
following equation:
Equation A1.32
where is the fraction of the feed comminuted in the edge zone, is the ore
specific split factor, is the working gap (m), and is the length of the rolls (m).
 the compression zone defines the high pressure breakage zone, away from the
edges of the rolls - where conditions are similar to those in a compressed packed
bed. The compression zone boundary is defined as ⁄ 2.
The breakage properties are represented by appearance functions, which are measured
using drop weight and bed compression tests. Each of the three breakage zones has four
breakage parameters: , , and . The Anderson and Whiten model is used to
derive and where is the crusher gap and is set at 2.3. The ratio / is the
input to the pre crush and edge effect models along with the fitted values.
The model predicts the HPGR throughput using the following equation:
3600 Equation A1.33
where is the calculated throughput (t/h), is the circumferential rolls speed (m/s) and
is a correction factor.
The HPGR power draw is calculated directly from the product of the specific comminution
energy measured during the laboratory and the predicted throughput. The experimentally
measured specific energy ( ) is calculated from the sum of the measured shaft power
( ) and the no-load power ( ), divided by the measured throughput ( ) as
A1 - 12
expressed in the below. The no-load power ( ) is the power consumed by the unit
when no material is being fed.

Equation A1.34
The shaft power is calculated from the experimentally measured torque ( ) on the rolls
along with the circumferential speed of the rolls ( ).
Equation A1.35
where is the shaft torque (Nm) and is the net shaft power (kWh/t).
Multi-Component HPGR Model
The multi-component HPGR model is a multi-component version of the Morrell et al.

(1997) HPGR model, conceptualised by Morrison, and coded and implemented in MDK by
Andrusiewicz (M. Andrusiewicz, personal communication, October 27, 2015).
The HPGR is considered as a number of parallel HPGRs and, each component has
individual breakage characteristics and scale factors that relate to the parameters from
the three breakage zones (pre-crushing, edge effect and compression). The breakage
properties of each component are determined from drop weight and bed compression
testing. The scale factors and bulk properties are used to calculate component specific ,
as per equations below.
_ _ _ Equation A1.36



Multi-Component Efficiency Curves
The multi-component efficiency curves model is based on the equation proposed by

Whiten (cited in Napier-Munn et al., 2005), which is described in chapter 2.4.2. The
concept of using model parameters and for each component individually and a fixed
water split to the fine product was proposed by Morrison (M. Andrusiewicz, personal
communication, October 27, 2015). This model was implemented in JKSimSand,
JKSimFloat and more recently in MDK.
A1 - 13
Nageswararao Cyclone Model
The Nageswararao cyclone model (Nageswararao, 1978) considers that the reduced
efficiency curves are constant for a given cyclone design and feed characteristics and the
shape of this curve can be described as proposed by Whiten (1966 apud Napier-Munn et
al., 2005). It comprises empirical equations for the main process criteria, which include cut-
size, feed flowrate, recovery of water to underflow, and volumetric recovery of feed slurry
to underflow. The model equations are described below.
. . . . .
. .
Equation A1.39
. . . .
.
Equation A1.40
. . . . .
. .
Equation A1.41
. . . . .
.
Equation A1.42
where is the cyclone diameter (m), is the length of the cyclindrical section (m), is
the inlet diameter (m), is the vortex diameter (m), is the apex diameter (m), is the
cone full angle (degrees), is the feed ressure at inlet (kPa), is the feed slurry density
(t/m3), is the gravity aceleration (9.81 m/s2), is the flowrate (m3/h), is the recovery
of water to underflow (%), is the volumetric recovery of feed slurry to underflow (%), is
. ⁄ 8.05 1
the hindered settling correction term, and equals 10 , and is
the volumetric fraction of solids in feed slurry.
Each equation combines a constant ( , , and ) to be estimated from

experimental data with cyclone geometry, feed properties and operating conditions.
.
Equation A1.43
.
Equation A1.44
where and depends on feed solids characteristics only.
Nageswararao Multi-Component Cyclone Model
The Nageswararao multi-component model is based on the original model which was
conceptualised by Morrison and developed by Andrusiewicz (M. Andrusiewicz, personal
A1 - 14
communication, October 27, 2015). This model was originally developed for JKSimSand
and JKSimFloat and is also available in MDK.
A single efficiency curve is determined for the cyclone and the separation size of each
component is adjusted individually. It incorporates four component scale factors for each
component ( , , and ), which follow the equations below.
. . .
.
Equation A1.45
. .
Equation A1.46
. . .
.
Equation A1.47
. . .
Equation A1.48
and
. . .
.
Equation A1.49
. .
.
Equation A1.50
. .
.
Equation A1.51
. .
.
Equation A1.52
The classification sizes for specific components are calculated from the average as
follows:
Equation A1.53
where is the average density of the feed and of the component (t/m3).
The efficiency curve used in this model is:
∗
1 Equation A1.54
∗
∗
When is 0, is 1 and the above equation reduces to:
Equation A1.55
A1 - 15
where is the size of interest, the parameter determines the initial rise, the parameter
determines the slope of the efficiency curve at larger values and and values vary
with the cyclone dimensions and operating conditions.
The efficiency curve applied uses the same and values of each component, which are
normally constant for a give feed solids, and the values of are calculated from
∗
Equation A1.53. The parameter is determined iteratively by the model for given values of
and , by the following condition:
1 Equation A1.56
Single and Multi-Component Two-Way Simple Splitter Model
The two-way simple splitter model is used to divide streams into two products, varying
from 0 to 100% of the feed stream. Size distributions and percent solids are identical in
these products. It is useful for controlling volumetric flows to equipment that have limited
capacity. This model was coded and implemented in MDK by Andrusiewicz (M.
Andrusiewicz, personal communication, October 27, 2015).
Besides size distributions and percent solids, the component proportions are also
maintained in the multi-component two-way simple splitter model, as shown in
Figure A1.8. In this example, 20% of the feed material is split to product I, which has the
same size distribution and component composition as product II.
Figure A1.8. Two-way simple split model concept
A1 - 16
Two-Way Splitter Model
The two-way splitter is a simple model in which the user can specify the mass fraction of
each size and the feed water that report to the product stream. This model that is used to
describe processes which separate particles on size, density or other properties as
magnetic susceptibility; and provides a recovery curve.
This model makes no assumptions about the processes it is used to model: the
relationship between feed or process unit conditions must be entered by the user, based
on experimental data. It can be used to describe a separation process over a wide range
of operating parameters, assuming that separation characteristics do not change
significantly with changes in operating conditions, such as feed rate and density.
Multi-Component Two-Way Splitter Model
In the multi-component two-way splitter model, the user can specify the mass fraction of
each size/component and the feed water that report to the product stream. It is a general
purpose model that can be used to describe the recovery of each component being
processed. It was originally developed for JKSimSand and was implemented in MDK by
Andrusiewicz (M. Andrusiewicz, personal communication, October 27, 2015).
Powell and Hilden’s Bin and Stockpile Model
Powell and Hilden (2013) proposed a customised bin and stockpile model used to allow
bins and stockpiles to fill or empty. It is a simple fixed output multiplier model that
considers their different operating states.
Rarely the feed and product size distributions for a stockpile are similar. This could only
occur if the feed and reclaim rate were identical and there was no segregation or breakage
of particles across a stockpile. Despite the limitation in representing segregation, this
model allows the response of the circuit can then be tested under a range of scenarios,
predicting the temporal transition of the circuit in the sense of dynamic responses.
Figure A1.9 shows the inputs and outputs of the split model for two component streams for
an example of a stockpile emptying. Both feed and product stream have the same size
distribution and component composition despite the difference in solids rate.
A1 - 17
Figure A1.9. Stockpile model concept
Component Adjustment Model
The transfer unit is a model that allows components in a stream to be transferred to a new
component after being processed and having their properties changed. This model was
conceptualised by the author based on the ability of material transferring from one phase
to another available in chemical process simulators to account for chemical transformation
of components. In this thesis, it was used to converts selected streams with different
processing history and breakage characteristics to a new component in a comminution
circuit.
The model was coded and implemented in the MDK by Andrusiewicz (M. Andrusiewicz,
personal communication, March 3, 2015) in a manner that as component adjustments
occur the mass balance is maintained. While in chemical simulators the material can be
transformed from one phase to another, in this application the material is only transferred
to another component class and conserves the volume of the particles in each size
fraction, as all the mass balance routines in MDK carry internal size distributions on a
volumetric basis.
Figure A1.10 shows the concept of the model for two component streams. In this example,
all the material that was component 2 in the feed stream becomes component 1 in the
product.
A1 - 18
Figure A1.10. Component adjustment model concept
A1 - 19
Appendix 2
Case Study I
Mass Balance Results
This appendix includes the following table:
 Table A2.1. Mass balance results – survey of the comminution circuit – case study I
A2 - 1
Table A2.1. Mass balance results – survey of the comminution circuit – case study I
A2 - 2
Table A2.1. Mass balance results – survey of the comminution circuit – case study I (continuing)
A2 - 3
Table A2.1. Mass balance results – survey of the comminution circuit – case study I (continuing)
A2 - 4
Appendix 3
Circuit Configuration in MDK
This appendix includes the following tables:
 Table A3.1. Circuit configuration in MDK – case study I
 Table A3.2. Circuit configuration in MDK – case study II
 Table A3.3. Circuit configuration in MDK – case study III
A3 - 1
Notation:
F = feed
P = product
P1 and P2 = split or separation products, where P1 is the concentrate
O = overflow for cyclones and oversize for screens
U = underflow for cyclones and undersize for screens
Table A3.1. Circuit configuration in MDK – case study I
Refer to case study I full flowsheet in Figure 4.6.
A3 - 2
Table A3.2. Circuit configuration in MDK – case study II
Refer to case study II full flowsheet in Figure 5.8.
Table A3.3. Circuit configuration in MDK – case study III
Refer to case study III full flowsheet in Figure 6.6.
A3 - 3
Appendix 4
Case Study I
Model Fit and Simulation Results
This appendix includes the following tables and figures:
 Table A4.1. MDK model fitting parameters – case study I
 Table A4.2. Mass and metallurgical balances – base case circuit – ore type B and C
– case study I
 Table A4.3. Main process parameters – base case circuit – ore type B and C – case
study I
 Table A4.4. Mass and metallurgical balances – alternative circuits – ore type B –
case study I
 Table A4.5. Main process parameters – alternative circuits – ore type B – case
study I
 Table A4.6. Mass and metallurgical balances – alternative circuits – ore type C –
case study I
 Table A4.7. Main process parameters – alternative circuits – ore type C – case
study I
 Table A4.8. Energy efficiency parameters – ore types B and C – case study I
 Figure A4.1. Size specific energy graphs for the flexible circuits – ore type B – case
study I
 Figure A4.2. Size specific energy graphs for the flexible circuits – ore type C – case
study I
A4 - 1
Table A4.1. MDK model fitting parameters – case study I
Multi-Component Crusher Model Crusher

Parallel Units: 1
Operating Data Regression Coeff.

