Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of structures

Module -2

DAMAGE ASSESMENT
DEFINITION

Assessment is the process of systematically gathering information as part of an evaluation.

Evaluation is a broader term that refers to all of the methods used to find out what happens as a
result of using a specific intervention or practice

REASONS FOR CONDUCTING STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS

 To determine the current condition of the structure.
 To specify type; cause; and extent of deterioration, the rate of deterioration, and whether
deterioration is active or not.
 To estimate the remaining time before repair or replacement.
 To evaluate the influence of deterioration on serviceability if repair or replacement is
deferred, and identify whether proposed changes to the structure would affect safety and
service-life of the structure or not.
 To estimate the most cost-effective means to prevent further deterioration to the structure.
 To study the performance of a material under a specific exposure condition

INSPECTION PHASES OF CONCRETE STRUCTURE (METHODOLOGY OF

ASSESSMENT)
1. Preliminary (Rapid) Assessment
 Gather Relevant Information
 Identify Problems
 Determine Possible Causes
 Classification of Identified Problems
 Preliminary Inspection Report
 Recommended Rehabilitation Method
2. Detailed Assessment

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1. Gather Relevant Information

 Before conducting a preliminary inspection, the inspector normally reviews the available
plans, specifications, and construction records. Not only do these documents expedite the
site inspection but also facilitate an evaluation that is more accurate and easier to
perform.

 Some of the data items that are useful in most investigations are- Name, location, type
and size of the structure, Date constructed, Project engineer, contractor who built it,
Concrete supplier, Materials used and sources; and test reports.

 In addition to code requirements that were applicable at the time of design, previous
inspection reports, sketch map, photographs, exposure conditions, and changes to the
structure since it was constructed are assessed

2. Identify Problems
 Specify whether the structure is safe to use or not.
 If the structure appears to pose a safety hazard, defer the inspection. Continue the
inspection only after correction of the unsafe or hazardous conditions.
 Record physical damage or deterioration, displacement or misalignment of elements,
foundation settlement, joint movement, staining, and dampness.
 Additionally, the effects of humidity: condensation, steel corrosion, sulfate attack, and
pop outs should also be recorded

3. Determine Possible Causes

It is extremely important that the causes of a problem are properly identified in order to
achieve a successful repair.
The major causes of concrete problems are the environment, construction practices,
materials, structural movement and previous repairs

4. Classification of Identified Problems

Problems found in the structure are classified on the basis of the area affected, the depth
affected, the volume of concrete affected, the width of cracks, the total length of cracks in a
given area, or other relevant factors. Identified problems are classified into:
 Light
 Medium
 Severe
 Very Severe.

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5. Record Problems and Related Data

 During the preliminary inspection, the inspector records the nature and extent of the
observed problems and identifies the “„affected members.
 Record the frequency and severity of the problems throughout the structure.
 If the location is accessible, inspect both the external and internal surfaces of a structure.
 If possible, photograph the areas of significant distress for later reference.
 Place a familiar object or scale in the photograph to show the relative size of the included
area.
 Describe each observed problem in clear, concise detail.
 Use three-dimensional isometric drawings to show offsets or distortions of structural
features, depth of delamination, location of reinforcement steel, and extent of steel
corrosion.

6. Preliminary Inspection Report

Preliminary inspection report shall contain the following objectives:
 Record the nature and extent of the observed problems.
 Identify the affected members or areas.
 Estimate or define the causes of the problems.
 State the requirement for a detailed investigation

7. Recommended Rehabilitation Method

If the preliminary inspection has identified the concrete problems, and a detailed
investigation is not required, the report may also state the conclusions and make
recommendations for the rehabilitation of the structure. Rehabilitation options can be divided
into the following four categories:
 No repair
 Cosmetic Repair
 Structural Repair
 Replacement

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DETAILED INSPECTION
Purpose for Detailed Inspection.

• In detailed Evaluation, buildings are inspected more thoroughly, with more investigation
into the vertical and lateral load resisting systems
• The purpose of detailed evaluations is not only to identify the level of safety but also to
identify the buildings that can be restored and retrofitted or need to demolish.
• Only limited buildings that are difficult to recommend for retrofit or demolition will be
recommended for detailed quantitative assessment
• However, after detail retrofit design and cost
estimation, if the retrofitting cost is higher, it might be suggested for reconstruction
• General recommendation for feasibility of retrofitting is up to 30% of the reconstruction
cost of the same size building.

