Beruflich Dokumente
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COLLEGE OFAGRICULTURE
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INTRODUCTION TO TRACTORS
A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or
torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or
construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle that provides the
power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially (and originally) tillage, but
nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricultural implements 0may be towed behind or mounted
on the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of power if the implement is
mechanised.
The word Tractor is derived prior to 1900, the Machine were known as traction motor (pulling-
machine).After the year 1900 both the words are joined by taking ‘Tract’ from Traction and
‘Tor” from motor calling it a Tractor.
In our Country tractors were started manufacturing in real sense after independence and at
present we are self-sufficient in meeting demand of country’s requirement for tractors. Our
country is basically an agricultural country where 75% of our population is directly or indirectly
connected with agriculture. This cannot be produced with our conventional bullock pulled
agricultural implements. Tractor is one of the basic agricultural machines
used for speeding up agriculture production.
In the UK, the Republic of Ireland, Australia, India, Spain, Argentina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia,
and Germany, the word "tractor" usually means "farm tractor", and the use of the word "tractor"
to mean other types of vehicles is familiar to the vehicle trade, but unfamiliar to much of the
general public. In Canada and the USA, the word may also refer to the road tractor portion of a
tractor trailer truck, but also usually refers to the piece of farm equipment
Tractors can be generally classified by number of axles or wheels, with main categories of two-
wheel tractors (single-axle tractors) and four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors); more axles are
possible but uncommon. Among four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors), most are two-wheel
drive (usually at the rear); but many are two-wheel drive with front wheel assist, four-wheel
drive (often with articulated steering), or track tractors (with steel or rubber tracks).
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The classic farm tractor is a simple open vehicle, with two very large driving wheels on an axle
below and slightly behind a single seat (the seat and steering wheel consequently are in the
center), and the engine in front of the driver, with two steerable wheels below the engine
compartment. This basic design has remained unchanged for a number of years, but enclosed
cabs are fitted on almost all modern models, for reasons of operator safety and comfort. In some
localities with heavy or wet soils, notably in the Central Valley of California, the "Caterpillar" or
"crawler" type of tracked tractor became popular in the 1930s, due to superior traction and
flotation. These were usually maneuverer through the use of turning brake pedals and separate
track clutches operated by levers rather than a steering wheel.
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On the basis of purpose, wheeled tractor is classified into three groups.
i) General purpose tractor:
It is used for major farm operations such as ploughing, harrowing, sowing, harvesting and
transporting work. Such tractors are characterized by having Low ground clearance,
increased engine power, good adhesion and wide tyres to lower the pressure that will help to
avoid compaction of the soil during operation.
ii) Row crop tractor:
It is used for furrowing crop cultivation. Such tractor is provided with replaceable driving
wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground clearance to save damage of crops. Wide
wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter row distance.
iii) Special purpose tractor
It is used for definite jobs like cotton field, marshy land, hill sides, garden, industrial, earth-
moving tractors etc. Special designs are there for special purpose tractor.
iv) Orchard tractors:
These are special type of tractors, are mainly used in orchards. These tractors have big height
so that while sitting on the tractor the driver can easily pluck the fruit or the trees can easily
be trimmed. There is no part of this machine outside the surface and allows easy passage in
between the trees. Such tractors have
Less weight
Less width and
No projected parts.
Selection of tractors.
Land holding: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1
hp for every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor of 20-25 hp is suitable for 40
hectares farm.
Cropping pattern: Generally 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where adequate
irrigation facilities are available and more than and crop is taken. So a 30-35 hp tractor is
suitable for 40 hectares farm.
Soil condition: A tractor with less wheel base, higher ground clearance and low overall
weight may work successfully in higher soil but it will not be able to give sufficient depth
in black cotton soil.
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Climatic condition: For very hot zone and desert area, air cooled engines are preferred
over water-cooled engines. Similarly for higher altitude, air cooled engines are preferred
because water is liable to be frozen at higher altitude.