Units in Parallel 1 Value - K1 8.0
Closed Side Set(mm) 10 Constant - K1 0.8
Crusher Feed Rate(t/h) 274 CSS(mm) - K1 0.0
Crusher Feed F80(mm) 25 Value - K2 25.0
Crusher Product P80(mm) 11 Constant - K2 2.5
CSS(mm) - K2 0.0
Power Draw Value - K3 2.30
Calculated Pendulum Powwe (kW) 12 Constant - K3 2.30
Power Prediction Factor 1.0 Value - T10 15.16
No Power Load(kW) 80 Constant - T10 15.16
Model Calculated Power - Power 92 CSS(mm) - T10 0.0
Scale factors
K1 1.15 0.85
K2 1.05 1.00
T10 1.02 0.99
Multi-Component HPGR Model HPGR

Parallel Units: 1
Scaling Data Fraction Split

Speed (m/s) 2.2 Fraction Split 0.16
Flake Density (t/m3) 3.62 Split Factor 4.70
Feed Bulk Density (t/m3) 2.38
Rolls Diameter (mm) 950 Class/Break age
Rolls Length (mm) 350 Precrushing K1 52.0
Working Gap (mm) 25.0 Precrushing K2 81.2
Nipping Gap (mm) 38.6 Precrushing K3 0.9
Energy ECS (kWh/t) 1.66 Precrushing T10 11.4
High Pressure K1 -16.1
Scale factors High Pressure K2 52.6
Component 1 Component 2 High Pressure K3 120
T10 precrushing 1.13 1.00 High Pressure T10 15.2
T10 high pressure 1.08 1.00 Edge Effect K1 33.7
T10 edge effect 1.07 1.00 Edge Effect K2 52.6
Edge Effect K3 0.9
Edge Effect T10 11.4
Multi-Component SAG Mill Model AG mill

Parallel Units: 1
Dimensions Ball Load

Diameter Inside Liners 10.36 Ball Load (% Vol) 0
Belly Length Inside Liners 7.31 Ball Top Size (mm) 0
Grate Size XG (mm) 3.5
Fine Size XM (mm) 0.71 Power
Pebble Port Open Area 0.3 Fraction Critical Speed 0.80
Pebble Port Size XP (mm) 32 Ball Specific Gravity (t/m3) 7.80
Ball/Rock Charge Porosity 0.40
Mass Transfer Net Power Adj Factor 1.26
Mass Transfer m1 0.230 Gross Power 13492
Mass Transfer m2 0.33 No Load Power 1191
Break age Rates

Component 1 Component 2 Total Charge Density (t/m3) 2.98
Knot 1 2.77 2.21 Void Fill Fraction 1.00
Knot 2 6.08 5.85 Calculated - Volumetric Total Load 32.1
Knot 3 2.53 2.32
Knot 4 1.35 2.29
Knot 5 2.78 2.95
A4 - 2
Table A4.1. MDK model fitting parameters – case study I (continuing)
Single Component Efficiency Curve Top deck screen Bottom deck screen HPGR screen AG mill discharge screen
Parallel Units: 1 1 1 1
Efficiency Curve Parameters

Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2
Efficiency Curve - Alpha 9.0 9.0 7.0 7.0 4.0 4.0 6.0 6.0
Efficiency Curve - Beta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water Split - Fine Product 99.0 99.0 99.2 99.2 96.0 96.0 99.9 99.9
Corrected D50 - d50c(mm) 30.0 27.0 15.0 13.5 4.5 4.0 5.4 5.0
Calculated Beta Value 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Single Component Efficiency Curve Cyclone A Cyclone B

Parallel Units: 1 1

Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2
Efficiency Curve - Alpha 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0
Efficiency Curve - Beta 0 0 0 0
Water Split - Fine Product 90.5 90.5 80.1 80.1
Corrected D50 - d50c(mm) 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.54
Calculated Beta Value 1 1 1 1
Multi-Component Ball Mill Model Ball mill

Parallel Units: 1
Dimensions Power
Diameter 6.1 Calibration Constant 1.26
Length 9.1 Charge Density 5.49
Fraction Critical Speed 0.76 Estimated Gross Mill Power (kW) 6534
Load Fraction 0.40 Estimated No Load Power (kW) 335
Ore Work Index 12.0 Total Power Grate (kW) 8227
Ball Top Size 60 Total Power Overflow (kW) 7334
Break age Rates

Ln R/D* -1.880 -0.845
Ln R/D* 1.716 2.499
Ln R/D* 3.655 4.427
Ln R/D* 3.068 4.104
A4 - 3
Table A4.2. Mass and metallurgical balances – base case circuit – ore type B and C – case study I
Ore Feed rate % passing % % Recovery (%)

Stream
type (t/h) 0.075 mm silicate magnetite Mass Silicate Magnetite
Main feed 1600 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100
CMS waste 177 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19.0 2.6
AG mill feed 1423 2.7 47.1 52.9 88.9 81.0 97.4
B IMS waste 496 75.2 91.7 8.3 31.0 55.0 5.3
Ball mill feed 927 54.4 23.2 76.8 58.0 26.0 92.0
FMS concentrate 712 94.6 1.5 98.5 44.5 1.3 90.6
FMS waste 216 86.9 94.9 5.1 13.5 24.8 1.4
Main feed 1300 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100
CMS waste 180 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
AG mill feed 1120 2.6 59.1 40.9 86.2 80.6 95.8
C IMS waste 516 74.7 91.8 8.2 39.7 57.6 8.8
Ball mill feed 605 54.6 31.2 68.8 46.5 23.0 86.9
FMS concentrate 414 95.9 2.0 98.0 31.8 1.0 84.7
FMS waste 191 89.6 94.6 5.5 14.7 22.0 2.2
Table A4.3. Main process parameters – base case circuit – ore type B and C – case study I
Power draw Specific Circulating load

Ore type Equipment (mm)
(mm) (MW) energy (kWh/t) (%)
AG mill 28.7 0.26 9.0 6.3 14
B Ball mill 0.22 0.09 8.2 8.8 229
Total - - 17.2 15.1 -
AG mill 29.5 0.24 8.3 7.4 14
C Ball mill 0.22 0.08 8.1 13.4 216
Total - - 16.4 20.8 -
A4 - 4
Table A4.4. Mass and metallurgical balances – alternative circuits – ore type B – case study I
Solids % passing Silicate Magnetite Recoveries (%)

Scenario Stream
(t/h) 0.075 mm (%) (%) Mass Silicate Magnetite
Main feed 3200 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100

CMS waste 354 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19.0 2.6
Base AG mill feed 2846 2.7 47.1 52.9 88.9 81.0 97.4
Case –
Two IMS waste 992 75.2 91.7 8.3 31.0 55.0 5.3
identical
lines Ball mill feed 1855 54.4 23.2 76.8 58.0 26.0 92.0
FMS concentrate 1423 94.6 1.5 98.5 44.5 1.3 90.6
FMS waste 431 86.9 94.9 5.1 13.5 24.8 1.4
Main feed 2700 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100
CMS waste 299 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19.0 2.6
AG mill feed 2401 2.7 47.1 52.9 88.9 81.0 97.4
1 IMS waste 762 66.9 91.4 8.6 28.2 49.9 5.0
Ball mill feed 1640 42.5 26.5 73.5 60.7 31.1 92.3
FMS concentrate 1208 94.4 1.7 98.3 44.8 1.5 90.9
FMS waste 432 87.0 95.7 4.3 16.0 29.6 1.4
Main feed 1800 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100
CMS waste 199 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19.0 2.6
AG mill feed 1601 2.7 47.1 52.9 88.9 81.0 97.4
2 IMS waste 554 74.5 91.7 8.3 30.8 54.6 5.3
Ball mill feed 1047 53.5 23.5 76.5 58.2 26.4 92.1
FMS concentrate 801 94.1 1.5 98.5 44.5 1.3 90.6
FMS waste 246 85.9 95.0 5.0 13.7 25.1 1.4
Main feed 2200 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100
CMS waste 243 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19.0 2.6
AG mill feed 1298 2.4 46.3 53.7 59.0 52.9 65.5
IMS waste 534 71.1 90.9 9.1 24.3 42.7 4.6

3
HPGR feed 1062 3.1 50.2 49.8 48.3 46.9 49.7
Ball mill feed 1423 39.5 30.6 69.4 64.7 38.3 92.8
FMS concentrate 983 92.2 2.0 98.0 44.7 1.8 90.5
FMS waste 440 83.7 94.5 5.5 20.0 36.6 2.3
A4 - 5
Table A4.4. Mass and metallurgical balances – alternative circuits – ore type B – case study I
(continuing)

Scenario Stream
Main feed 2200 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100
CMS waste 243 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19.0 2.6
AG mill feed 1957 11.0 47.1 52.9 88.9 81.0 97.4
IMS waste 675 74.7 91.5 8.5 30.7 54.4 5.4

4
HPGR feed 1373 3.4 49.6 50.4 62.4 59.9 65.0
Ball mill feed 1282 54.9 23.6 76.4 58.3 26.6 92.0
FMS concentrate 978 93.5 1.5 98.5 44.5 1.3 90.6
FMS waste 303 84.5 95.0 5.0 13.8 25.3 1.4
Main feed 2300 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100

CMS waste 254 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19 2.6
AG mill feed 1688 16.1 45.7 54.3 73.4 65 82.4
IMS waste 632 75 91.4 8.6 27.5 48.6 4.9

5
HPGR feed 2103 2.8 51.1 48.9 91.4 90.5 92.5
Ball mill feed 1414 48.0 27.2 72.8 61.5 32.4 92.5
FMS concentrate 1027 92.7 1.8 98.2 44.7 1.6 90.7
FMS waste 386 83.7 94.8 5.2 16.8 30.8 1.8
Main feed 3200 2.4 51.6 48.4 100 100 100
CMS waste 354 0.1 88.5 11.5 11.1 19.0 2.6
AG mill feed 2846 9.2 47.1 52.9 88.9 81.0 97.4
IMS waste 898 67.5 91.3 8.7 28.1 49.6 5.1

6
HPGR feed 1868 3.2 49.3 50.7 58.4 55.8 61.2
Ball mill feed 1948 44.1 26.7 73.3 60.9 31.5 92.3
FMS concentrate 1432 93.9 1.8 98.2 44.7 1.5 90.9
FMS waste 517 85.9 95.7 4.3 16.1 29.9 1.4
A4 - 6
Table A4.5. Main process parameters – alternative circuits – ore type B – case study I
Power draw Specific energy Circulating

Scenario Equipment (mm)
(mm) (MW) (kWh/t) load (%)
AG mill 28.7 0.26 2 x 8.9 6.3 14

Base Case –
Two identical Ball mill 0.22 0.09 2 x 8.2 8.8 229
lines
Total - - 33.7 15.1 -
SAG mill 28.7 0.43 10.4 4.3 14
1 Ball mill 0.39 0.09 2 x 8.2 2 x 5.0 237
Total - - 26.8 14.3 -

AG mill 28.7 0.24 9.0 5.6 12
Crusher 22.3 10.9 0.1 0.5 -

2
Ball mill 0.23 0.09 8.2 7.8 236
Total - - 17.3 13.9 -
AG mill 35.2 0.20 8.9 6.9 5

Crusher 23.5 10.5 0.1 0.2 -
3 HPGR 8.9 5.78 1.8 1.7 -
Ball mill 1.1 0.17 8.2 5.8 301
Total - - 19.0 14.6 -
AG mill 23.5 0.20 9.0 4.6 8
Crusher 23.9 10.8 0.1 0.2 -
4 HPGR 8.7 5.55 2.3 1.7 -
Ball mill 0.23 0.10 8.2 6.4 243
Total - - 19.6 12.9 -