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 Field measurements and tests include Delamination; voids; and crack mapping, Corrosion
activity/potential mapping, Carbonation, Concrete cover, spacing of rebars, Concrete
strength and variability, Concrete quality (other than strength), and various non-
destructive test methods are used in the field tests.
 Samples are collected from the site to determine various properties of in-situ concrete.
Samples are generally in the form of cores; broken concrete pieces, powdered samples
extracted by drilling, and sawed beams.
 Samples collected from the fields are tested in the laboratory to obtain necessary
information which may include the compressive strength of concrete, cement content,
chloride and sulphate content, permeability, aggregate type and gradation, alkali-
aggregate reactivity, density, and air voids.
 Inspectors should exercise caution in the interpretation of test results. The test results are
easily misrepresented

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE

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Assessment procedure for evaluating a damaged structure

 Physical Inspection of damaged structure
 Preparation and documenting the damages
 Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in-situ and in lab
 Studying the documents including structural aspects
 Estimation of loads acting on the structure
 Estimate of environmental effects including soil structure interaction Diagnosis
 Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage
 Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed
 Assessment of structural adequacy
 Estimation on future use
 Remedial measures necessary to strengthen and repairing the structure
 Post repair evaluation through tests
 Load test to study the behavior

EVALUATION OF SURFACE AND STRUCTURAL CRACKS

Cracks in the building are a universal problem faced throughout the world. Building
components develops cracks whenever stress in the components exceeds its strength.
Stress in the building components could be caused by externally applied forces such as
dead, live, wind, seismic loads or foundation settlement or could it be induced by
internally due to temperature variations, moisture changes and chemical actions. Cracks
affect the building's artistic look and it destroys the wall integrity, affects the safety of
structure and even reduces the durability of structure.

PRINCIPLES OF INVESTIGATION OF CRACKS

• Discussion With Client/Owner Of The Building

• Visit the site
• Understand The Cracks And Its Causes
• Monitoring And Measuring The Movements Of Crack
• Finding The Suitable techniques To Repair Crack
• Formation Of Report
1. Discussion with Client/Owner of the Building

One of the simplest and most important thing is to discuss with client or owner about the
cracks on the building and gathering information from them. Ask them:
i. When was the building constructed? Date and year of construction?
ii. Ask for building drawings? And the details of constructions if available.
iii. Ask them when the cracks first appeared? Or how long was the cracks seen ?

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iv. Check whether the client makes complaints about pieces of concrete falling,
excessive deflections, large cracks, staining, water leakages?
v. Ask them whether any repair work was carried out if yes, what was the result?
2. Visit the Site
i. When you visit the site, always carry proposed building drawings. Check whether the
building is constructed as per the plan.
ii. Check its present use of the structure or any change in the usage of building.
iii. Photograph the cracks and number them
iv. Mark the width of crack
v. Check for any tilting of walls or tilting of any structural members, deflections, staining,
water leakage, spalling, and corrosion.
vi. Collect the samples from the site.
3. Understand the Cracks and Its Causes
i. Find the type of crack -Is it alive or dead crack.
Find the causes of cracks:
• Is it permeability of concrete,
• corrosion of reinforcement,
• moisture variation,
• temperature variation,
• poor construction practices,
• poor structural design and specifications,
• elastic deformation, creep,
• chemical reaction,
• foundation movement & settlement of soil ,
• growth of vegetation,
4. Monitoring and Measuring the Movements of Cracks
i. Using tell-tale
ii. Crack width gauge
iii. Precision callipers
5. Finding the Suitable techniques To Repair Crack
i. Epoxy injection
ii. Routing and sealing
iii. Stitching
iv. drilling and plugging
v. gravity filling
vi. drying
6. Formation of Report

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UNDERSTANDING THE CRACKS /CLASSIFICATION OF CRACKS

Generally cracks can be divided into two types:
Structural cracks and Non-structural cracks.
(a) Structural Cracks: Structural cracks may rise due to various reasons such as incorrect
design, overloading of the structural components. Structural cracks endanger the stability
of the building and may be difficult to be rectified
(b) Non-structural cracks (Hair cracks): Non-structural cracks are generally due to
internal forces developed in the building materials due to moisture variation, temperature
changes and suitable remedial measures can be taken to control it.