Repairing facilities: It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased has a dealer at
nearby place with all the technical skills for repair and maintenance of machine.
Running cost: Tractors with less specific fuel consumption should be preferred over
others so that running cost may be less.
Initial cost and resale value: While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost
should not be very high, otherwise higher amount of interest will have to be paid.
Test report: Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations should be
consulted for guidance.
TRACTOR COMPONENTS
Due to the development of technology makes tractors to be digitals (the tractor which uses
electronics systems to operates) or analogy (tractors which uses manuals components for
operations).
Tractor components refers to basics components that makes tractor to operate.
The following are main components of Tractors:
(i) I. C. engine
(ii) Clutch
(iii) Transmission gears
(iv) Differential unit
(v) Final drive
(vi) Rear wheels
(vii) Front wheels
(viii) Steering mechanism
(ix) Hydraulic control and hitch system
(x) Brakes
(xi) Power take-off unit
(xii) Tractor pulley and
(xiii) Control panel.
Note: Every tractor is fitted with an I. C. engine, the engine may be carburettor type or diesel
type but nowadays almost all the tractors are diesel tractors.
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(i) Internal combustion engine(I.C.engines)
I.C engines refers; to engines that creates energy by burning fuel inside itself. The engine
of tractor is the main chief component that drives the tractors to work in all activities in
farms.
I.C engines are classified according to the following;
Ignition system
Number of strokes
Internal combustion
Fuel systems.
(ii) Clutch
Clutch is a device, used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the
transmission gears and drive wheels. Clutch transmits power by means of friction
between driving members and driven members
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Types of clutch Clutches
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Common gears used on tractor are of two (2) types, these are;
a. Selective sliding type
b. Constant mesh type
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Diagram showing differential unit
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(vi) Steering mechanism (system)
This system governs the angular movement of front wheels of a tractor, it minimizes the efforts
of the operator in turning the front wheel with the application of leverages. The different
components of this system are: (i) steering wheel; (ii) steering shaft; (iii)steering gear; (iv)
pitman arm: (v) drag link; (vi) steering arm; (vii) tie rod and (viii) king pin
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vii) Hydraulic control and hitch system
Hydraulic system
This is the mechanism in a tractor to raise, hold, lower the mounted or semi mounted equipment
by hydraulic means. All tractors are equipped with hydraulic control system for operating three
point hitch or the tractor.
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This is the mechanism where the tractor implements or equipments can be towed or pulled
through the tractive power of the engine via drawbar or power take off system, the hitching
system consists of drawbar and three point hitches or quick hitches.
ix) Brakes
Brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of a tractor. It is mounted on the driving axle and
operated by two independent pedals. Each pedal can be operated independently to assist the
turning of tractor during the field work or locked together by means of a lock.
Principle of Operation.
Brake works on the principle of friction. When a moving element is brought into contact with a
stationary element, the motion of the moving element is affected. This is the due to frictional
force which acts in opposite direction of the motion and converts the kinetic energy into heat
energy.
Classification of Brake.
Brakes can be classified as:
(i) Mechanical brake and
-Internal expanding shoe type
- External contracting shoe type
-Disc type.
(ii) Hydraulic brake.
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x) Power Take off Shaft (P.T.O Shaft)
Power take off shaft usually known as P.T.O shaft. In now-a-days a standard fitting on
all tractors and is used for running rotator, fertilizer spreader, duster, sprinkler and many
more machines which are stationary such as: threshers, water pump, portable flour mill
etc.
These shafts either run on 540 or 1000 rpm old standard (1938) specified speed of 540
rpm and number of P.T.O shaft splines was 6 in number. While the new standard has
specified 21 splendid P.T.O shaft running at 1000 rpm with new generation high
performance machine it was necessary for more speed. But we have lots of old tractors
having 540rpm P.T.O shaft while the equipment now available is for 1000rpm.
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xi) Rear wheels and Front wheel
Rear wheels
The rear wheel s of the tractor are large in size compared to the front wheels , the
rear wheels they receive power from the engine and trapped to the differential units
which make the rear wheels to work independently so the rear wheels are the one
which provide the traction power that moves the tractor back and forth, and when
cornering the outer wheel rotate faster than the inner wheel.