AG mill 25.0 0.18 9.0 5.4 11
Crusher 19.5 9.9 0.1 0.1 -
5 HPGR 8.7 6.5 3.5 1.7 -
Ball mill 1.5 0.14 8.2 5.8 284

Total - - 20.8 12.9 -
SAG mill 23.7 0.36 10.5 3.7 11
HPGR 14.5 6.6 3.1 1.7 -

6
Ball mill 0.37 0.10 2 x 8.2 2 x 4.2 244
Total - - 30.0 13.8 -
A4 - 7
Table A4.6. Mass and metallurgical balances – alternative circuits – ore type C – case study I

Scenario Stream
Main feed 2600 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100

CMS waste 359 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
Base AG mill feed 2241 2.6 59.1 40.9 86.2 80.6 95.8
Case –
Two IMS waste 1032 74.7 91.8 8.2 39.7 57.6 8.8
identical
lines Ball mill feed 1209 54.6 31.2 68.8 46.5 23.0 86.9
FMS concentrate 827 95.9 2.0 98.0 31.8 1.0 84.7
FMS waste 382 89.6 94.6 5.4 14.7 22.0 2.2
Main feed 2500 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100
CMS waste 345 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
AG mill feed 2155 2.6 59.1 40.9 86.2 80.6 95.8
1 IMS waste 909 65.0 91.5 8.5 36.4 52.6 8.4
Ball mill feed 1246 41.0 35.5 64.5 49.8 28.0 87.3
FMS concentrate 802 95.2 2.4 97.6 32.1 1.2 85.1
FMS waste 443 88.6 95.4 4.6 17.7 26.8 2.2
Main feed 1450 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100
CMS waste 200 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
AG mill feed 1250 2.6 59.1 40.9 86.2 80.6 95.8
2 IMS waste 572 74.1 91.8 8.2 39.5 57.3 8.8
Ball mill feed 677 53.6 31.5 68.5 46.7 23.3 86.9
FMS concentrate 461 95.5 2.0 98.0 31.8 1.0 84.8
FMS waste 216 88.8 94.6 5.4 14.9 22.3 2.2
Main feed 1800 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100
CMS waste 249 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
AG mill feed 1034 2.3 58.8 41.2 57.4 53.5 64.2
IMS waste 563 70.1 91.1 8.9 31.3 45.1 7.5

3
HPGR feed 850 3.0 61.8 38.2 47.2 46.2 49.1
Ball mill feed 988 36.8 40.9 59.1 54.9 35.5 88.2
FMS concentrate 576 93.7 2.7 97.3 32.0 1.4 84.6
FMS waste 413 86.4 94.2 5.8 22.9 34.2 3.6
A4 - 8
Table A4.6. Mass and metallurgical balances – alternative circuits – ore type C – case study I
(continuing)

Scenario Stream
Main feed 1800 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100
CMS waste 249 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
AG mill feed 1551 11.5 59.1 40.9 86.2 80.6 95.8
IMS waste 709 74.3 91.7 8.3 39.4 57.1 8.9

4
HPGR feed 1338 3.4 60.6 39.4 74.3 71.3 79.6
Ball mill feed 843 55.2 31.7 68.3 46.8 23.5 86.9
FMS concentrate 572 95.0 2.0 98.0 31.8 1.0 84.7
FMS waste 270 87.5 94.6 5.4 15.0 22.5 2.2
Main feed 1850 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100

CMS waste 256 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
AG mill feed 1285 14.6 57.8 42.2 69.5 63.5 79.7
IMS waste 648 74.3 91.6 8.4 35.0 50.8 8.0

5
HPGR feed 1681 2.6 62.7 37.3 90.9 90.1 92.2
Ball mill feed 946 45.7 36.9 63.1 51.1 29.8 87.7
FMS concentrate 597 94.2 2.5 97.5 32.3 1.3 85.5
FMS waste 349 86.5 95.7 4.3 18.9 28.6 2.2
Main feed 2900 2.2 63.2 36.8 100 100 100
CMS waste 401 0.1 88.7 11.3 13.8 19.4 4.2
AG mill feed 2499 7.4 59.1 40.9 86.2 80.6 95.8
IMS waste 1048 65.3 91.4 8.6 36.1 52.2 8.4

6
HPGR feed 1497 3.0 60.6 39.4 51.6 49.5 55.2
Ball mill feed 1452 42.0 35.8 64.2 50.1 28.4 87.3
FMS concentrate 924 94.8 2.1 97.9 31.9 1.1 84.8
FMS waste 527 87.7 94.8 5.2 18.2 27.3 2.6
A4 - 9
Table A4.7. Main process parameters – alternative circuits – ore type C – case study I
Power draw Specific Circulating load

Scenario Equipment (mm)
(mm) (MW) energy (kWh/t) (%)
AG mill 29.5 0.24 2 x 8.3 7.4 14

Base Case –
Two identical Ball mill 0.22 0.08 2 x 8.1 13.4 216
lines
Total - - 33.8 20.9 -
SAG mill 29.5 0.40 10.0 4.7 14
1 Ball mill 0.42 0.09 2 x 8.2 2 x 6.5 231
Total - - 26.4 17.7 -
AG mill 29.5 0.22 8.4 7.0 12
Crusher 22.7 11.1 0.1 0.6 -

2
Ball mill 0.23 0.08 8.1 12.0 221
Total - - 16.6 19.6 -
AG mill 35.6 0.18 8.4 8.1 5
Crusher 24.1 10.6 0.1 0.3 -
3 HPGR 9.0 6.1 1.4 1.7 -
Ball mill 1.2 0.15 8.2 8.3 280
Total - - 18.1 18.3 -
AG mill 23.3 0.18 8.4 5.5 7
Crusher 24.5 10.9 0.1 0.3 -
4 HPGR 8.6 5.6 2.2 1.7 -
Ball mill 0.22 0.09 8.1 9.6 227
Total - - 18.9 17.0 -
AG mill 25.8 0.16 8.4 6.6 12
Crusher 19.8 10.0 0.1 0.1 -

5 HPGR 8.8 6.9 2.8 1.7 -
Ball mill 1.7 0.13 8.1 8.6 266
Total - - 19.5 17.0 -
SAG mill 24.5 0.35 10.1 4.0 11
HPGR 16.2 7.4 2.5 1.7 -

6
Ball mill 0.41 0.09 2 x 8.1 2 x 5.6 237
Total - - 28.9 16.9 -
A4 - 10
Table A4.8. Energy efficiency parameters – ore types B and C – case study I
Ore type B Ore type C
Scenario Circuit Gen. % Specific (kWh/t Gen. % Specific

passing energy of - passing energy (kWh/t of
0.075mm (kWh/t) 0.075mm) 0.075mm (kWh/t) - 0.075mm)
AG mill circuit 59.0 6.3 10.7 61.3 7.4 12.1

Base Case –
Two identical Ball mill circuit 38.4 8.8 23.0 39.4 13.4 34.1
lines
Whole circuit 90.2 15.1 16.8 91.4 20.9 22.8
AG mill circuit 47.6 4.3 9.1 48.6 4.7 9.6
1 Ball mill circuit 50.0 10.0 20.0 51.8 13.1 25.2
Whole circuit 89.8 14.3 16.0 90.2 17.7 19.6
AG mill circuit 58.2 5.6 9.7 60.5 6.7 11.1
Whole circuit 89.5 13.4 15.0 90.8 18.7 20.6
AG mill and
45.8 8.8 19.2 46.6 10.1 21.6
crusher circuit
Whole circuit 87.2 14.6 16.7 88.4 18.3 20.7
AG mill, crusher
49.5 6.5 13.1 52.4 7.4 14.1
and HPGR circuit
Whole circuit 89.0 12.9 14.5 90.4 17.0 18.8
AG mill, crusher
40.2 7.1 17.7 42.7 8.4 19.5
and HPGR circuit
Whole circuit 87.9 12.9 14.7 89.1 17.0 19.0
AG mill and HPGR
42.3 5.4 12.7 44.4 5.7 12.8
circuit
Whole circuit 89.4 9.6 10.7 90.0 16.9 18.8
A4 - 11
(c) Scenario 3 (d) Scenario 4
(e) Scenario 5 (f) Scenario 6

Figure A4.1. Size specific energy graphs for the flexible circuits – ore type B – case study I
A4 - 12
(c) Scenario 3 (d) Scenario 4
(e) Scenario 5 (f) Scenario 6

Figure A4.2. Size specific energy graphs for the flexible circuits – ore type C – case study I
A4 - 13
Appendix 5
Case Study II
Mass Balance Results
 Table A5.1. Mass balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study II
 Table A5.2. Mass balance results – secondary crusher surveys – case study II
 Table A5.3. Mass balance results – HPGR surveys – case study II
A5 - 1
Table A5.1. Mass balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study II
A5 - 2
Table A5.1. Mass balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study II (continuing)
A5 - 3
Table A5.2. Mass balance results – secondary crusher surveys – case study II
A5 - 4
A5.3. Mass balance results – HPGR surveys – case study II
A5 - 5
Appendix 6
Case Study II
 Table A6.1. JKSimMet model fitting parameters – case study II
 Table A6.2. MDK model fitting parameters – case study II
 Table A6.3. Mass balances – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations –

case study II
 Table A6.4. Main process parameters – increasing HPGR operating pressure

simulations –case study II
 Table A6.5. Mass balances – alternative circuits – case study II
 Table A6.6. Main process parameters – alternative circuits – case study II
This appendix includes the following figure:
 Figure A6.1. Single and multi-component SAG mill simulated SAG mill feed, load
and product size distribution – case study II
A6 - 1
Table A6.1. JKSimMet model fitting parameters – case study II
Crusher (AndersenWhiten - Size Extended) Sec. Crusher

Parallel Units: 1
Units in Parallel 1 Value ‐ K1 53.25
Closed Side Set(mm) 41 Constant ‐ K1 21.77
Crusher Feed Rate(t/h) 1022 CSS(mm) ‐ K1 0.77
Crusher Feed F80(mm) 133 Value ‐ K2 67.92
Crusher Product P80(mm) 48 Constant ‐ K2 57.71
CSS(mm) ‐ K2 0.25
Power Draw Value ‐ K3 2.30
Calculated Pendulum Pow(kW) 195 Constant ‐ K3 2.30
Power Prediction Factor 1.3 Value ‐ T10 9.26
No Power Load(kW) 115 Constant ‐ T10 25.57
Model Calculated Power - Power 368.2 CSS(mm) ‐ T10 ‐0.40
Simple 2-Way Splitter Bin feeders

Parallel Units: 1
Operating conditions
Fraction split to top product 0.105
Single Component Efficiency Curve Screen

Parallel Units: 1
Efficiency Curve ‐ Alpha 15.2
Efficiency Curve ‐ Beta 0
Water Split ‐ Fine Product 99.8
Corrected D50 ‐ d50c(mm) 57.4
Calculated Beta Value 1
High Pressure Grinding Rolls HPGR

Parallel Units: 1
Speed(m/s) 0.67 Fraction Split 0.15
Flake Density(t/m3) 2.4 Split Factor 3.20
Feed Bulk Density(t/m3) 1.7
Rolls Diameter(mm) 2300 Class/Breakage
Rolls Length(mm) 1650 Precrushing ‐ T10 11.43
Working Gap(mm) 78 High Pressure ‐ T10 10.47
Nipping Gap(mm) 111.8 Edge Effect ‐ T10 11.43
Energy ECS(kWh/t) 1.8
Splined Efficiency Curve Edge splitter