Cracks may appreciably vary in width from very thin hair crack barely visible to naked eye to
gaping crack. Depending upon the crack width,
The cracks are classified as:
➢ Thin Crack -less than 1 mm in width.
➢ Medium Crack -1 to 2 mm in width.
➢ Wide Crack -more than 2 mm in width.
➢ Crazing -Occurrence of closely spaced fine cracks at the surface of a material is called
crazing.
Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks on the surface of concrete or
mortar caused by shrinkage of the surface layer.

CAUSES AND ITS PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF CRACKS

• Change in Moisture(shrinkage)
• Change in Temperature
• Elastic Deformation
• Chemical reaction
• Corrosion of Reinforcement
• Foundation Movement & Settlement of Soil
• Growth of vegetation
• Creep movement

A) Thermal Movement: Most materials expand when they are heated, and contract when
they are cooled. The expansion and contraction with changes in temperature occur
regardless of the structure‟s cross-sectional area. It is one of the most potent causes of
cracking in buildings which need attention.
Preventive Measures:
Joints should be constructed like construction joints, expansion joints, control joints and
slip joints. The joints should be planned at the time of design and be constructed
carefully.

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B) Chemical Reaction: Chemical reactions may occur due to the materials used to make the
concrete or materials that come into contact with the concrete after it has hardened.
Concrete may crack with time as the result of slowly developing expansive reactions
between aggregate containing active silica and alkalis derived from cement hydration,
admixtures or external sources
Preventive Measures:
If sulphate content in soil exceeds 0.2 percent or in ground water exceed 300 ppm, use
very dense concrete and either increase richness of mix to 1:1/5:3 and to prevent cracking
due to corrosion in reinforcement it is desirable to specify concrete of richer mix for thin
sections in exposed locations.

C) Shrinkage:
Most of the building materials expand when they absorb moisture from atmosphere
and shrink when they are dry. Shrinkage can be of plastic or dry.
The factors causing shrinkage in cement concrete and cement mortar and their
preventions are as following.
Excessive Water: The quantity of water used in the mortar mix can cause shrinkage.
Vibrated concrete has less quantity of water and lesser shrinkage than manually
compacted concrete.
Preventive Measures:
Use minimum quantity of water required for mixing cement concrete or cements mortar
according to water cement ratio. Cement concrete is never allowed to work without
mechanical mix and vibration

D) Quantity of Cement: As a general rule, the richer the mix is, the greater the
shrinkage/drying will be.
Preventive Measures: Do not use excessive cement in the mortar mix.

E) Earthquake: Crack may occur due to sudden shift in lower layer of the earth. The voids
in the earth might have suddenly collapsed and be filled with soil from the above. Many
geological events can trigger earth movements but is continuous movement.
Preventive Measures:
Construct the foundation of buildings on firm ground while doing construction. Tie up

F) Vegetation: Fast growing trees in the area around the walls can sometimes cause cracks
in walls due to expansive action of roots growing under the foundation. The cracks occur
in clay soil due to moisture contained by roots.
Preventive Measure:
Do not grow trees too close to the building. Remove any saplings of trees as soon as
possible if they start growing in or near of walls

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G) Poor Construction practices

There is a general lack of good construction practices either due to ignorance,
carelessness, greed or negligence. For a healthy building it is absolutely necessary for the
construction agency and the owner to ensure good quality materials selection and good
construction practices.
Preventive Measure: Proper monitoring and use of good quality of materials is required
at the time of construction.
H) Corrosion Cracks
Under normal conditions, the pH level of concrete is high (above 12.5). The high pH of
concrete allows an inactive layer of ferric oxide to form around the reinforcement,
preventing rust .There are two major causes of corrosion in the reinforcing steel: chloride
penetration and carbonation. Chloride penetration reduces the pH level of the concrete
when oxygen, chlorides, and moisture all penetrate the concrete.Chlorides can be found
in potable water, which should never be used to mix concrete. Carbonation occurs when
carbon dioxide and moisture infiltrate the concrete, reducing the pH level of the concrete.
Both causes of corrosion end similarly. The pH level is the concrete‟s last barrier against
corrosion, so the reinforcement begins to rust. Rust expands the steel to 10 times the
volume, which can cause major problems in the structure

MONITORING AND MEASURING THE MOVEMENTS OF CRACKS

At any stage, crack width can be measured, sometimes it is necessary to find out whether cracks
live or dead , whether they increase with respect to time or not.
Glass Tell-Tales: A commonly used method of doing so is to fix tell-tales consisting of strips of
glass about 2 to 3 cm in width an 10 to 12cm in length across a crack with some quick setting,
mortar or adhesive.