Front wheels. The front wheel of the tractor are small in size compared to the rear
wheels.
Diagram showing both rear and from wheel of John Deere Tractor
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TRACTOR ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Is the machine that convert energy from heat energy to mechanical energy.
Also can be defined as powerful motor-driven vehicle with large heavy treads, used for pulling
farm machinery to work, it uses energy from liquid fuel/steam to produce movement.
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(ii) Gasoline powered tractor engine
Tractors using gasoline engines were developed not long after their steam counterparts.
Gasoline engine fuel and air is injected into small metal cylinders. A piston compresses
the mixture making it explosive and a small electric spark from a sparking plug sets to it
that makes the mixture explode, generating power that pushes the piston down the
cylinder and turns the wheels. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into
small droplets and that is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporized
fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapor is then ignited by the heat from
compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporize from their
surface and burn getting smaller until all the fuel in droplet has been burnt. Combustion
occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke. The
start of vaporization causes a delay before ignition and the characteristics diesel knocking
sound as the vapor reaches ignition temperature and causes as abrupt increases in
pressure above the piston. When combustion is complete the combustion gas.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
The engine performance is measured by power output, economy, durability and emission. They
can as well be summarized as input and output which are
Output; transmitted in rotational form and hence measured in terms of torque as
rotational effort (N.m) and speed as rotational motion (rad/sec).the torque will be
represented by the way the torque load is applied the engine varies with the speed.
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Input; is in the form of fuel metered into the air by the carburetor during its passage to
cylinder (diesel) and air drawn into the engine acting as pump.
The maximum output of the engine is effectively determined by the maximum input, the limiting
factor being the quantity of air (charge) drawn into the cylinder on each stroke. This in turn will
depend on:
For a given engine at high speed, the time available for the air to enter the cylinders is so short
that the air charge is reduced and at low speed, the time available for the air to enter the cylinders
is longer but heating of the air in the cylinder reduces the charge. Hence, for a given engine,
there is an optimum speed at which most air is drawn in; at both higher and lower speeds, less air
enters.
Because the output (torque) from the engine depends on input (air), the maximum output
(torque) coincides approximately with maximum air charge .More fuel will give slightly greater
output torque, but most of the extra fuel will be wasted and will appear as black, un-burnt carbon
in the exhaust gas.
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The types of engine which are commonly used in our country are the fuel type engines which are
also part of the combustion engine. The combustion engines are categorized into two mainly
types external combustion engines and the internal combustion engine; whereby the fuel type
engine are in the external combustion engine category. Combustion engines also vary based on
the type of fuel they burn.
Gasoline is a liquid fuel derived from petroleum (crude oil). Grades of gasoline differ based
on octane rating (premium or "leaded" vs. regular or "unleaded"). Higher octane gasoline can
withstand more compression before combustion, and is needed in some engines
designed for higher compression to prevent knocking (uncontrolled combustion in the
cylinder). Gasoline engines are also called spark ignition engines, meaning the fuel is burned
by generating a spark from a spark plug in the cylinder.
Diesel is a liquid fuel made of long hydrocarbons derived from crude oil. Diesel has a high
energy density and thus has better fuel economy (over 33% more efficient) than gasoline, but
burns more dirty. Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for diesel with low sulfur
content; most grades of diesel fuel used today are ULSD. Diesel engines are compression
ignition engines, meaning the fuel is burned by using compressed (high pressure) air to raise
the temperature beyond the self-ignition (auto-ignition) point of the fuel. Because they do not
use an ignition source (spark), diesel engines often require warming up under very cold
conditions before use. Diesel engines also provide more torque than gasoline engines.
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TRACTOR ENGINE WITH LABELLED PARTS
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MECHANICS OF TRACTOR CHASSIS
Chassis is the base frame of a farm tractor on which all the components and assemblies like
Engine, Transmission, Tires, Front Axle, Steering Systems and Electrical Systems are attached.