Parallel Units: 1
Operating Conditions
% Water Split to Fine Product (%) 50
Separation Curve Parameters
Size (mm) ‐ Spline Knot 1 50.0
Separation Curve Value ‐ Spline Knot 1 0.30
A6 - 2
Table A6.1. JKSimMet model fitting parameters – case study II (continuing)
Variable Rates AG/SAG Mill SAG mill

Parallel Units: 1
Dimensions Break age Rate

Diameter Inside Liners 11.96 Knot 1 2.09
Belly Length Inside Liners 6.10 Knot 2 4.41
Feed Trunion Diameter 2.20 Knot 3 4.89
Feed Cone Angle 15.0 Knot 4 2.95
Discharge Cone Angle 15.0 Knot 5 2.74
Grate Size XG (mm) 2 Knot 1 - Constant 1.40
Fine Size XM (mm) 0.5 Knot 2 - Constant -0.67
Grate Open Area Frac 0.08 Knot 3 - Constant 1.16
Pebble Port Fraction 1 Knot 4 - Constant 0.94
Pebble Port Size XP (mm) 96.35 Knot 5 - Constant -1.65
Rad pos of Grate Aperture 0.80
Power
Ball Load Fraction Critical Speed 0.68
Ball Load (% Vol) 14 Ball Specific Gravity (t/m3) 7.80
Ball Top Size (mm) 125 Ball/Rock Charge Porosity 0.40
Net Power Adj Factor 1.26
Mass Transfer Gross Power 14939
Discharge Coefficient 10000 No Load Power 973
Mass Transfer m1 0.365 Total Charge Density (t/m3) 4.58
Mass Transfer m2 0.5 Void Fill Fraction 1.00
Max Mill Cap (m3/h) 2371 Calculated - Volumetric Total Load 19.3
Single Component Efficiency Curve SAG trommel

Parallel Units: 1
Efficiency Curve ‐ Alpha 8.5
Efficiency Curve ‐ Beta 0
Water Split ‐ Fine Product 99.9
Corrected D50 ‐ d50c(mm) 12.3
Calculated Beta Value 1
A6 - 3
Table A6.1. JKSimMet model fitting parameters – case study II (continuing)
Narasimha/Mainza Cyclone Cyclone 1 Cyclone 2 Cyclone 3 GS cyclone

Parallel Units: 9 9 9 1
Cyclone Diameter - Dc (m) 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66
Inlet Diameter - Di (m) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Vortex Finder Diameter - Do (m) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Spigot Diameter - Du (m) 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
Cylinder Length - Lc (m) 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56
Cone Angle - Theta (°) 20 20 20 20
Relative Slurry Viscosity 12.6 13.9 10.4 10.4
Model Parameters
D50 Constant - KD0 0.009 0.006 0.015 0.016
Capacity Constant - KQ0 289 290 381 381
Water Split Constant - KW1 1.046 1.100 1.092 1.146
Sharpness Constant - KAlpha0 21.5 14.8 7.7 9.9
Performance Data
Calculated - Water Split To O/F (%) 64.4 59.5 71.5 70.1
Calculated - Corrected D50, mm (Total) 0.11 0.09 0.13 0.14
Calculated - Operating Pressure, kPa 101 102 114 113
Calculated - Sharpness of Efficiency Curve - Alpha 1.65 0.99 0.73 0.93
Ball Mill (Perfect-Mixing) Mill 002 Mill 003 Mill 004

Parallel Units: 1 1 1
Dimensions
Diameter 6.7 6.7 7.9
Length 11.0 11.0 12.8
Fraction Critical Speed 0.750 0.750 0.700
Load Fraction 0.335 0.335 0.335
Ball Top Size 74.0 74.0 65.0
Power
Calibration Constant 1.26 1.26 1.26
Charge Density 5.42 5.42 5.39
Estimated No Load Power (kW) 467 467 702
Total Power Grate (kW) 11192 11193 17948
Total Power Overflow (kW) 9676 9676 15435
Break age Rates

Ln R/D* -4.086 -4.235 -4.206
Ln R/D* 1.001 1.041 1.493
Ln R/D* 4.438 5.464 2.914
Ln R/D* 6.447 7.377 4.898
A6 - 4
Table A6.2. MDK model fitting parameters – case study II
Multi-Component Crusher Model Sec. Crusher

Parallel Units: 1

Closed Side Set(mm) 41 Constant - K1 33.12
Crusher Feed Rate(t/h) 1148 CSS(mm) - K1 0.15
Crusher Feed F80(mm) 124 Value - K2 94.03
Crusher Product P80(mm) 59 Constant - K2 0.00
CSS(mm) - K2 2.29
Calculated Pendulum Pow(kW) 222 Constant - K3 2.30
Model Calculated Power - Power 440.1 CSS(mm) - T10 0.00
Scale factors
K1 1.08 1.00
K2 1.27 1.00
T10 0.94 1.00
Multi-Component 2-Way Splitter Model Bin feeders

Parallel Units: 1
Fraction of solids split to top product 80.0%
Fraction of liquid split to top product 88.5%
Multi-Component Efficiency Curve Model Screens

Parallel Units: 1

Efficiency Curve - Alpha 10.0 11.3
Efficiency Curve - Beta 0 0
Water Split - Fine Product 99.5 99.5
Corrected D50 - d50c(mm) 58.5 56.2
Calculated Beta Value 1 1
Multi-Component HPGR Model HPGR

Parallel Units: 1

Speed(m/s) 0.67 Fraction Split 0.15
Flake Density(t/m3) 2.4 Split Factor 3.20
Feed Bulk Density(t/m3) 1.7
Rolls Diameter(mm) 2300 Class/Break age
Rolls Length(mm) 1650 Precrushing - T10 11.43
Working Gap(mm) 78 High Pressure - T10 10.47
Nipping Gap(mm) 108.9 Edge Effect - T10 11.43
Energy ECS(kWh/t) 1.8
Scale factors
T10 precrushing 1.00 1.00
T10 high pressure 1.05 1.00
T10 edge effect 1.05 1.00
A6 - 5
Table A6.2. MDK model fitting parameters – case study II (continuing)
Splined Efficiency Curve Edge splitter

Parallel Units: 1
Fraction of solids split to top product 9.5%
Fraction of liquid split to top product 8.0%
Component Split Parameters by Size

Size fraction (mm) Component 1 Component 2
-250+203 0.28 0.28
-203+175 0.23 0.23
-175+125 0.19 0.19
-125+90 0.16 0.16
-90+63 0.18 0.18
-63+45 0.22 0.22
-45+31.5 0.20 0.20
-31.5+26.5 0.15 0.15
-26.5+22.5 0.10 0.10
-22.5+19.0 0.10 0.10
-19.0+16.0 0.07 0.07
-16.0+13.2 0.07 0.07
-13.2+9.5 0.05 0.05
-9.5+6.7 0.06 0.06
-6.7+4.75 0.06 0.06
-4.75+3.35 0.06 0.06
-3.35+2.36 0.06 0.06
-2.36+1.70 0.06 0.06
-1.70+1.18 0.05 0.05
-1.18+0.85 0.06 0.06
-0.85+0.60 0.05 0.05
-0.60+0.425 0.06 0.06
-0.425+0.300 0.06 0.06
-0.300+0.212 0.06 0.06
-0.212+0.150 0.06 0.06
-0.150+0.106 0.06 0.06
-0.106+0.075 0.08 0.08
-0.075+0.053 0.09 0.09
-0.053+0.038 0.13 0.13
-0.038 0.04 0.04
Multi-Component Adjustment Model
Component Split Parameters

Component mass in feed (tph) 2137 67
ID of the component to be adjusted 2 0
Adjust component by given % 100 100
Component mass in Product (tph) 0 2204
A6 - 6
Multi-Component SAG Mill Model SAG mill

Parallel Units: 1

Diameter Inside Liners 11.96 Ball Load (% Vol) 14
Corrected Gross Power 15331
Break age Rates Corrected No Load Power 973
Knot 3 3.09 4.59
Knot 4 3.84 1.44
Knot 5 5.49 1.56
Single Component Efficiency Curve SAG trommel

Parallel Units: 1

Single Component Efficiency Curve Cyclones

Parallel Units: 3 clusters

A6 - 7

Parallel Units: Cyclones 1 Cyclones 2 Cyclones 3 Cyclone GS

Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2
Efficiency Curve - Alpha 2.2 1.4 2.4 2.8 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.0
Efficiency Curve - Beta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water Split - Fine Product 69.4 69.4 61.0 61.0 67.9 67.9 64.3 64.3
Corrected D50 - d50c(mm) 0.14 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.17 0.14 0.18 0.15
Calculated Beta Value 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Multi-Component Ball Mill Model Ball mill 2 & 3

Parallel Units: 2
Dimensions Power
Ball Top Size 74.0 Total Power Overflow (kW) 9676
Break age Rates

Ln R/D* -1.436 -1.221
Ln R/D* -0.158 1.464
Ln R/D* 3.387 2.312
Ln R/D* 4.742 2.589
Multi-Component Ball Mill Model Ball mill 4

Parallel Units: 1
Dimensions Power
Break age Rates

Ln R/D* -1.644 -0.606
Ln R/D* 1.201 2.493
Ln R/D* 4.064 3.034
Ln R/D* 4.345 3.155
A6 - 8
Table A6.3. Mass balances – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations – case study II
125 bar 140 bar 160 bar
Parameters Component Component Component

Bulk Bulk Bulk
1 2 1 2 1 2
Solids rate
2650 0 2650 2800 0 2800 2880 0 2880
Coarse (t/h)
stockpile
(mm) 98.5 - 98.5 98.5 - 98.5 98.5 - 98.5
product
(mm) 39.3 - 39.3 39.3 - 39.3 39.3 - 39.3
Solids rate
1214 2 1217 1283 2 1285 1320 2 1322
Secondary (t/h)
crusher
(mm) 59.6 53.2 58.6 59.6 53.4 58.6 59.6 53.7 58.6
product
(mm) 37.8 34.4 37.8 37.8 34.4 37.8 37.8 34.5 37.8
Solids rate
227 7 2331 239 6 2457 246 6 2523
HPGR (t/h)
centre
(mm) 16.3 14.2 16.2 14.9 14.0 15.0 13.8 13.9 14.2
product
(mm) 5.7 3.2 5.6 5.1 3.1 5.1 4.7 3.1 4.7
Solids rate
423 2339 2762 447 2465 2912 460 2531 2991
(t/h)
SAG mill + 100 mm 8.97 0.00 1.38 8.97 0.00 1.38 8.97 0.00 1.38
feed
(mm) 71.2 16.4 22.7 71.1 15.0 21.7 71.1 13.9 21.0
(mm) 37.4 5.68 7.22 37.4 5.11 6.52 37.4 4.70 5.99
SAG mill (mm) 11.1 2.04 2.70 11.2 1.99 2.64 11.2 1.94 2.59
product (mm) 1.67 0.36 0.43 1.71 0.36 0.42 1.72 0.35 0.42
Solids rate
39 74 112 42 71 112 43 68 111
(t/h)
Trommel
oversize (mm) 25.7 29.2 27.1 25.7 28.9 26.8 25.7 29.0 26.7
(mm) 21.1 21.3 21.4 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.1 21.1 21.3
Solids rate
384 2266 2650 406 2394 2800 417 2463 2880
(t/h)
Trommel
undersize (mm) 7.92 1.73 2.17 7.98 1.71 2.15 8.00 1.68 2.13
(mm) 1.15 0.33 0.39 1.19 0.33 0.39 1.20 0.33 0.38
Combined (mm) 1.05 0.92 0.93 1.10 0.94 0.96 1.13 0.95 0.97
ball mill
product (mm) 0.41 0.28 0.31 0.42 0.29 0.32 0.43 0.29 0.32
Solids rate
2410 8539 10949 2638 9318 11956 2761 9726 12487
Combined (t/h)
cyclone
(mm) 1.50 1.25 1.27 1.56 1.26 1.28 1.59 1.26 1.29
underflow
(mm) 0.46 0.36 0.39 0.47 0.37 0.40 0.48 0.37 0.40
Solids rate
384 1742 2650 406 1847 2800 417 1901 2880
(t/h)
Combined
cyclone (mm) 0.24 0.14 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.16
overflow (mm) 0.12 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.06
- 0.15 mm 60.5 83.0 80.3 59.8 82.1 79.6 59.5 81.6 79.2
A6 - 9
Table A6.4. Main process parameters – increasing HPGR operating pressure simulations – case
study II
HPGR pressure Feed rate Power Specific energy