If the crack widens, the tell-tale will crack. In case the crack closes instead of widening out, the
glass strip will either get disjointed at one end or will crack by buckling. When it is thought
necessary to observe the rate of widening of a crack and to measure the extent of widening in

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relation to time, instead of one glass strip, two glass strips are used side by side fixing them to
the background only on one side at opposite ends. A line is drawn across the two glass strips
after fixing, and as and when any widening or narrowing of the crack takes place, lines on the
two strips move relatively to each other and distance between them at any time could be which
would indicate the extent of movement up to the time of making the observation

TECHNIQUES TO REPAIR CRACK

1. Epoxy Injection

• Epoxy-injection Grouting Cracks as narrow as 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) can be bonded by the
injection of epoxy.
• Epoxy injection has been successfully used in the repair of cracks in buildings, bridges,
dams, and other types of concrete structures.
The general procedure are given below
1. Clean the cracks (oil, grease, dirt, or fine particles)
2. Fitting inserted into drilled holes
3. Seal the surface (epoxy, polyester, or other appropriate sealing material)
4. Mix the epoxy
5. Inject the epoxy
6. Remove the surface seal
 Epoxy injection has been successfully used in the repair of cracks in buildings, bridges,
dams, and other types of concrete structures (ACI 503R). However, unless the cause of
the cracking has been corrected, it will probably recur near the original crack. If the cause
of the cracks cannot be removed, then two options are available.
 One is to rout and seal the crack, thus treating it as a joint, or, establish a joint that will
accommodate the movement and then inject the crack with epoxy or other suitable
material.
 With the exception of certain moisture tolerant epoxies, this technique is not applicable if
the cracks are actively leaking and cannot be dried out.
 Wet cracks can be injected using moisture tolerant materials, but contaminants in the
cracks (including silt and water) can reduce the effectiveness of the epoxy to structurally
repair the cracks.
 The use of a low-modulus, flexible adhesive in a crack will not allow significant
movement of the concrete structure. The effective modulus of elasticity of a flexible
adhesive in a crack is substantially the same as that of a rigid adhesive because of the thin
layer of material and high lateral restraint imposed by the surrounding concrete.

2. Routing and Sealing of Cracks

• This is a common technique for crack treatment and is relatively simple in comparison to
the producers and the training required for epoxy injection
• The procedure is most applicable to the flat horizontal surface such as floors and
pavement

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• This is method is used to repair both fine cracks and larger, Isolated cracks
• The sealant may be several materials like epoxies, silicones, urethanes, polysulfide's,
polymer materials etc.
• The procedure consists of preparing a groove at the ranging in depth, typically from 6 to
25 mm. A concrete saw, hand tool or pneumatic tools may be used
• The sealant is placed into the dry groove and allowed to cure

3. Concrete Crack Repair by Stitching

 Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting in U-shaped
metal units with short legs (staples or stitching dogs) that span the crack as shown in
Fig.3. Stitching may be used when tensile strength must be re-established across major
cracks.
 The stitching procedure consists of drilling holes on both sides of the crack, cleaning the
holes, and anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes, with either a non-shrink grout or
an epoxy resin-based bonding system

4. Additional Reinforcement for Crack Repair

Conventional reinforcement
 Cracked reinforced concrete bridge girders have been successfully repaired by inserting
reinforcing bars and bonding them in place with epoxy.
 This technique consists of sealing the crack, drilling holes that intersect the crack plane at
approximately 90 deg (Fig.4), filling the hole and crack with injected epoxy and placing a
reinforcing bar into the drilled hole.
 Typically, No. 4 or 5 (10 M or 15 M) bars are used, extending at least 18 in. (0.5 m) each
side of the crack. The reinforcing bars can be spaced to suit the needs of the repair. They
can be placed in any desired pattern, depending on the design criteria and the location of
the in-place reinforcement.