So, the overall structure which binds all these components together in a tractor is called tractor
chassis. It is built very strong to bear the heavy lad and shocks received while working on the
farms.
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member and transmission links. It has been observed that tractors which use Automotive Engines
have heavy duty sump which works as connecting link.
Rim pull.
Is a term which is used to designate the tractive force between the rubber tyres of the driving
wheels and the surface on which they travel. The coefficient of traction is high enough to
eliminate tyre slippage. The maximum rim pull is a function of the power of the engine and the
gear ratios between the engine and the diving wheels.
TRACTION THEORY
Pneumatic tyres are used for common tractors when such a tractor moves over soil, it has to
overcome the rolling resistance R as shown.
F = A[C+P ]
F = [AC+W ]
P = Soil pressure
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C = Cohesion of soil
Angle of internal friction of soil
W = AP= Vertical load over the shearing area.
It is evident that tractive force is usually dependent upon vertical force and the area of shearing
for a track type tractor, the soil pressure P is given by
Where B is the width of each track and L is the length of track in contact with the soil.
For pneumatic tired wheel the contact area with the soil is an ellipse and for that uniform soil
pressure P is given by.
Rolling resistance.
The rolling resistance due to soil compaction can be approximated by assuming that
the energy required to overcome the rolling resistance is equal to the work done in
deforming the soil. The rolling resistance R can be obtained by the relationship.
Where
N = coefficient of wheel sinkage
Kc = Cohesive modulus of soil deformation
Kα = Friction modulus of soil deformation
B = Width of each track
W = Vertical load over the shearing area.
L = Length of track in contact
This equation is derived by assuming a flat plate as in a crawler tractor. This equation is
approximately correct also for rubber tired tractors when the rolling resistance and tractive force
are calculated the useful pull P can be obtained by the equation.
P=F-R
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TRACTOR SAFETY
The following matters need to be considered in relation to tractor safety;
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NOTE:
A copy of all operating manuals and other relevant safety materials should be kept on file
for quick reference.
Use Tractor for Intended Purposes
The tractor has many uses around the farm, however, improper use can result in an accident. For
example, using the tractor to round up the cattle is dangerous because the operator may
encounter rough, uneven ground and make sharp turns at high speeds.
Safety Check:
Walk around the tractor and any attached implement checking the area for obstacles that may be
under or near the tractor. This includes stones, boards, children's toys etc. Make sure there are no
bystanders; remember this is a work area. Check that the wheels are free, not frozen or stuck in
the ground. If the rear wheels are frozen to the ground, then the tractor may flip backwards
around the axle when power is applied. Check for any loose parts or objects on the tractor such
as tools on the platforms or around brakes and other controls.
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Before servicing hydraulic systems:
1. Shut off the engine powering the hydraulic pump.
2. Lower the implement to the ground.
3. Relieve pressure by moving the hydraulic control lever back and forth.
4. If working around or under a raised implement, make sure that it is blocked or supported
by something other than the cylinder itself.
5. Use a piece of cardboard or wood to check for leaks in hoses and fittings. Even a small
amount of pressurized hydraulic fluid can be injected through the skin and cause severe
health problems. Seek medical attention immediately if hydraulic fluid penetrates your
skin.
6. Use caution when releasing blocks or transport locks on equipment. If a cylinder has
leaked and lost pressure, the implement may fall to the ground as the locks are released.
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TRACTOR TESTING
The information on the power performance on the tractor is required for various purposes for
management and for selection between models. The need for having reliable data performance
through tractor testing is very important.
In testing tractor the following areas are very important;
1. Identification of stock model, which includes: manufacturer, tractor from, ground drive,
transmission, implement working system, tractor serial number, engine number,
recommended fuel, fuel setting.
2. Power output supply, includes Engine, crankshaft, belt pulley, drawbar.
3. Accommodation, attachment and accessories.
4. Power take- off.
5. Steering stability, belt pulley and belt speed.
6. Fuel power test.
7. Performance generally; high or low
TRACTOR MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of tractor basically can be done before and after work hours for better detection of
the problems;
(i) Before work hours.
