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4. Physical model
In order to physically simulate the deformation of a
muscle, we use mechanical laws of particles. The motion
of a particle is defined by its nature and by the position of Figure 4. Elastic model of the muscle surface
Considering that the force produced by a linear spring correspondent angular springs, one in the angle defined
(also knowing as Hooke’s spring) over a mass point is by the vectors x0 x1 and x0 x3 , and the other one in the
f spring ( xi ) = −ks( xi − xrest ) angle between x0 x2 and x0 x4 .
3
f elasticity = ∑ f spring j ( xi )
j =0
Figure 6. Angular spring between the line
We have designed two classes of springs: vertical and segments x0 x1 and x0 x3
horizontal ones (both defined in relation to the muscle
action line), where the horizontal springs are
perpendicular to the action line. The difference between The implementation of this kind of springs is done
the two is related to the parameters specification of their (consider the spring in Figure 6, placed in the angle
elasticity coefficients. Furthermore, we have two different between x0 x1 and x0 x3 ) by attaching a spring linking
degrees of elasticity: in width and height. We consider
that the muscle height is defined in the same direction of the point x0 with the mid point of the line defined by the
its action line. Figure 5 shows the minimal elasticity vector x1 x3 , when all the points are in initial position,
component of a muscle, composed by a spring and a
damping module. that is, with all springs in rest position.
As for the springs presented in Section 4.1, we can
define the degree of curvature of a muscle in two
dimensions. In order to implement this, we allow the
specification of curvature coefficients in the two
orientations (horizontal and vertical), considering the
muscle action line as the up reference. We can say that the
horizontal springs are the ones perpendicular to the action
Figure 5. Minimal elasticity component line (defined between a mass point and its neighbors over
the same muscle slice - see Figure 7.a) and the vertical
4.2. Curvature and torsion springs, the springs defined between each mass point and
its neighbors on the upper and lower slices (see Figure
The force that determines the degree of bending and 7.b).
twisting of a muscle surface was named curvature and As we have simulated muscles only by their surfaces,
torsion force. As the elasticity force, this force is also we do not have the representation of a volume, but a
calculated for each mass point over the surface, in surface designing a muscle shape. Like any surface
function of its four neighbors. assembled by points linked to their neighbors by springs,
The physical simulation of these effects was designed it can twist and bend in any direction, changing
by employing another kind of linear spring, we have completely the expected final shape. With the use of
created and named angular springs. The difference angular springs, we succeeded in avoiding this kind of
between these springs and the other ones used to simulate behavior, as shown in Figure 8, where we compare a
elasticity is the way they are attached. Consider a mass muscle compression with and without the use of angular
point x0 with a neighborhood formed by x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 , springs.
Finally, we have realized that increasing the angular
as shown in Figure 6. Each mass point x0 has two springs coefficients, we are able to control the muscle
volume during deformation, that is, we do not need a
post-processing step for this purpose. Obviously, this is The implementation of most part of the constraints
not a method that mathematically guarantees the volume forces can be done by using inverse dynamics. We specify
preservation. But it allows an efficient and quick way to the constraints actuating on a point and calculate the force
provide different degrees of deformation to the same necessary to compel the point to obey these constraints.
initial muscle shape while preserving the homogeneity The methodology used to satisfy constraints, allows the
and guaranteeing some kind of volume control in inclusion of new ones, without the need to modify the
processing time. In Figure 12 we show an example of physical model. At this time, we are using the geometric
muscle compression with different curvature coefficients. constraints only to move the attachment points of
muscles.
5. Motion simulation
As already mentioned, the lowest level in our muscle
simulation system is the action line. We simulate at first
the action line motion and after, the muscle deformation.
In this way, the muscle compression or extension depends
directly on the action line. However, the final deformation
depends also on other parameters.
The model used to deform muscles is based on an
(a) (b) oriented particle system where the interactions between
Figure 7. Example of the definition of an particles are modeled by springs. The movement
horizontal angular spring (a) and a vertical simulation is done by applying motion equations over
one (b) each particle of the model.
We have used the Lagrange’s equations of motion as in
[31], using a system of second-order ordinary differential
equations:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 12. (a) muscle in the rest state; (b)
20% compression and curvature coefficient
equal to 1.0; (c) the same compression rate,
but with curvature of 5.0; (d) curvature of
10.0
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Walter Maurel and Pascal Fua
for reading the paper and having made useful suggestions
Figure 11. Bones motion with muscle and Rafael Bordini and Joaquim Esmerado for English
contraction review. We also thank MiraLab, at Geneva for the
muscles reconstruction. This work was supported by
In future work we intend to: CAPES-Brazil and by the Swiss National Foundation for
• investigate an automatic specification of the muscles’ Scientific Research.
action lines motion. To provide this, we intend to use
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