5. Drilling and Plugging Method

 Drilling and plugging a crack consists of drilling down the length of the crack and
grouting it to form a key
 This technique is only applicable when cracks run in reasonable straight lines and are
accessible at one end. This method is most often used to repair vertical cracks in retaining
walls. A whole [typically 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm) in diameter] should be drilled, cantered
on and following the crack.
 The grout key prevents transverse movements of the sections of concrete adjacent to the
crack. The key will also reduce heavy leakage through the crack and loss of soil from
behind a leaking wall.
 If water-tightness is essential and structural load transfer is not, the drilled hole should be
filled with a resilient material of low modulus in lieu of grout. If the keying effect is
essential, the resilient material can be placed in a second hole, the fiat being grouted.

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6. Gravity Filling
Low viscosity epoxies can gravity fill cracks. This method is ideal for areas with
multiple surface cracks that are dormant such as plastic shrinkage cracks.
The area and cracks are cleaned with air or water blasting (and allowed to dry) before
flooding the area with the monomer or resin. If cracks are full of dirt, moisture or other
contaminants, penetration of the repair material into cracks is poor.

DESTRUCTIVE, NON-DESTRUCTIVE, SEMI DESTRUCTIVE TESTING SYSTEM

DESTRUCTIVE TEST.
Tests performed on hardened concrete are
a) Compression strength concrete-Cube Test
b) Tensile strength of concrete
c) Flexural Strength
d) Bond strength
e) Impact strength

a) Compression strength concrete-Cube Test

What is the Compressive strength?
 Compressive strength is the capacity of material or structure to resist or withstand under
compression. The Compressive strength of a material is determined by the ability of the
material to resist failure in the form cracks and fissure.
 In this test, the push force applied on the both faces of concrete specimen and the
maximum compression that concrete bears without failure is noted
 The specimens are cast in steel moulds generally 150mm cubes, which should conform
within narrow tolerances to the cubical shape, prescribed dimension and planeness.
 Mould and its base must be clamped together during casting in order to prevent leakage
of mortar
 Concrete is filled into mould in three layers and each layer of concrete is compacted as
per the IS Specification(35 tamping in each layer)
 Top surface of the cube has to be finished
 Then the cube is stored undisturbed for 24 hours at a temperature of 220-320c
 At the end of this period mould is removed and the cube is further cured in water at room
temperature
 Cubes are placed with the cast face in contact with the platens of testing machine

 Load on the cube in now applied at a constant rate of stress equal to 0.2 to 0.4 Mpa per
second.

 Load at failure is noted, which gives the compressive strength,Strenght = load /Area

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b) Tensile strength of concrete

 Tensile strength of concrete can be proudly done in two ways,
a) Direct method b) Indirect Method
 Direct method has lots of difficulties, hence the indirect methods are derived
 Split tensile test is a well know indirect test used for determining the tensile strength of
concrete
 The standard size of cylinder used for testing is 150mm dia and 300 mm length
 Procedure is similar to that used with cubes but there are difference in details While
testing cylinders must be placed in such a way that, the flat surface/top surface of the
cylinder is in contact with the platen of the testing machine.
 Computations: Calculate the splitting tensile strength of the specimen as follows:
T = 2P/ πLd.
Where: T: splitting tensile strength, kPa
P : maximum applied load indicated by testing machine, kN
L : Length, m
d : diameter,
Procedure
 Prepare three cylindrical concrete specimens.
 After moulding and curing the specimens for seven days in water, they can be tested. The
cylindrical specimen is placed in a manner that the longitudinal axis is perpendicular to
the load.
 Two strips of nominal thick plywood, free of imperfections, approximately (25mm)
wide, and of length equal to or slightly longer than that of the specimen should be
provided for each specimen.
 The bearing strips are placed between the specimen and both upper and lower bearing
blocks of the testing machine.
 The load shall be applied without shock and increased continuously at a nominal rate
within the range 1.2 N/(mm2/min) to 2.4 N/ (mm2/min)
 Record the maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine at failure. Note the
type of failure and appearance of fracture

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c) Flexural Strength
 Flexural tensile strength test also called modulus of rupture determined in the
laboratory by third-point flexural loading test.
 Indian standard determined the size of the concrete specimen as 150mm width,
150mm depth, and span of 700mm.
 It also states that a size of 100mm width, 100mm depth, and span of 500mm can be
used if the maximum aggregate size used is not greater than 19mm.
 The specimen should be cast and cured in the same manner as for casting of cubes.
The specimens should be stored under water for at least 48 hours before testing and
should be immediately tested on removal from the water
 The specimen is placed in the universal testing machine on two rollers at a center to
center distance of 600 mm.
 The load is applied through two similar rollers mounted at the third points of the
supporting span.that is spaced at 200 mm center to center.
 The load is applied continuously until the specimen fails. The load at fracture, the
type of failure and appearance of fracture are noted.

