Physical Chemistry

The study of :

 The mechanism
 The rate

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
 The energy transfer
Chemistry The study of:
that happens when matter undergoes
 the composition (make-up) of change.
matter
 the changes that matter undergoes Biochemistry

What is matter?  Study of processes that take place in

organisms.
 Anything that:
 has mass and Science
 occupies space (volume)
 What? Why? How? When?
Mass vs Weight
Science and Technology
 Mass: a measure of the amount of
 Science Pure
matter that an object contains. (SI
unit kilogram, kg) Does not necessarily have an application.
 Weight: The force with which the
earth pulls on an object. (SI unit  Technology Applied
Newton, N)
Has practical applications in society. ex.
The 5 Branches of Chemistry Engineering.

 Inorganic Microscopic- Macroscopic

 Organic
 Micro –(small)
 Analytical
 Science Pure
 Physical
 Used observations
 Biochemistry
 Does not necessarily have an
Inorganic Chemistry
 application
 Technology Applied
 The study of chemicals that do not  Has practical applications in society.
contain carbon. Engineering.
Organic Chemistry

Microscopic- Macroscopic

 The study of chemicals that contain  Micro –(small)

carbon.  Microscopic- objects can be seen
 Origin: study of chemicals in living with a microscope.
organisms.  Macro-(from afar)


Analytical Chemistry  Macroscopic- objects are seen

without a microscope.
 Composition of matter.  Part II – A Brief History and the
 Scientiific Method
th
 19 Aristotle (Greece, 4 Century BC)
Philosopher who believed that:
o There are 4 elements: earth,
water, air, fire.
o Matter is perpetually divisible.
20
Democritus
o (Greece, 4th Century BC)
o First atomic theory
o Atom (indivisible). \
Alchemists (~300BC-1650 AD) China,
India, Arabia, Europe, Egypt
o Aimed to turn common
metals into gold and
develop medicines
o Develop lab equipment
o Mystical
o Mixture of science and
mysticism
Galileo Galilei (Italy 1564 AD)
o Father of the scientific method
(along with the Englishman
Francis Bacon 1500’s). 23
Antoine Lavoisier
o (France 1743-1794)
o Regarded as the Father of
Chemistry.
o Designed equipment.

o Used observations and
measurements.
o Discovered nitrogen.
o Explained burning as reaction
with oxygen.
o Old theory: release of
“phlogiston”.
John Dalton
 (England 1766-1844)
o Atomic theory
Amedeo Avogadro
 (Italy, 1776-
1856)
o Avogadro’s Number
6.02x1023

o One mole of any substance
contains 6.02x1023 particles.
Dmitri Mendeléev
 (Russia, 1834-
1907)
o First Periodic Table of
elements.
The Scientific Method
 Steps followed during scientific
investigations.
o Scientific Method

 Observation-
recognition of a
problem.

 Hypothesis- a proposed
explanation of an
observation ; an
educated guess ; must
be testable.
 Theory

o A well tested explanation for a
broad set of observations.
o May use models. May allow
predictions.
o Theories may change to
explain new observations.
 Law