Equipment
(bar) (t/h) (kW) (kWh/t)
Secondary crushers 1217 460 0.38
HPGR * 2331 3694 1.58

SAG mill 2762 15328 5.55
125
SAG mill, sec. crushers and HPGR circuit 2650 19482 7.35
Ball mill circuits 2650 34949 13.19
Whole circuit 2650 54431 20.54
HPGR * 2457 4361 1.78
SAG mill 2912 15326 5.26

140
HPGR * 2523 5118 2.03
SAG mill 2991 15325 5.12

160
* HPGR power prediction was based on the specific energy as per operating pressure
A6 - 10
Table A6.5. Mass balances – alternative circuits – case study II
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Parameters Component Component

Bulk Bulk
1 2 1 2
Feed rate (t/h) 2650 0 2650 2800 0 2800

Coarse stockpile
(mm) 98.5 - 98.5 98.5 - 98.5
product
(mm) 39.3 - 39.3 39.3 - 39.3
Solids rate (t/h) 1007 3.21 1011 747 3.27 750

Secondary crusher
(mm) 59.6 52.9 58.6 61.3 52.9 60.7
product
(mm) 37.6 35.1 37.6 39.9 34.9 39.8
Solids rate (t/h) 1952 82.9 2035 1936 87.2 2023

HPGR centre
(mm) 17.0 13.4 16.8 16.8 13.4 16.5
product
(mm) 6.04 3.28 5.92 5.91 3.31 5.79
Solids rate (t/h) 835 2059 2894 1050 2046 3095
+ 100 mm (%) 14.6 0 4.21 37.3 0.00 12.7

SAG mill feed
(mm) 85.0 17.2 31.6 129.6 16.9 49.2
(mm) 36.9 6.05 9.69 62.8 5.91 11.40
(mm) 12.8 1.93 3.63 13.8 2.03 4.61

SAG mill product
(mm) 1.52 0.33 0.46 1.84 0.35 0.53
Solids rate (t/h) 136 107 244 186 110 295
Trommel oversize (mm) 26.3 30.5 27.9 26.6 29.8 27.8
(mm) 20.9 20.9 20.9 21.0 20.7 20.9
Solids rate (t/h) 698 1952 2650 864 1936 2800
Trommel undersize (mm) 6.23 1.47 2.09 6.63 1.53 2.38
(mm) 0.79 0.29 0.36 0.87 0.30 0.40
Combined ball mill (mm) 0.85 1.11 1.02 0.82 1.24 1.07
product (mm) 0.44 0.35 0.38 0.43 0.39 0.40
Solids rate (t/h) 4823 9780 14603 6208 10649 16857

Combined cyclone
(mm) 1.06 1.21 1.11 0.99 1.33 1.17
underflow
(mm) 0.45 0.38 0.41 0.45 0.43 0.44
Solids rate (t/h) 698 1493 2650 864 1497 2800
Combined cyclone (mm) 0.24 0.14 0.16 0.25 0.15 0.18

overflow (mm) 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.07
- 0.15 mm 60.8 82.1 76.7 60.2 79.4 74.0
A6 - 11
Table A6.5. Mass balances – alternative circuits – case study II (continuing)
Scenario 3 Scenario 4
Parameters Component Component

Bulk Bulk
1 2 1 2
Feed rate (t/h) 2800 0 2800 2850 0 2850

Coarse stockpile
(mm) 98.5 - 98.5 98.5 - 98.5
product
(mm) 39.3 - 39.3 39.3 - 39.3
Solids rate (t/h) 1395 8.3 1403 1414 5.6 1420

Secondary crusher
(mm) 49.7 42.1 47.6 49.7 42.5 47.6
product
(mm) 36.3 35.6 36.3 36.3 36.1 36.3
Solids rate (t/h) 2179 77.9 2257 2134 31.9 2166

HPGR centre
(mm) 13.1 11.8 13.0 12.8 10.4 12.7
product
(mm) 4.38 3.25 4.34 4.28 2.62 4.25
Solids rate (t/h) 776 2267 3043 780 2170 2950
+ 100 mm (%) 47.3 0 12.1 47.9 0 12.7

SAG mill feed
(mm) 143.8 13.1 35.7 144.3 12.8 38.0
(mm) 96.3 4.37 7.62 97.1 4.26 7.59
(mm) 13.1 1.56 2.78 5.7 1.16 1.67

SAG mill product
(mm) 1.50 0.28 0.39 0.62 0.23 0.29
Solids rate (t/h) 155 87 243 64 36 100
Trommel oversize (mm) 26.1 25.5 25.8 33.0 28.8 31.7
(mm) 19.7 18.0 19.2 17.1 13.9 16.1
Solids rate (t/h) 621 2179 2800 716 2134 2850
Trommel undersize (mm) 5.10 1.28 1.69 3.37 1.08 1.39
(mm) 0.68 0.26 0.31 0.50 0.22 0.27
Combined ball mill (mm) 0.84 1.02 0.96 0.78 0.94 0.86
product (mm) 0.44 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.32 0.36
Solids rate (t/h) 4839 10685 15524 5307 10226 15533

Combined cyclone
(mm) 0.94 1.11 1.01 0.78 1.00 0.89
underflow
(mm) 0.44 0.37 0.40 0.41 0.36 0.38
Solids rate (t/h) 621 1656 2800 716 1610 2850
Combined cyclone (mm) 0.23 0.14 0.16 0.23 0.14 0.16

overflow (mm) 0.11 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.06
- 0.15 mm 62.0 82.8 78.3 63.2 83.4 78.5
A6 - 12
Table A6.6. Main process parameters – alternative circuits – case study II
Solids Power Specific Circulating

Scenario Circuit
(t/h) (mm) (mm) draw (MW) energy (kWh/t) load (%)

HPGR circuit 2035 39.2 16.8 3.10 1.52 14
SAG mill (M1) 2894 31.6 3.63 16.90 5.84 9

1 SAG mill, sec. crushers
2650 98.5 2.09 20.40 7.70 -
and HPGR circuit
Combined ball mill circuit 2650 1.66 0.156 34.95 13.19 552
Whole circuit 2650 98.5 0.156 55.35 20.88 -

HPGR circuit 2023 38.5 16.5 3.08 1.52 14
SAG mill (M1) 3095 49.2 4.61 17.50 5.65 11

2800 98.5 2.38 20.89 7.46 -
and HPGR circuit
Whole circuit 2800 98.5 0.177 55.84 19.94 -
HPGR circuit 2257 32.3 13.0 4.58 2.03 13
SAG mill (M1) 3043 35.7 2.78 16.86 5.54 9

2800 98.5 1.69 21.88 7.81 -
and HPGR circuit
Whole circuit 2800 98.5 0.156 56.83 20.30 -

HPGR circuit 2166 32.7 12.7 4.39 2.03 13
SAG mill (M1) 2950 38.0 1.67 18.04 6.11 4
2850 98.5 1.39 22.88 8.03 -
and HPGR circuit
Whole circuit 2850 98.5 0.156 57.83 20.29 -
A6 - 13
(a) SAG mill feed (b) SAG mill product
(c) SAG mill load

Figure A6.3. Single and multi-component SAG mill simulated SAG mill feed, load and product size
distribution – case study II
A6 - 14
Appendix 7
Case Study III
Mass and Metallurgical Balance Results
 Table A7.1. Mass balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study II
 Table A7.2. Metallurgical balance results – base case comminution circuit – case
study III
A7 - 1
Table A7.1. Mass balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study III
A7 - 2
Table A7.1. Mass balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study III (continuing)
A7 - 3
Table A7.2. Metallurgical balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study III
A7 - 4
Table A7.2. Metallurgical balance results – base case comminution circuit – case study III (continuing)
A7 - 5
Appendix 8
Case Study III
 Table A8.1. JKSimMet model fitting parameters – case study III
 Table A8.2. MDK model fitting parameters – case study III
 Table A8.3. Mass balances – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case
study III
 Table A8.4. Metallurgical balances – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off –
case study III
 Table A85. Main process parameters – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off –
case study III
 Table A8.6. Gold grade and recovery – pre-concentration circuit – case study III
 Table A8.7. Mass balances – scenario 1 – case study III
 Table A8.9. Metallurgical balances – scenario 1 – case study III
 Table A8.10. Main process parameters – scenario 1 – case study III
 Table A8.11 Mass balances – scenario 2 – case study III
 Table A8.12. Metallurgical balances – scenario 2 – case study III
 Table A8.13. Main process parameters – scenario 2 – case study III
 Table A8.14. Component size specific energy ( ) – case study III
A8 - 1
This appendix includes the following figure:
 Figure A8.1. JKSimMet balanced vs model fitted size distributions – case study III
 Figure A8.2. Relationship between mill feed grade and component 1 – case
study III
A8 - 2
Table A8.1. JKSimMet model fitting parameters – case study III
Crusher (Andersen/Whiten) Pebble Crusher

Parallel Units: 1

Closed Side Set(mm) 10 Constant - K1 0
Crusher Feed Rate(t/h) 215.0 CSS(mm) - K1 1.5
Crusher Feed F80(mm) 42.4 Value - K2 34.3
Crusher Product P80(mm) 17.3 Constant - K2 0
CSS(mm) - K2 3.4
Calculated Pendulum Pow(kW) 58 Constant - K3 2.4
Model Calculated Power - Power 200
Variable Rates AG/SAG Mill SAG Mill

Parallel Units: 1
Dimensions Break age Rate

Diameter Inside Liners 10.97 Knot 1 2.95
Belly Length Inside Liners 5.80 Knot 2 4.67
Feed Trunion Diameter 2.04 Knot 3 5.16
Feed Cone Angle 13.8 Knot 4 4.04
Discharge Cone Angle 13.8 Knot 5 1.14
Grate Size XG(mm) 2 Knot 1 - Constant 2.02
Fine Size XM(mm) 0.5 Knot 2 - Constant -0.25
Grate Open Area Frac 0.08 Knot 3 - Constant 0.77
Pebble Port Fraction 1 Knot 4 - Constant 2.34
Pebble Port Size XP(mm) 91.85 Knot 5 - Constant -3.70
Rad pos of Grate Aperture 0.82
Power
Ball Load Fraction Critical Speed 0.66
Ball Load (% Vol) 16 Ball Specific Gravity(t/m3) 7.80
Ball Top Size(mm) 125 Ball/Rock Charge Porosity 0.40
Net Power Adj Factor 1.26
Mass Transfer Gross Power 11885
Discharge Coefficient 10000 No Load Power 755
Mass Transfer m1 0.345 Total Charge Density(t/m3) 3.86
Mass Transfer m2 0.5 Void Fill Fraction 0.58
Max Mill Cap(m3/h) 5359 Calculated - Volumetric Total Load 29.0
Single Component Efficiency Curve Trommel