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d) BOND STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

OBJECTIVE

To determine the bond strength between ordinary mild steel bars and cement concrete.

 In a reinforced concrete beam with overlapping reinforcement

 By pullout test
PROCEDURE
 Prepare 1:2:4 concrete mix and having water cement ratio equal to 0.6. For this take 17
kg cement, 34 kg sand, 68 kg coarse aggregate and 10.2 kg of water.
 Cast the concrete beam of size 100 m x 150 mm x 1830 mm. using two 10 mm bars
having an effective cover of 12.5 mm and overlapping of 200 mm in the middle. The four
pieces of bars will have hooks at one end only. Cast three cubes along with the beam for
finding crushing strength of concrete.
 Cast three cylinders upto a height of 200 mm with a 10 mm dia rod placed at the centre of
cylinder.
 Remove the specimens from the moulds after 24 hours and put them in water. Test the
beam after 27 days of wet curing applying the load gradually on 50 KN transverse testing
machine or on a loading reactions frame. Test the three cubes in compression.
 Perform the pull out test on 100 KN universal testing machine using pull out test
attachment at 28 days age.
 Attach a dial gauge for finding out the slip between steel and concrete and plot the curve
between load and slip.
 Note the load at 0.125 mm slip and at bond failure.

NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Why NDT?
• Assessment of existing structure in the absence of drawings
• Quick assessment of the structure
• Quality control of construction, in situ
• Deterring position of reinforcement
• Location of cracks/joints/Honey combing
• In some cases, it required to assess of concrete damaged due to fire or any other natural
calamity due judge the condition of structure
NDT Advantages
• Access to hidden items- “see through walls”
• Better investigation with NDT
• Rapid and on site accumulation of data
• Generally less expensive than destructive testing
• Gives result without structural damage
NDT Disadvantages
• More than one test method may be required

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• Environmental conditions may affect or distort results

• Construction details & building components may affect results
• Some conditions cannot be determined with a reasonable degree of accuracy without
destructive testing
Tests on In-situ testing of concrete
1. Rebound Hammer Test
2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
3. Propometer
4. Corrosion analyzer

1. Rebound Hammer Test

Object
 To find the compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable correlation between
rebound index and compressive strength
 Assessing the uniformity of concrete
 Assessing the quality of concrete in relation to standard requirement.
Principle
It works on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the
surface against which the mass impinge

Procedure for Rebound Hammer Test

 Rebound Hammer consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on a tubular housing
 When the plunger is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring controlled
mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness and,
therefore, the rebound is related to the compressive strength of the concrete
 The rebound value is read along a graduated scale and is designated as the “rebound
number".
 The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the
hammer
 For taking a measurement, the hammer should be held at right angle to the surface of the
structure. the test can thus be conducted horizontally on vertical surfaces or vertically
upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces

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Points to Remember in Rebound Hammer Test

 For testing smooth clean and dry surface is to be selected
 Rough surface resulting from incomplete compaction, loss of grout, spalled surface do
not give reliable result and should be avoided
 The point of impact should be at least 20 mm away from any edge or shape discontinuity
 For taking measurement the rebound hammer should be held at right angle to the surface
of concrete member
 Around each point of observation, six average of these reading of rebound indices are
taken and average of these reading after deleting outliers becomes the rebound index for
the point of observation
Interpretation of results
The rebound reading on the indicator scale has been calibrated by the manufacture of the
rebound hammer for horizontal impact

Advantages and Disadvantages of Rebound Hammer Test

The advantages of Rebound hammer tests are:

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1. Apparatus is easy to use

2. Determines uniformity properties of the surface
3. The equipment used is inexpensive
4. Used for the rehabilitation of old monuments
5. A wide variety of concrete test hammers is available with an operational range of M10 to M
70
The disadvantages of Rebound Hammer Test
1. The results obtained is based on a local point
2. The test results are not directly related to the strength and the deformation property of the
surface
3. The probe and spring arrangement will require regular cleaning and maintenance
4. Flaws cannot be detected with accuracy

2. ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY

Object
• The homogeneity of the concrete
• The presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections
• Changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time
• The quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements
• The values of dynamic elastic modulus of the concrete
Principle
The method is based on the principle that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any
material depends upon the density, modulus of elasticity of material.
Introduction
An ultra-sonic pulse velocity test as an in-situ, non-destructive test to check the quality of
concrete and natural rock. In this test, the strength and quality of concrete or rock is assessed by
measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse passing through a ultrasonic wave through concrete
to be tested and measuring the time taken by pulse to get through the structure. Higher velocities
indicate good quality and continuity of the material, while slower velocities may indicate
concrete with many cracks or void.