o A statement that summarizes
results of observations, but
does not explain them.
o Changes or is abandoned
when contradicted by new
experiments. 32
o “No number of experiments
can prove me right; a single
experiment can prove me
wrong.” -Albert Einstein
 Part III Math and Chemistry Math-
the language of Science
Math- the language of Science
Units
o SI Units – International System
Basic Units
o mks Length (meter) m
o Mass (kilogram) kg
o Time (second) National Bureau
of Standards
LESSON 2: ATOMIC THEORY TIMELINE
 DEMOCRITUS (400 B.C.)
o Proposed that matter was
composed of tiny indivisible
particles
o Not based on experimental
data
o Greek Word: Atomos *not
divisible*
 ALCHEMY (Next 2000 years)
o Mixture of science and
mysticism
o Lab procedures were
developed, but alchemists did
not perform controlled
experiments like true scientists
 JOHN DALTON (1807)
o British schoolteacher
 Based his data on
others’ experimental
data
o Billiard Ball Model
 Atom is a uniform solid
sphere
o Four Postulates
-Elements are composed of
small indivisible particles called
atoms
-Atoms of the same element
are identical. Atoms of
different elements are not the
same
-Atoms of different elements
combine together to form a
compound
-In a chemical reaction, atoms
are rearranged but not
changed
 HENRI BECQUEREL (1896)
o Discovered radioactivity
 Spontaneous emission of
radiation from the
nucleus
o Three types
 Alpha (positive)
 Beta (negative)
 Gamma (neutral)
 JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON (1903)
o Cathode ray Tube Experiments
 Beam of negative
particles
o Discovered electrons
 Negative particle within
an atom
o Plum-pudding model
 Positive sphere
(pudding) with negative
electrons (plums)
 ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1911)
o Gold Foil Experiments
o Discovered the nucleus
 Dense, positive charge
in the center of the
atom
o Nuclear Model
 Dense positive nucleus
surrounded by negative
electrons
 NEILS BOHR (1913)
o Bright Line Spectrum
 Tried to explain
presence of specific
colors in hydrogen’s
spectrum
o Energy levels
 electrons can only exist
in specific energy states
o Planetary Model
 Electrons in circular
orbits within specific
energy levels
 ERWIN SCHRODINGER (1986)
o Electrons can only exist in
specified energy levels
o Electron cloud model
 Orbital: region around
the nucleus where 𝑒 −
 are likely to be found
 Dots represent
probability of finding an
𝑒 − not the actual
electrons
 JAMES CHADWICK (1932)
o Discovered neutrons
 Neutral particles in the
nucleus of an atom
o Joliot-Curie Experiments
 Based on his theory on
their experimental
evidence
o Neutron Model
 Revision of Rutherford’s
model
LESSON 3: INTRODUCTION TO PERIODIC
TABLE
Atomic Number ● Symbol ● Atomic Weight
Element ● Compound ● Mixture
 PERIODIC TABLE
o Shows all know elements in the
universe
o Organizes the elements by
properties
 The most abundant element in the
earth’s crust is oxygen
 HOW TO READ PERIODIC TABLE
o Atomic Number
 The number of protons
found in the nucleus
 The number of electrons
surrounding an atom
(charge is 0)
o Symbol
 Abbreviation of an
element
 1st letter -> capital
 2nd letter -> lowercase
o Atomic Weight
 The number of protons
and neutrons in the
nucleus
o #of protons=ATOMIC NUMBER
o ATOMIC NUMBER = #of
electrons
o #neutrons = ATOMIC NUMBER
– ATOMIC WEIGHT
 ATOMIC MASS UNIT
o The unit of measurement for
an atom is an AMU. It stands
for atomic mass unit.
o One AMU is equal to the mass
of one proton.
o One AMU is equal to the mass
of one proton.

o (Remember that electrons are
2000 times smaller than one
amu).
 ELEMENTS
o A substance composed of a
single kind of atom.

o Cannot be broken down into
another substance by
chemical or
 COMPOUNDS
o A substance in which two or
more different elements are
CHEMICALLY bonded together
 MIXTURE
o Two or more substances that
are mixed together but are
NOT chemically bonded.
 METALS
o Metals are good conductors
of heat and electricity.

o Metals are shiny.
 o Metals are
ductile (can be stretched into
thin wires).

o Metals are malleable (can be
 pounded into thin sheets).
 o Atoms of different elements
o A chemical property of metal
is its reaction with water which
results in
 NON-METALS
o Non-metals are poor
conductors of heat and
electricity. o Non-metals are
not ductile or malleable.
 o
Solid non-metals are brittle
and break easily.
 o They are
dull.
o Many non-metals are gases.
 METALLOIDS
o Metalloids (metal-like) have
properties of both metals and
non-metals.
o They are solids that can be
shiny or dull.
 o H and O are colorless gases at
o They conduct heat and
electricity better than non-
metals but not as well as
metals.
 o NaCl (salt)
o They are ductile and
malleable.
 FAMILIES
o Columns of elements are
called groups or families.
 flavor and preserve foods
o Elements in each family have
similar but not identical
properties.
 PERIODS
o Horizontal row
o Not alike in properties
LESSON 4: CHEMICAL BONDING
 ELEMENTS COMBINE TO FORM
COMPOUNDS
o Elements combine to form
compounds
o Compounds have different
properties from the elements
that make them
are held together by chemical
bonds
o Bonds help to determine the
properties of a compound
 PROPERTIES OF COMPOUNDS
o Depend on atoms in the
compound
o Depend on how the atoms
are arranged in the
compound
o Example: C and H combine to
form natural gas, auto gas,
waxes in candle, plastics…etc.
 PROPERTIES OF COMPOUNDS
DIFFERENT FROM THE ELEMENTS THAT
MAKE THEM
o H2O (water)
room temperature
o Water is a liquid at room
temperature
o Na is a metallic solid
o Cl is a greenish-yellow gas that
is poisonous
o Table salt (NaCl) is used to
 ATOMS COMBINE IN PREDICTABLE
NUMBERS
o A given compound always
contains atoms of elements in
a specific ratio
o Ammonia NH3 always has a 1:3
ratio of Nitrogen to Hydrogen
 CHEMICAL FORMULA
o Chemical Formula: uses the
chemical symbols to represent
the atoms of the elements and
their ratios in the chemical
compound. H2O 2:1 ratio of
H to O
 CHEMICAL BONDS
 o Chemical bonds are the
“glue” that holds the atoms of
elements together
o Chemical bonds form when
the electrons in the electron
clouds interact
 ATOMS CAN TRANSFER ELECTRONS
o Atoms can transfer electrons
o Ions are formed when atoms
gain or lose electrons
o Gaining electrons = negative
charge
o Losing electrons= positive
charge
o An elements location on the
periodic table gives a clue as
to the type of ions the atoms
of that element will form
o Group 1 metals (Li, Na, K…)
usually lose one electron to
form positive ions.
o Group 2 metals (Be, Mg, Ca…)
usually lose two electrons to
form positive ions.
o Group 17 nonmetals (F, Cl,
Br…) gain one electron to form
ions with a 1- charge.
o Group 16 nonmetals (O, S,
Se…) gain two electrons to
form ions with a 2- charge.
o An elements location on the
periodic table gives a clue as
to the type of ions the atoms
of that element will form
o Group 1 metals (Li, Na, K…)
usually lose one electron to
form positive ions.
o Group 2 metals (Be, Mg, Ca…)
usually lose two electrons to
form positive ions.
o Group 17 nonmetals (F, Cl,
Br…) gain one electron to form
ions with a 1- charge.
o Group 16 nonmetals (O, S,
Se…) gain two electrons to
form ions with a 2- charge.
o Group 1 lose e-
o Group 17 gains 1 e-
o Group 2 lose 2e-
o Group 16 gains 2 e-
 IONIC BONDS
o The force of attraction
between positive and
negative ions.
o Particles with opposite
electrical charges attract
each other
o Atom from element group 1
(1+) combines with an atom
from element group 17 (1-) to
form an ion.
o Example Na combines with Cl
o Na loses 1 electron and Cl
gains the electron
o Creating an ionic bond
 IONIC COMPOUNDS
o Ionic bonds form between all
nearby ions of opposite
charge.
o Ionic bonds form between
non-metal and metal atoms
o Ionic compounds are very
stable and their crystals are
very strong.
o The shape of the crystals
formed depends on the ratio
of positive to negative ions
and the sizes of the ions
 HOW TO NAME A COVALENT
COMPOUND
o STEPS:
1. Write the name of the first
nonmetal.
2. Write the name of the
second nonmetal changing its
 ending to –ide
3. Add prefixes to specify how
many of each element are
present.
 Rules in Naming Covalent
compound:
o The mono-prefix is
usually not used for
the first element in
the formula.
o The “o” and “a” endings of
these prefixes commonly
dropped when they are
attached to “oxide”.
 PREFIXES in Covalent Compound:
o 1- mono
o 6- hexa
o 2- di
o 7- hepta
o 3- tri
o 8- octa
o 4- tetra
o
o