Parallel Units: 1

Efficiency Curve - Alpha 12.0
Efficiency Curve - Beta 0
Water Split - Fine Product 99.9
Corrected D50 - d50c(mm) 14.9
Calculated Beta Value 1.0
A8 - 3
Table A8.1. JKSimMet model fitting parameters – case study III (continuing)
Nageswararao Cyclone Cyclones

Parallel Units: 8
Operating Condition Performance Data

Cyclone Diameter - Dc (m) 0.66 Calculated - Water Split To O/F (%) 77.9
Inlet Diameter - Di (m) 0.25 Calculated - Corrected D50, mm (Total) 0.2
Vortex Finder Diameter - Do (m) 0.30 Calculated - Operating Pressure, kPa 68.6
Spigot Diameter - Du (m) 0.14
Cylinder Length - Lc (m) 0.57
Cone Angle - Theta (deg) 12
Units in Parallel 8
Model Parameters
KD0 (D50 - total) 8.97E-05
KQ0 (Capacity) 596.2
KV1 (Volume Split) 7.57
KW1 (Water Split) 12.19
Efficiency Curve - Alpha 2.81
Efficiency Curve - Beta 0
Ball Mill (Perfect-Mixing) Ball mill

Parallel Units: 1
Scaling Power
Max Breakage Rate 4.40E-04 Feed Cone Angle 15.3
Mill Ball Top Size(mm) 65 Discharge Cone Angle 15.3
Internal Diameter (m) 7.34 Trunion Diameter 1.65
Fraction Critical Speed 0.72 Critical Speed Fraction 0.72
Load Fraction 0.32 Ball Volume(%) 32.3
Sim - Ore Work Index 10.30 Filling of Cyl Sec(%) 32.3
Void Filling Fraction 1
Rate/Discharge Function Ball SG 7.80
No. of Spline Knots 4.0 Ore SG 2.43
Knot 1 - Size 0.2 Liquid SG 1
Knot 2 - Size 1.5 Discharge Slurry(%) 59.96
Knot 3 - Size 3.0 Calibration Constant 1.26
Knot 4 - Size 15 Charge Density 5.30
Knot 1 - Ln R/D*(Measured) 1.89 Est No Load Power(kW) 584
Knot 2 - Ln R/D*(Measured) 4.39 Total Power [Grate](kW) 13801
Knot 3 - Ln R/D*(Measured) 5.74 Total Power [OverFlow](kW) 12093
Knot 4 - Ln R/D*(Measured) 3.81
Knot 1 - Ln R/D*(Calculated) 1.89
Water Feeder - Water Addition SAG Fd Water Cyc Fd Dilution Water

Parallel Units: 1 Parallel Units: 1
Operating conditions Operating conditions

New Water Addition (m^3/h) 520 New Water Addition (m^3/h) 987
Solids Flow (tph) 1538 Solids Flow (tph) 1927
Water Flow (m^3/h) 568 Water Flow (m^3/h) 2961
Percent Solids (%) 73.0 Percent Solids (%) 39.4
Volume (m^3/h) 1200 Volume (m^3/h) 3754
Trommel+Scr Water BM Water

Parallel Units: 1 Parallel Units: 1
Operating conditions Operating conditions

New Water Addition (m^3/h) 120 New Water Addition (m^3/h) 632
Solids Flow (tph) 1538 Solids Flow (tph) 1927
Water Flow (m^3/h) 687 Water Flow (m^3/h) 1287
Percent Solids (%) 69.1 Percent Solids (%) 60.0
Volume (m^3/h) 1320 Volume (m^3/h) 2080
A8 - 4
(a) SAG mill circuit
(b) Ball mill circuit
Figure A8.1. JKSimMet balanced vs model fitted size distributions – case study III
A8 - 5
Table A8.2. MDK model fitting parameters – case study III
Multi-Component SAG Mill Model SAG mill

Parallel Units: 1

Diameter Inside Liners 10.97 Ball Load (% Vol) 15.5
Corrected Gross Power 12328
Break age Rates Corrected No Load Power 754
Knot 3 6.5 5.0
Knot 4 3.7 3.6
Knot 5 4.1 1.8
Multi-Component Efficiency Curve Model Trommel

Parallel Units: 1

Fixed Product Multiplier Bin Model Stockpile

Parallel Units: 1
Bin state 1
0 - Off (DIscharge=Feed)
1 - On
Discharge from bin (t/h) 215.1
Bin volume (m3) 1000
Bulk density (t/m3) 1.7
Multi-Component Crusher Model Pebble Crusher

Parallel Units: 1

Closed Side Set (mm) 10 Constant - K1 0.00
Crusher Feed Rate (t/h) 215.1 CSS(mm) - K1 1.47
Crusher Feed F80 (mm) 59 Value - K2 34.33
Crusher Product P80 (mm) 17 Constant - K2 0.00
CSS(mm) - K2 3.43
Calculated Pendulum Power (kW) 54.5 Constant - K3 2.38
No Power Load (kW) 116.0 Constant - T10 10.71
Model Calculated Power - Power 170.5
Scale factors
K1 0.30 1.00
K2 0.75 1.00
T10 4.00 1.00
A8 - 6
Table A8.2. MDK model fitting parameters – case study III (continuing)
Multi-Component Ball Mill Model Ball mill

Parallel Units: 1
Dimensions Power
Break age Rates

Ln R/D* 1.295 2.380
Ln R/D* 3.083 4.797
Ln R/D* 4.608 5.574
Ln R/D* 1.008 3.813

Parallel Units: Cyclones 33" Cyclones 26" Screen

Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2
Efficiency Curve - Alpha 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 5.0 5.0
Efficiency Curve - Beta 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water Split - Fine Product 77.9 77.9 79.8 79.8 99.3 99.3
Corrected D50 - d50c(mm) 0.04 0.27 0.04 0.35 1.20 2.00
Calculated Beta Value 1 1 1 1 1 1
Splined Efficiency Curve Edge splitter Fines overflow

Parallel Units: 1 1
Fraction of solids split to top product 15.6% 6.6%
Fraction of liquid split to top product 14.6% 11.4%
Component Split Parameters by Size

Internal Size fraction (mm) Component 1 Component 2 Component 1 Component 2
18.7 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
13.3 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
9.37 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
6.63 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
4.68 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
3.31 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
2.34 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
1.66 0.18 0.14 0.00 0.00
1.17 0.16 0.16 0.00 0.00
0.828 0.15 0.15 0.01 0.03
0.586 0.06 0.20 0.01 0.05
0.414 0.07 0.20 0.04 0.05
0.293 0.08 0.20 0.04 0.05
0.207 0.14 0.18 0.05 0.06
0.146 0.16 0.16 0.08 0.06
0.104 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.07
0.073 0.20 0.13 0.12 0.05
0.052 0.21 0.13 0.12 0.05
0.037 0.24 0.12 0.15 0.04
0.026 0.22 0.15 0.19 0.06
0.018 0.22 0.14 0.38 0.06
0.013 0.21 0.14 0.27 0.06
0.009 0.26 0.14 0.23 0.06
0.006 0.25 0.14 0.13 0.06
0.005 0.27 0.14 0.10 0.12
A8 - 7
Table A8.3. Mass balances – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case study III

Solids
Ore type Stream Component Component Component
(t/h) Bulk Bulk
1 2 1 2 1 2
Main feed 1323 5.5 94.5 11.4 27.0 10.4 100.0 5.5 94.5
SAG mill product 1423 5.2 94.8 51.9 60.2 51.5 102.9 5.4 97.5
Trommel O/S 100 2.0 98.0 3.0 9.2 2.8 2.9 0.1 2.8
Base Trommel U/S 1323 5.5 94.5 55.6 61.6 55.3 100.0 5.5 94.5
Case
Ore Pebble crusher product 100 2.0 98.0 5.7 20.2 5.4 2.9 0.1 2.8
Main feed 1159 97.0 16.4 83.6 2.3 11.2 100.0 16.4 83.6
SAG mill product 1251 69.1 15.5 84.5 48.8 55.5 107.9 16.8 91.2
Trommel O/S 92 97.1 4.2 95.8 2.7 11.3 7.9 0.3 7.6
Trommel U/S 1159 62.8 16.4 83.6 52.4 56.3 100.0 16.4 83.6
A
Main feed 972 97.0 13.9 86.1 1.6 10.6 100.0 13.9 86.1
SAG mill product 1048 65.5 13.3 86.7 49.7 55.5 107.8 14.3 93.5
Trommel O/S 76 96.5 5.1 94.9 2.7 7.9 7.8 0.4 7.4
Trommel U/S 972 58.8 13.9 86.1 53.3 56.9 100.0 13.9 86.1
B
A8 - 8
Table A8.3. Mass balances – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case study III (continuing)

Solids
Ore type Stream Component Component Component
(t/h) Bulk Bulk
1 2 1 2 1 2
Main feed 1088 8.6 91.4 1.6 11.0 0.8 100.0 8.6 91.4
SAG mill product 1178 8.2 91.8 48.6 55.1 48.0 104.2 8.6 95.6
Trommel O/S 90 4.2 95.8 2.5 5.6 2.4 4.2 0.2 4.0
Trommel U/S 1088 8.6 91.4 52.4 57.1 52.0 100.0 8.6 91.4
C
Main feed 1256 21.9 78.1 1.4 3.2 1.0 100.0 21.9 78.1
SAG mill product 1359 21.5 78.5 48.1 50.6 47.4 106.1 22.8 83.3
Trommel O/S 103 16.3 83.7 2.5 3.5 2.3 6.1 1.0 5.1
Trommel U/S 1256 21.9 78.1 51.9 53.5 51.4 100.0 21.9 78.1
D
A8 - 9
Table A8.4. Metallurgical balances – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case study III
Ore type Stream Stream

Passing Retained
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Main feed 0.28 0.66 0.24 100.0 26.4 73.6
SAG mill product 0.27 0.31 0.23 102.9 61.6 41.3
Trommel O/S 0.11 0.31 0.10 2.9 0.2 2.6
Base Trommel U/S 0.28 0.31 0.25 100.0 61.3 38.7

Case Ore Pebble crusher product 0.11 0.35 0.09 2.9 0.5 2.3
Main feed 0.83 4.06 0.76 100.0 11.1 88.9

SAG mill product 0.79 0.89 0.68 102.1 55.4 44.6
Trommel O/S 0.22 0.89 0.20 2.1 10.9 89.1
Trommel U/S 0.83 0.89 0.76 100.0 56.3 43.7

A
Main feed 0.70 4.50 0.64 100.0 10.5 89.5
SAG mill product 0.67 0.75 0.60 103.0 55.4 44.6
Trommel O/S 0.27 0.75 0.25 3.0 7.7 92.3
Trommel U/S 0.70 0.75 0.65 100.0 56.8 43.2

B
A8 - 10
Table A8.4. Metallurgical balances – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case study III
(continuing)
Ore type Stream Stream