Testing Procedure
Ultrasonic testing equipment includes a pulse generation circuit, consisting of electronic circuit
for generating pulses and a transducer for transforming electronic pulse into mechanical pulse
having an oscillation frequency in range of 40 KHz to 50 KHz, and a pulse reception circuit that
receives the signal. The transducer, clock, oscillation circuit, and power source are assembled for
use. After calibration to a standard sample of material with known properties, the transducers are
placed on opposite sides of the material. Pulse velocity is measured by a simple formula

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ADVANTAGES AND DIS ADVNTAGES OF ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST

Advantages
 High penetrating power
 High sensitivity
 Greater accuracy
 Some capability in estimating the size,shape,nature of flaws
 Portability
Disadvantages
 Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians
 Difficulty in inspecting the parts which are irregular.
 Requirement of the couplants
 Test objects should be water resistant

3. PROFOMETER
Principle:
The principle is based upon the measurement of change of an electromagnetic field caused by
steel embedded in the concrete.

 It is used to measure the concrete cover and bar diameter in existing RCC structures.
 The equipment is useful for investigating the structures where drawings are not available.
 The equipment consist of data logger, diameter probe and calibration blocks.
 The equipment has sufficient memory store the scanned data.
 The meter needle is zeroed and the probe moved over the concrete surface and rotated to
obtain a maximum reading and this position correspond to the location of reinforcement
bar.
 It is used for (a) measuring concrete cover (b) detecting reinforcing bar (c) determine bar
size and direction

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4. CORROSION ANALYZER
Principle- Corrosion analyzer is based on electro chemical process to detect corrosion in
the reinforcement bar of the structure. The instrument measures the potential and the
electrical resistance between the reinforcement and the surface to evaluate the corrosion
activity
Procedure
 The instrument measures the potential and the electrical resistance between the
reinforcement and the surface to evaluate the corrosion activity as well as the
actual condition for the cover layer during testing
 The electrical activity of the steel reinforcement and concrete leads them to be
considered as one half of weak battery cell with the steel acting as one electrode
and concrete as electrolyte
 The name half-cell surveying derives from the fact that the one half of the battery
cell is considered to be the steel reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete.
 This risk of corrosion is evaluated by means of the potential gradient obtained.
The higher the gradient, the higher risk of corrosion. ASTM C – 876 prescribes a
half potential method for detection of reinforcement corrosion. The results can be
interpreted based on the following table

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5. HALF-CELL POTENTIOMETER TES

 It is used to assets reinforcement corrosion.
 The test is performed on a beam of size 600mmx300mmx60mm in which one half is
casted with salt water and other half is casted with normal water.

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SEMI DESTRUCTIVE TESTING SYDTEMS

 Windsor probe (penetration test)
 core cutter machine
 Permeability tester
 Carbonation depth measurement test
 Pull off test and pull out test
 Break off test

1. WINDSOR PROBE (PENETRATION TEST)

Principle- The principle of Windsor probe is like that of rebound hammer .The
penetration of the probe reflects the precise compressive strength in area of concern.
There is a graph provided between the penetration length and the compressive strength by
which compressive strength can be known.

Procedure
 This equipment consists of a power-activated gun or driver unit, hardened alloy probe,
loaded art-ridge and a measuring instrument such as depth gauge etc. The probes are 6.35
mm in diameter and 79.5mm in length. Larger diameter probes (7.94mm) are also
available for testing light weight concrete.
 Probe is threaded in to the probe-driving head and fired into the concrete using a
template.
 The driver utilizes a standard power cartridge. The power level can be reduced when
testing low strength concrete by locating the probe at a fixed position within the driver
barrel.
 Two types of templates are provided with the equipment‟s e.g. Single probe template and
a three probe triangular template. Exposed length of probe is correlated to the
compressive strength of concrete.