Check oil level by using deep stick, deep stick has two levels which are maximum
and minimum levels, level of oil should not be at minimum level.
Water level, water should be fully at the radiator.
Tyres pressure should be at its required quality.
Hydraulic at the steering should also be at its best level.
Generally it can be done whenever there is any problem for safety and life span of your
tractor.
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(i) Planting
Done with another frame mounted three point hitch implement that has row
opener planter boxes and packing wheel that drop seeds at the desired spacing and
depth in the soil.
(ii) Fertilizer spreader
Tractor used to spread fertilizer in the farm by mount the implement that can be
able to spread fertilizer on the field. Some incorporate plough assemblies to
deposit the fertilizer directly along rows other broadcast it over the field.
(iii) Harvesting
Also tractor gathering some crops like peanut that do not have a dedicated
machine to do the job.
(iv) Tilling
Tractor digging into and till soil to turn plant matter under and prepare for
planting. It is done with a power take off (P.T.O) implement with a gear driven
tires.
(v) Mowing
This involve the cutting for hay or silage or simply cleaning overgrown field. Can
be done with a rotary cutter (bush hog) a sickle bar or drum mower depend on the
activity that you want to do.
(vi) Spraying
Tractor as a farm device can also be used to spray pesticide and other chemical in
the farm, this can be done with tank sprayer.
(vii) Plowing
By using a frame which supporting different type of plows tractor can be used for
breaking, cultivating or sub soiling.
All these are uses of tractor not only that but also can be used for transportation of
goods from the farms and to the farms.
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POWER TILLER
Are machine powered with 1-5 horse power engine and design to propel forward and backward
different agricultural implements .Also can be operated by walking or sitting depends on the
implements it push or pull e.g. to pull disc plow or push reaper harvester. As a safety feature
most Power Tiller can propel forward and not backward. It is a prime mover in which the
direction of travel and its control for field operation is performed by the operator (man) by
holding the two hands of Power Tiller in his or her hands. The concept of power tiller came in
the world in the year 1920. Japan is the first country to use power tiller on large scale. Power
tiller was first introduced in India in the year 1963. Average size of holding in Tanzania is about
2.5Hectares. There are 89% of total land holdings of less than six hectares. Under such
conditions, power tiller may be useful as a power unit.
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Pull power tiller
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Power transmission in power tiller:
For operation of power tiller, the power is obtained from the IC Engine, fitted on the power
tiller. The engine power goes to the main clutch with the help of belt or chain. From main clutch,
the power is divided in two routes, one goes to transmission gears, steering clutch and then to the
wheel. The other component goes to the tilling clutch and then to the tilling attachment.
V-belt is usually used to transmit power from the engine to the main clutch, because V-
belt has very high efficiency and it works as a shock absorber also.
Main clutch: Power goes from the engine to the main clutch. Clutch may be: (i) Friction
clutch or (ii) V-belt tension clutch.
Friction clutch is generally used for bigger power tiller. Usually it is a dry type multiple
disc clutch.
V-belt tension clutch is used for small power tillers. The main functions of clutch in a
power tiller are:
(i) to transmit engine power to transmission gears
(ii) to make power transmission gradual and smooth.
Transmission gears: Transmission box consists of gears, shafts and bearings. The speed
change device may be; (a) gear type or (b) belt type.
Brakes: All power tillers have some braking arrangement for stopping the movement.
Most of the power tillers use inner side expansion type brake.
Wheels: Usually 2 to 4 ply pneumatic tyres are used in power tillers. The pressure of the
tyre ranges from 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2.
Rotary unit: Power tiller has a rotary unit for field operation.
Rotary unit is of two types:
(a) Centre drive type
Has got transmission at the Centre and the side drive type has transmission at
one is light in weight
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(b) Side drive type.
(i) Deeper tilling is possible
(ii) The arrangement is useful for hard soil
(iii) It has two points support on the ground.