Passing Retained
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Main feed 0.44 2.88 0.40 100.0 10.8 89.2
SAG mill product 0.42 0.48 0.37 104.2 54.9 45.1
Trommel O/S 0.22 0.48 0.21 4.2 5.5 94.5
Trommel U/S 0.44 0.48 0.40 100.0 57.0 43.0

C
Main feed 1.10 2.42 1.08 100.0 3.2 96.8

SAG mill product 1.08 1.14 1.03 106.1 50.6 49.4
Trommel O/S 0.82 1.14 0.81 6.1 3.5 96.5
Trommel U/S 1.10 1.14 1.07 100.0 53.5 46.5

D
A8 - 11
Table A8.5. Main process parameters – base case circuit – scenario stockpile off – case study III
Ore Solids Power draw Specific energy Circulating

Circuit
Type (t/h) (mm) (mm) (MW) (kWh/t) load (%)
SAG mill circuit 1323 85.0 0.74 12.5 9.45 7.5

Base
Case Ball mill circuit 1323 0.74 0.134 12.1 9.14 98
Ore
Whole circuit 1323 85.0 0.134 24.6 18.59 -
SAG mill circuit 1159 89.1 0.78 12.5 10.74 7.9
A Ball mill circuit 1159 0.78 0.153 12.1 10.43 164

Whole circuit 1159 89.1 0.153 24.5 21.17 -
SAG mill circuit 972 99.8 0.76 12.4 12.74 7.8
B Ball mill circuit 972 0.76 0.137 12.1 12.44 130

Whole circuit 972 99.8 0.137 24.5 25.17 -
SAG mill circuit 1088 92.8 0.82 12.4 11.42 8.3
C Ball mill circuit 1088 0.82 0.141 12.1 11.11 113

Whole circuit 1088 92.8 0.141 24.5 22.54 -
SAG mill circuit 1256 95.7 0.77 12.5 9.97 8.2
D Ball mill circuit 1256 0.77 0.167 12.1 9.62 235

Whole circuit 1256 95.7 0.167 24.6 19.59 -
A8 - 12
Table A8.6. Gold grade and recovery – pre-concentration circuit – case study III
Mass recovery (%) Gold grade (ppm) Gold recovery (%)
Screen Stream Base Base Base

case Ore A Ore B Ore C Ore D case Ore A Ore B Ore C Ore D case Ore A Ore B Ore C Ore D
ore ore ore
Single + 40 mm 48.2 29.6 58.4 58.4 58.7 0.12 0.28 0.31 0.27 1.11 20.7 19.1 25.5 36.0 58.9
deck - 40 mm 51.8 27.9 41.6 41.6 41.3 0.43 1.58 1.26 0.67 1.10 79.3 80.9 74.5 64.0 41.1
+ 45 mm 43.8 51.0 54.6 54.6 54.7 0.12 0.19 0.31 0.27 1.17 18.8 11.5 23.6 33.6 58.2
Double
- 45 + 19 mm 23.6 21.2 20.6 20.6 21.0 0.20 0.77 0.57 0.38 0.37 16.9 19.6 16.6 18.0 7.1
deck
- 19 mm 32.6 27.9 24.8 24.8 24.3 0.56 2.05 1.70 0.85 1.58 64.3 68.9 59.8 48.4 34.7
+ 60 mm 35.4 42.1 45.7 45.7 45.6 0.12 0.16 0.31 0.28 1.29 15.2 8.0 19.8 28.8 53.2
Double
- 60 + 19 mm 32.0 30.0 29.5 29.5 30.1 0.18 0.64 0.49 0.34 0.44 20.5 23.2 20.4 22.9 12.0
deck
- 19 mm 32.6 27.9 24.8 24.8 24.3 0.56 2.05 1.70 0.85 1.58 64.3 68.9 59.8 48.4 34.7
+ 80 mm 26.5 29.6 33.2 32.9 32.7 0.12 0.17 0.32 0.30 1.34 11.2 5.9 15.3 22.8 39.8
Double
- 80 + 19 mm 41.0 42.5 41.9 42.3 43.1 0.17 0.49 0.42 0.30 0.65 24.5 25.2 24.9 28.8 25.5
deck
- 19 mm 32.6 27.9 24.8 24.8 24.3 0.56 2.05 1.70 0.85 1.58 64.3 68.9 59.8 48.4 34.7
+ 60 mm 35.4 51.0 45.7 45.7 45.6 0.12 0.16 0.31 0.28 1.29 15.2 8.0 19.8 28.8 53.2
Double
- 60 + 40 mm 16.9 21.2 16.1 16.1 16.4 0.20 0.65 0.51 0.34 0.60 11.8 12.7 11.7 12.3 9.0
deck
- 40 mm 47.7 27.9 38.3 38.3 38.0 0.43 1.58 1.26 0.67 1.10 72.9 79.3 68.5 58.9 37.8
+ 80 mm 26.5 42.1 33.2 32.9 32.7 0.12 0.17 0.32 0.30 1.34 11.2 5.9 15.3 22.8 39.8
Double
- 80 + 40 mm 25.8 30.0 28.5 28.8 29.3 0.17 0.43 0.40 0.28 0.85 15.8 14.7 16.2 18.3 22.5
deck
- 40 mm 47.7 27.9 38.3 38.3 38.0 0.43 1.58 1.26 0.67 1.10 73.0 79.3 68.5 58.9 37.8
A8 - 13
Table A8.7. Mass balances – scenario 1 – case study III
% in stream Mass Recovery (%)

Solids
Ore type Stream Component Component
(t/h) Bulk
1 2 1 2
Main Feed 1750 5.5 94.5 146.6 8.1 138.5
Pre-concentration product to SAG mill 570 11.0 89.0 32.6 3.6 29.0
Pre-concentration product to waste 1180 2.8 97.2 67.4 1.9 65.5
Stockpile product 624 5.7 94.3 52.3 3.0 49.3
SAG mill product 1271 8.0 92.0 106.5 8.5 98.0
Base case
Trommel O/S 78 4.3 95.7 6.5 0.3 6.2
ore
Trommel U/S 1194 8.2 91.8 100.0 8.2 91.8
Pebble crusher product 78 4.3 95.7 6.5 0.3 6.2
Ball mill product 1218 40.9 59.1 102.0 41.8 60.2
Combined cyclone U/F 1617 40.1 59.9 135.5 54.3 81.2
Combined cyclone O/F 1194 8.2 91.8 100.0 8.2 91.8
Main Feed 2000 16.4 83.6 125.9 20.7 105.2
SAG mill product 1705 19.6 80.4 107.3 21.0 86.3
A Trommel O/S 117 6.1 93.9 7.3 0.4 6.9
Trommel U/S 1589 20.6 79.4 100.0 20.6 79.4
Main Feed 2165 13.9 86.1 136.4 19.0 117.5
Pre-concentration product to stockpile 1181 5.9 94.1 54.6 3.2 51.3
SAG mill product 1707 15.9 84.1 107.6 17.2 90.4
B Trommel O/S 120 5.2 94.8 7.6 0.4 7.2
Trommel U/S 1587 16.8 83.2 100.0 16.8 83.2
A8 - 14
Table A8.7. Mass balances – scenario 1 – case study III (continuing)

Solids
(t/h) Bulk
1 2 1 2
Main Feed 2150 8.6 91.4 136.1 11.7 124.4
SAG mill product 1701 9.6 90.4 107.7 10.3 97.3
C Trommel O/S 121 4.4 95.6 7.7 0.3 7.3
Trommel U/S 1580 10.0 90.0 100.0 10.0 90.0
Main Feed 1000 21.9 78.1 109.2 23.9 85.3
SAG mill product 990 22.5 77.5 108.1 24.4 83.7
D Trommel O/S 74 16.5 83.5 8.1 1.3 6.8
Trommel U/S 916 23.0 77.0 100.0 23.0 77.0
A8 - 15
Table A8.8. Metallurgical balances – scenario 1 – case study III

Ore Stream
type Bulk Bulk
0.15 mm 0.15 mm Passing Retained
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Main Feed 0.28 0.66 0.24 98.8 26.4 73.6
Pre-concentration product to SAG mill 0.56 0.66 0.52 64.3 37.0 63.0
Pre-concentration product to waste 0.15 0.66 0.14 35.7 7.3 92.7
Stockpile product 0.29 3.12 0.29 36.5 1.1 98.9
SAG mill product 0.41 0.44 0.37 103.5 59.5 40.5

Base
case Trommel O/S 0.23 0.44 0.22 3.5 7.0 93.0
ore
Trommel U/S 0.42 0.44 0.39 100.0 61.3 38.7
Main Feed 0.83 4.06 0.76 100.8 11.1 88.9
SAG mill product 0.99 1.12 0.87 102.2 53.4 46.6
A Trommel O/S 0.31 1.12 0.29 2.2 9.8 90.2
Trommel U/S 1.04 1.12 0.95 100.0 54.3 45.7
Combined cyclone U/F 3.34 3.88 3.15 1,236 28.5 71.3
Main Feed 0.70 4.50 0.64 113.6 10.5 89.5
Pre-concentration product to stockpile 0.31 4.50 0.30 23.6 0.9 99.1
SAG mill product 0.81 0.92 0.70 102.4 53.0 47.0
B Trommel O/S 0.27 0.92 0.25 2.4 9.0 91.0
Trommel U/S 0.85 0.92 0.77 100.0 54.0 46.0
A8 - 16
Table A8.8. Metallurgical balances – scenario 1 – case study III (continuing)

Ore Stream
type Bulk Bulk
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Main Feed 0.44 2.88 0.40 117.3 10.8 89.2
SAG mill product 0.49 0.57 0.42 103.5 53.4 46.6
C Trommel O/S 0.23 0.57 0.22 3.5 6.4 93.6
Trommel U/S 0.51 0.57 0.45 100.0 55.1 44.9
Main Feed 1.10 2.42 1.08 103.9 3.2 96.8
SAG mill product 1.13 1.19 1.08 105.8 52.7 47.3
D Trommel O/S 0.83 1.19 0.83 5.8 3.8 96.2
Trommel U/S 1.16 1.19 1.13 100.0 55.5 44.5
A8 - 17
Table A8.9. Main process parameters – scenario 1 – case study III
Solids Power draw Specific Circulating

Ore type Circuit
(t/h) (mm) (mm) (MW) energy (kWh/t) load (%)
SAG mill circuit 1194 64.5 0.64 12.44 10.42 6.5

Base case
Ball mill circuit 1194 0.64 0.126 12.09 10.13 102
ore
Whole circuit 1194 64.5 0.126 24.53 20.55 -
SAG mill circuit 1589 62.2 0.85 12.56 7.91 7.3
Whole circuit 1589 62.2 0.193 24.65 15.52 -
SAG mill circuit 1587 62.7 0.90 12.56 7.91 7.6
Whole circuit 1587 62.7 0.189 24.64 15.53 -
SAG mill circuit 1580 62.9 0.94 12.55 7.95 7.7
Whole circuit 1580 62.9 0.176 24.64 15.60 -
SAG mill circuit 916 88.6 0.69 12.38 13.51 8.1
Whole circuit 916 88.6 0.136 24.46 26.71 -
A8 - 18
Table A8.10. Mass balances – scenario 2 – case study III