2. CORE CUTTER MACHINE

Objective
 It is used for estimation of physical characteristics of masonry / concrete by extracting
core samples from the structure.
 The maximum depth of the core which can be cut is 430 mm. The diameter of cutters is
52mm and 78mm.
Principle
A core is usually cut by means of rotary cutting tool with diamond bit Water
supply is also very necessary to lubricate the cutter. The core which is extracted
from existing structure is used for various testing's like compressive strength,
crack depth, water absorption etc.

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Procedure
 A core size of 50mm or 70mm dia. is taken out from the member using diamond
bits
 The length to core dia. ratio shall be normally between 1.0 to 2.0 (preferably 2.0).
The core dia. shall be at least three times the nominal maximum size of the
aggregate
 The location for taking out the sample should be decided so that it does not have
any reinforcement.

3. PERMEABILITY TESTER

Principle- Permeability tests measure the ease with which liquids, ions and gases can
penetrate into the concrete. In situ tests are available for assessing the ease with which
water, gas and deleterious matter such as chloride ions can penetrate into the concrete.

Main Uses -Used to locate cracks, porosity, and other defects that break the surface of a
material and have enough volume to trap and hold the penetrate material. Liquid
penetrate testing is used to inspect large areas very efficiently and will work on most
nonporous materials

Procedure
 It operates under vacuum and can be used at the building site and also in the
laboratory
 The essential features of the method of measurement are a two chamber vacuum
cell and pressure regulator which ensures an air flow at right angles to the surface
and into the inner chamber.
 Dry surface without cracks should be selected for test .It should we ensured that
inner chambers should not be located above the reinforcement bar
 Pressure loss is calibrated from time to time and after a large change in
temperature and pressure. 3 to 6 measurements of electrical resistance of the
concrete and its mean value is taken for the measurement of coefficient of
permeability

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4. CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

 Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere in the
presence of moisture, reacts with hydrated cement minerals to produce carbonates.
 The measurements of carbonation depth using the Phenolphthalein solution
 Spraying the indicator on the split surface of the concrete cylinder.
 The solution becomes a pink color in the carbonated concrete.
 Carbonation depth up to an accuracy of 5 mm can be identified with the naked eye

5. CONCRETE PULL OUT TEST PROCEDURE:

OBJECTIVES
 To determine Whether the reinforced concrete structure may be placed into service or
 To determine the strength of concrete for carrying out post- tensioning operations or
 To Measure the time for removal of forms and shores based on the actual strength of the
in-situ concrete; or
 To terminate the curing of concrete based on the targeted strength achievement.
 Furthermore, post-installed pull out test may be used to estimate the strength of concrete
in existing construction.

PROCEDURE
 The principle of LOK Test is same as concrete pull out test. The correlation is achieved
by measuring the force required to pull a 25 mm diameter cast in steel disc.
 Steel disc is embedded 25 mm in depth in fresh concrete at a time of concreting. The steel
disc should be precisely embedded in concrete so that air voids are not formed below the
steel disc. Pull bolt is attached to the steel disc and after the curing period, the 25 mm
steel disc is pulled until failure of the concrete occurs.
 As the LOK Test insert (steel disc) is pulled out, a roughly cone shaped fragment of the
concrete is extracted and the pull out force is measured.
 This test is carried out for early age strength estimation, to find out the compressive
strength with help of calibration curve. It is prepared based on laboratory and field tests
conducted on concrete cubes and pull out sample cast with various grades of concrete.
 LOK test is one of the famous concrete pull out test, which is used to evaluate structure
early age strength of the structure

6. PULL OFF TEST:

 In Pull off Test, the traction force (pull force) required to pull off a metallic disc
bonded to a surface of the concrete is related to the compressive strength of the
material. The traction is axially transmitted to the disc previously bonded to the
concrete with the help of resin or adhesive.
 After a period of time enough to cure the resin or adhesive, a traction force (pull
force) is applied to the disc by portable mechanical equipment. The gradual increase
of force in MPa can be measured in equipment that has an integrated digital
manometer.

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 The gradual increase in pull force cause breakage and can directly record on a scale
and maximum tension is logged, as soon as the pull off of concrete happens. Relate
the pull off force with the calibration curves and estimate the compressive strength.
 The test was conducted with a surface cut of 5 mm deep according to the dimension
of the metallic disc. The surface cut is necessary for the surface which is affected by
carbonation effect. The surface needs to be clean before the bonding of metallic disc
with concrete.

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