(c) Fixing of attachment is easy
(d) The tine shaft can be detached easily
(e)Mounting and dismounting of rotary unit is very easy
(f) It may leave some portion of the field untilled
(g) It has one point support on the ground.
Rotary tines: Rotary tines are used in rotary unit for soil cutting and pulverization
purpose. Rotary tines are of three types:
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Sliding tines have the characteristics of sliding on their positions according to the
requirement.
Steering cutch lever: Steering clutch is provided on the grip of the right and left handles.
When the left side is gripped, power is cut-off on left side of the wheel and the power
tiller turns to the left. Similarly when the right side is gripped, the power tiller turns to the
right.
Benefit and added value of the Power Tiller in agricultural operation
Power Tiller can power the operation of various farm implements such as; plow disc, rotary
puddler, leveler, thresher, and a trailers. Power tiller is light and easy to manipulate in the field
during dry and wet
It allows expansion of cultivatable land.
Improves timelines of farm operations
Improves quality of work and products
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This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can
also be used directly for biofuels.
Bioethanol
This is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch
crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum.
Cellulosic biomass
This is derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a
feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but
it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions.
Biodiesel
This can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive
to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered
vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most
common biofuel in Europe.
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Types of fuels
The following fuels can be produced
Ethanol
Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and
butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of
sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult)
Biobutanol (bio gasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because
it can be used directly in a gasoline engine.
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Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation
of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch
from which alcoholic beverages such as whiskey, can be made (such as potato and fruit waste,
etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored
starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying
Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with
gasoline to any percentage. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this means
it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work.
An advantage of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free
gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine's compression
ratio for increased thermal efficiency
Biodiesel is also safe to handle and transport because it is non-toxic and biodegradable, and has a
high flash point of about 300 °F (148 °C) compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which has a flash
point of 125 °F (52 °C).
Other bio-alcohols
Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable fossil fuel. In the future it is
hoped to be produced from biomass as bio methanol.
Butanol (C4H9OH)
This is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, and ethanol) and experimental
modifications of the process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as the only
liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned "straight" in
existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), and is less corrosive and
less water-soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures
Green diesel
Vegetable oil refining
Green diesel is produced through hydrocracking biological oil feedstock’s, such as vegetable oils
and animal fats. Hydrocracking is a refinery method that uses elevated temperatures and pressure
in the presence of a catalyst to break down larger molecules, such as those found in vegetable
oils, into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in diesel engines.
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Vegetable oil
Vegetable oil fuel unmodified edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower-
quality oil has been used for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into
biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and then used as a fuel.good
performance at low temperatures, no storage stability problems and no susceptibility to microbial
attack
Biogas
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by
anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy
crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate, can
be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.
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Solid biomass fuels
Examples include wood, sawdust, grass trimmings, domestic refuse, charcoal, agricultural waste,
nonfood energy crops, and dried manure.
When solid biomass is already in a suitable form (such as firewood), it can burn directly in a
stove or furnace to provide heat or raise steam. When solid biomass is in an inconvenient form
(such as sawdust, wood chips, grass, urban waste wood, agricultural residues), the typical
process is to identify the biomass.
One of the advantages of solid biomass fuel is that it is often a byproduct, residue or waste-
product of other processes, such as farming, animal husbandry and forestry. In theory, this means
fuel and food production do not compete for resources, although this is not always the case
A problem with the combustion of solid biomass fuels is that it emits considerable amounts of
pollutants, such as particulates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Even modern pellet
boilers generate much more pollutants than oil or natural gas boilers.
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REFERENCES
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tractor&oldid=645513239" .
Nakra, C. P. 1986. Farm Machinery and Equipment. Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New Delhi.
Klenin, N.I., Popov, I.F., and Sakun, V. A. 1985. Agricultural Machines. Amerind publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Michal, A. M., and Ojha, T. P. 2008. Principles of Agricultural Engineering, Vol. I Jain Brothers,
New Delhi
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