ST. THOMAS OF
AQUINAS PRAY FOR
US
 o 9- nona
o 5- penta
o 10- deca
LESSON 5: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
NOMENCLATURE
1. Determine the number of carbon
atoms in the given chain.
2. Look for functional group present in
the chain .
3. Suffix/prefix changes to “-ane”
“ene”, “al”,” oic acid”, “one” “ol”,
“chloro”, fluoro, iodo, bromo.
4. Write the specific numbers where the
substituents are found.
5. Use prefixes di, tri, tetra to determine
the same type of substituent.
6. suffix changes to “-ane”
7. begin counting the carbons to the
closest/nearest substituents
ALKYL (SUBSTIUENTS)
– numbering the location of the
double bond(s) takes
precedence over the location
of any substituents
3. Substituents name will end in “yl”
ALKENE
1. suffix changes to “-ene”
2. when there are 4 or more carbon atoms
in a chain, the location of the double
bond is indicated by a number
3. begin counting the carbons closest to
the end with the C=C bond
1. numbering the location of the
double bond(s) takes
precedence over the location of
any substituents
2. suffix changes to “-ane”
HALOGENS
4. Write “bromo”, “chloro”, “fluoro” and
“Iodo”, to represent the halogen
substituent
5. begin counting the carbons closest to
the nearest substituent
ALCOHOL
1. numbering the location of the
double bond(s) takes
precedence over the location of
any substituents
2. suffix changes to “-ol”
LESSON 6: THE MOLE CONCEPT
 Counting Atoms
o Chemistry is a quantitative
science - we need a "counting
unit."
o The MOLE
o 1 mole is the amount of
substance that contains as many
particles (atoms or molecules) as
there are in 12.0 g of C-12.
o It is a unit to measure the amount
of any substance
 Counting Atoms
o A mole of anything contains 6.02
x 1023,
o This number is called “Avogadro’s
number”, in honor of the Italian
physicist Amedeo Avogadro
(1776-1856)
o Example: 1 mol of water = 6.02 x
1023 water molecules
 1 mol of Cu = 6.02 x 1023 Cu
atoms
 Amadeo Avogadro (1776 – 1856)
1 Mole 6.022 x 1023
 Molar Mass
o Equivalent to the atomic
weight of an atom.
o to calculate the molar mass of
any given compound, get the
atomic weight of each atoms
multiply it to the given number
of atom and get the sum of
the whole compound.
 Converting Grams and Moles
o Grams to moles
(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠)𝑥(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
o Moles to grams
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