Solids
(t/h) Bulk
1 2 1 2
Main Feed 1800 5.5 94.5 145.9 8.0 137.9
SAG mill product 1312 8.0 92.0 106.4 8.6 97.8
Base case
Trommel O/S 79 4.3 95.7 6.4 0.3 6.1
ore
Trommel U/S 1233 8.3 91.7 100.0 8.3 91.7
Main Feed 2000 16.4 83.6 127.0 20.9 106.1
SAG mill product 1692 19.7 80.3 107.4 21.1 86.3
A Trommel O/S 116 6.1 93.9 7.4 0.5 6.9
Trommel U/S 1575 20.7 79.3 100.0 20.7 79.3
Main Feed 2350 13.9 86.1 142.8 19.9 122.9
SAG mill product 1771 16.4 83.6 107.6 17.7 89.9
B Trommel O/S 125 5.3 94.7 7.6 0.4 7.2
Trommel U/S 1646 17.3 82.7 100.0 17.3 82.7
A8 - 19
Table A8.10. Mass balances – scenario 2 – case study III (continuing)

Solids
(t/h) Bulk
1 2 1 2
Main Feed 2375 8.6 91.4 143.5 12.3 131.2
SAG mill product 1782 9.9 90.1 107.7 10.6 97.0
C Trommel O/S 127 4.5 95.5 7.7 0.3 7.3
Trommel U/S 1655 10.3 89.7 100.0 10.3 89.7
Main Feed 1264 21.9 78.1 126.6 27.7 98.9
Stockpile product - - - - - -
SAG mill product 1077 25.3 74.7 107.8 27.3 80.5
D Trommel O/S 78 19.2 80.8 7.8 1.5 6.3
Trommel U/S 999 25.8 74.2 100.0 25.8 74.2
A8 - 20
Table A8.11. Metallurgical balances – scenario 2 – case study III

Ore Stream
type Bulk Bulk
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Main Feed 0.28 0.66 0.24 98.0 26.4 73.6
SAG mill product 0.41 0.45 0.37 103.4 59.4 40.6

Base
case Trommel O/S 0.23 0.45 0.22 3.4 7.2 92.8
ore
Trommel U/S 0.42 0.45 0.39 100.0 61.2 38.8
Main Feed 0.83 4.06 0.76 101.3 11.1 88.9
SAG mill product 0.99 1.13 0.87 102.2 53.4 46.6
A Trommel O/S 0.31 1.13 0.29 2.2 9.8 90.2
Trommel U/S 1.04 1.13 0.95 100.0 54.4 45.6
Main Feed 0.70 4.50 0.64 115.4 10.5 89.5
SAG mill product 0.83 0.95 0.73 102.4 52.8 47.2
B Trommel O/S 0.27 0.95 0.25 2.4 9.1 90.9
Trommel U/S 0.87 0.95 0.79 100.0 53.8 46.2
A8 - 21
Table A8.11. Metallurgical balances – scenario 2 – case study III (continuing)

Ore Stream
type Bulk Bulk
0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Main Feed 0.44 2.88 0.40 120.1 10.8 89.2
SAG mill product 0.50 0.59 0.43 103.4 53.3 46.7
C Trommel O/S 0.23 0.59 0.22 3.4 6.5 93.5
Trommel U/S 0.52 0.59 0.46 100.0 54.9 45.1
Main Feed 1.10 2.42 1.08 107.6 3.2 96.8
Stockpile product - - - - - -
SAG mill product 1.27 1.33 1.22 105.8 52.3 47.7
D Trommel O/S 0.97 1.33 0.96 5.8 3.8 96.2
Trommel U/S 1.30 1.33 1.26 100.0 55.2 44.8
A8 - 22
Table A8.12. Main process parameters – scenario 2 – case study III
Solids Power Specific Circulating

Ore type Circuit
(t/h) (mm) (mm) draw (kW) energy (kWh/t) load (%)
SAG mill circuit 1312 65.0 0.65 12.44 9.48 -

Base case
Ball mill circuit 1233 0.65 0.128 12.09 9.80 104
ore
Whole circuit - 65.0 0.128 24.53 19.89 -
SAG mill circuit 1692 63.4 0.85 12.56 7.43 -
Whole circuit - 63.4 0.192 24.65 15.65 -
SAG mill circuit 1771 62.3 0.91 12.57 7.10 -
Whole circuit - 62.3 0.195 24.66 14.98 -
SAG mill circuit 1782 62.1 0.96 12.58 7.06 -
Whole circuit - 62.1 0.181 24.67 14.90 -
SAG mill circuit 999 84.6 0.69 12.41 12.43 -
Whole circuit - 84.6 0.144 24.50 24.53 -
A8 - 23
Table A8.13. Component size specific energy ( ) – case study III
Scenario Ore Type Circuit Generated Specific Generated Specific

percent energy (kWh/t of percent energy (kWh/t of
-0.15 mm (kWh/t) -0.15 mm) -0.15 mm (kWh/t) -0.15 mm)
SAG mill circuit 34.6 2.1 6.0 44.8 9.9 22.0

base case
Ball mill circuit 36.0 6.9 19.2 26.2 9.3 35.3
ore
Whole circuit 70.6 9.0 12.7 71.1 19.1 26.9
SAG mill circuit 45.1 1.8 4.0 51.2 12.5 24.4
A Ball mill circuit 41.6 8.1 19.5 24.2 10.9 44.9

Whole circuit 86.8 9.9 11.4 75.4 23.4 31.0
SAG mill circuit 46.3 2.7 5.8 52.6 14.4 27.3

Stockpile
B Ball mill circuit 41.5 9.6 23.2 26.6 12.9 48.5
off
Whole circuit 87.8 12.3 14.0 79.1 27.3 34.4
SAG mill circuit 46.1 3.2 6.9 51.2 12.2 23.8
C Ball mill circuit 41.0 8.5 20.7 27.9 11.4 40.7
Whole circuit 87.1 11.7 13.4 79.1 23.6 29.8
SAG mill circuit 50.3 4.5 9.0 50.4 11.5 22.8
D Ball mill circuit 43.9 7.6 17.3 20.6 10.2 49.4
Whole circuit 94.3 12.1 12.9 71.1 21.7 30.5

SAG mill circuit 59.3 3.0 5.0 56.8 11.1 19.5
base case
ore
Whole circuit 96.1 10.7 11.1 81.2 21.4 26.4
SAG mill circuit 53.7 1.7 3.1 49.0 9.5 19.4
Whole circuit 95.5 7.7 8.0 68.2 17.5 25.7
SAG mill circuit 53.3 1.8 3.3 48.6 9.1 18.8
1 B Ball mill circuit 42.4 5.9 14.0 21.2 8.0 37.6
Whole circuit 95.8 7.7 8.1 69.8 17.1 24.5
SAG mill circuit 54.4 2.2 4.0 48.7 8.6 17.6
Whole circuit 96.2 8.0 8.4 73.6 16.4 22.3
SAG mill circuit 55.3 5.2 9.4 53.8 16.0 29.8
Whole circuit 98.2 15.6 15.9 77.1 30.0 39.0
A8 - 24
Table A8.13. Component size specific energy ( ) – case study III (continuing)
Scenario Ore Type Circuit Generated Specific Generated Specific

percent energy (kWh/t of percent energy (kWh/t of
-0.15 mm (kWh/t) -0.15 mm) -0.15 mm (kWh/t) -0.15 mm)
SAG mill circuit 55.8 2.8 5.0 53.3 10.1 18.9

base case
ore
Whole circuit 96.1 10.4 10.8 80.9 20.8 25.6
SAG mill circuit 50.0 1.7 3.3 45.7 8.8 19.3

Whole circuit 95.6 7.5 8.1 68.3 17.7 25.9
SAG mill circuit 49.4 1.7 3.4 44.9 8.2 18.2
2 B Ball mill circuit 42.3 5.7 13.5 20.5 7.7 37.4
Whole circuit 95.5 7.5 7.8 68.8 16.6 24.1
SAG mill circuit 50.3 2.0 4.0 44.8 7.6 17.0
Whole circuit 96.0 7.7 8.0 72.6 15.7 21.7
SAG mill circuit 54.9 5.1 9.2 53.3 15.0 28.1
Whole circuit 98.0 14.7 15.0 74.8 27.9 37.4
A8 - 25
(a) scenario stockpile off
(b) scenario 1 (c) scenario 2

Figure A8.2. Relationship between mill feed grade and component 1 – case study III
A8 - 26

Modelling and Simulation Approaches For Exploiting Multi-Component Characteristics of Ores in Mineral Processing Circuits.s4273407 - Final - Thesis

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MODELLING AND SIMULATION APPROACHES FOR EXPLOITING

MULTI-COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS OF ORES IN MINERAL

B.Sc. (Eng.), M.E.

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at

The University of Queensland in 2017

Sustainable Minerals Institute

Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre

Foggiatto, B. & Andrusiewicz, M. (2012). Development of a protocol for surveying

Peer-reviewed conference papers:

Lane, G., Foggiatto, B. & Bueno, M. P. (2013). Power-based comminution calculations

Powell, M. S., Foggiatto, B. & Hilden, M. M. (2014). Practical simulation of FlexiCircuit

Foggiatto, B., Hilden, M. M. & Powell, M. S. (2015). Use of a novel multi-component

Bueno, M., Lane, G. and Foggiatto, B. (2015). Geometallurgy applied in comminution

Publications included in this thesis

Partially incorporated in Chapter 6.

Contributor Statement of contribution

Designed simulation scenarios (50%),

Designed simulation scenarios (50%),

Proposed content and structure (100%),

Programmed the Models Developers’ Kit

Partially incorporated in Chapters 4.

Contributor Statement of contribution

Designed simulation scenarios (100%),

Reviewed simulation scenarios (50%),

Reviewed simulation scenarios (50%),

Partially incorporated in Chapter 4.

Contributor Statement of contribution

Designed simulation scenarios (100%),

Reviewed simulation scenarios (50%),

Reviewed simulation scenarios (50%),

Partially incorporated in Chapter 5.

Contributor Statement of contribution

Developed the multi-component approach

Reviewed simulation scenarios (50%),

Reviewed simulation scenarios (50%),

Contributions by others to the thesis

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors Professor Malcolm Powell and

I also want to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Homero Delboni

Last but not least, I sincerely thank my family for their

Multi-component modelling, mineral processing circuits, energy efficiency

Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)

091404 Mineral Processing / Beneficiation 100%

Fields of Research (FoR) Classification

0914 Resources Engineering and Extractive Metallurgy 100%

1.1 Thesis Scope ........................................................................................................................ 3

1.2 Structure of the Thesis .......................................................................................................... 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 9

2.1 The Need for Innovative Circuit Configurations .................................................................... 9

2.2 Standard Comminution Circuit Design ................................................................................ 11

2.3 Processes Requiring Multi-Component Modelling .............................................................. 19

2.4 Limitations of Multi-Component Models .............................................................................. 33

2.5 Mineral Processing Simulators ............................................................................................ 47

2.6 Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................................. 67

3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 70

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 70

3.2 Survey Data ........................................................................................................................ 70

3.3 Case Studies ....................................................................................................................... 72

3.4 Energy Efficiency ................................................................................................................ 73

3.5 Concepts Developed for MDK Simulations ......................................................................... 77

3.6 Multi-Component Models Used in MDK Simulations .......................................................... 80

4 CASE STUDY I - LKAB ........................................................................................................ 82

4.1 Circuit description ................................................................................................................ 82

4.2 Multi-Component Modelling Methodology ........................................................................... 87