Design Thesis 2018

CONTEMPORARY HINDU TEMPLE

(an attempt to design for 21st century)

SAHITHI MUTTEVI
14011AA086

Under the guidance of

AR. HARSHITA VANGARA

JNAFAU School of Planning & Architecture

Mahaveer Marg, Masab tank Hyderabad-02
 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

This is to certify that the dissertation/project entitled CONTEMPORARY HINDU

TEMPLE submitted by Mr./Ms. Sahithi Muttevi bearing Hall Ticket No. 14011AA086
on this ___ day of AUGUST, 2018 in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award
of the Degree of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE of this University is a bona fide
work to the best of my/our knowledge and may be placed before the Examination Board
for their consideration.

Supervisor/s Thesis Coordinator

Head, External Examiner

Department of Architecture

PRINCIPAL
Acknowledgement

With deep regards, I sincerely thank the Principal, SPA JNA&FAU, Prof. Dr. S. Kumar
and Prof. Ch. Srinivas, Head of the department Architecture SPA, JNA&FAU.

It gives me immense pleasure to express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide Ms.

Harshita for her guidance and constant encouragement. It would not have been possible to
accomplish this work without her support, suggestions and patience throughout the course of
this thesis. It is indeed a great pleasure to associate myself with Ms. Harshita.

I am very much thankful to each and every faculty member at JNAFAU for their
constant support and suggestions throughout this course. I appreciate the provision of books
and other material facilities at JNAFAU which were very helpful for my research. I am very
fortunate to have helpful discussions personally with Ms. Pooja Mahathi, Mr. Pavan Kumar,
Mr. V.V Rao.

I would sincerely like to acknowledge my friends, fellow students and my seniors for
their interactions, helpful discussions. I would also like to thank each and every member who
helped me complete my research survey.

I would also like to thank my parents and family members for being supportive
throughout this course of thesis.
“Architecture should speak of time and place but yearn for timelessness.”
- Frank ‘O’ Gehry
Abstract
Every style of building construction reflects a clearly distinctive basic principle that
represents a particular culture and era. In this context, the Indian Hindu temples are not only
the abode of God and place of worship, but they are also the cradle of knowledge, art,
architecture and culture.

A temple structure is considered to be everlasting and it should signify the art,

architectural and cultural milieu of the period built. It also helps to retain and expand the social
and cultural values of Hinduism among the people from one generation to another.

This study intends to show that, a temple structure irrespective of its value can act as
an artefact of the present generation’s culture, knowledge and technological developments.
CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 9
1.1 AIM ........................................................................................................................... 10
1.2 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 10
1.3 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................... 11
1.4 LIMITATIONS ......................................................................................................... 11
1.5 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 12
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................................... 15
2.1 HINDUISM AND ITS RELEVANCE TO ARCHITECTURE ................................ 15
2.1.1 TREATISES (THE HINDU TEXTS) ................................................................ 15
2.1.2 THE TEMPLE: DIVINITY AND MAN ........................................................... 17
2.1.3 TEMPLE AND SOCIETY ................................................................................ 18
2.2 THE HINDU TEMPLE ............................................................................................. 21
2.2.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT STYLES OF TEMPLE ........................................ 22
2.2.2 ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE .................................................................. 25
2.2.3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION ............................................................... 29
2.2.4 PURPOSE OF A TEMPLE ............................................................................... 30
2.2.5 THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE ........................................................ 31
2.2.6 METHOD OF ANALYSING GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE THROUGH
SCS (Square-Circle Sequence) ......................................................................................... 38
2.2.7 THE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS ............................................................ 44
2.2.8 THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM OF THE HINDU TEMPLES ........................ 45
2.3 CONTEMPORARY .................................................................................................. 48
3 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES OF STUDY ............................................. 51
CHAPTER-1
1 INTRODUCTION

“Architecture is that great living creative spirit which from generation to generation,
from age to age, proceeds, persists, creates, according to the nature of man, and his
circumstances as they change. That is really architecture.”

-Frank Lloyd Wright

A study of History of Architecture shows that the meaning of Architecture and its relation
to human experiences have been expressed in number of ways in the past. The intellectual and
creative development of man manifested itself in the varied nature of architecture in different
ages and across different civilizations. Thus, all over the world, various civilizations and
cultures have contributed greatly to the art of building construction and which have been
revealed in substantial form.

Every style of building construction reflects a clearly distinctive basic principle that
represents a particular culture and era. The typical quality of early Indian Architecture lies in
the expression of spiritual contents through its Temple Architecture.

Since the dawn of civilisation, humans have felt compelled to raise structures to
their gods. Before this, they modified things in nature and worshipped Mother Earth. This
chain of events explains the development of votive structures. Starting with simple
offerings placed in nature, places of worship evolved into small shrines, then large stone
structures that we see all over the planet today. About

Small shrine structures with simple offerings in nature.

Medium structures

Large Stone structures

ABOUT
In India the temples are found everywhere varying from small villages to the
metropolitan cities. The word ‘temple’ is derived from the Latin word templum means a sacred
precinct. According to the definition, temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual
activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites.

Traditionally, the temple is a sacred structure and also an indicative of abode of god/
gods. However, the Indian temples are not only the abode of God and place of worship, but
they are also the cradle of knowledge, art, architecture and culture. The practices and
traditions of temples exist not only in history but also in present time which greatly influence
the socio-cultural life of its people and gives continuity to traditional Indian values.

1.1 AIM

i. To design a Hindu Temple for the current context (for 21st century).

1.2 OBJECTIVES

i. Understand the basic concept of Hinduism and its relevance on the design and
construction of Hindu temple architecture.
ii. Understand needs, technological developments, design philosophies of the current
context.
1.3 SCOPE

i. The scope of this dissertation, design is mainly on the style of construction of temple
spaces without disturbing its geometry.

1.4 LIMITATIONS

i. Limiting my scope to only Architecture and Design not focusing on deeper philosophies
of mythology/ cosmology.
ii. Considering only the required geometry and proportions for retaining its significance.
1.5 METHODOLOGY

HINDUISM HINDU TEMPLES STANDARDS

+
CONTEMPORARY
(Constructing for the Current Context)

SECONDARY SOURCES OF PRIMARY SOURCES OF

STUDY STUDY
(Desktop Studies) (Case Studies, Online Survey)

• Analysing OLD HINDU TEMPLES (Plans, Geometry)

• Analysis of CONTEMPORARY HINDU TEMPLES (Plans, Geometry,
Design approach, Spaces, Materials, Changes compared to Old Temples)
• Observation of Social Behaviour through Online Survey.

SITE
• Site Selection Criteria • Site Selection • Site Analysis

DESIGN PROGRAMME
• Area Statements
REFERENCES

Books, Journals

1. Brown, Percy. 1942. Indian Architecture: Buddhists and Hindu Period. Bombay:
Taraporevala & Sons.
2. Rowland, B. 1953. The Art and Architecture of India. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
3. Building science of Indian Temple Architecture. Shwetha Vardia.
CHAPTER-2
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 HINDUISM AND ITS RELEVANCE TO ARCHITECTURE

Hinduism is considered to be a Dharma (a way of life), widely practiced in South Asia.

Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars
refer to it as Sanatana Dharma, "the eternal tradition", or the "eternal way", beyond human
history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion of various Indian cultures and traditions, with
diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and
300 CE, following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).

Hinduism has flourished for over two

thousand years in many parts of Asia covering
Indian sub-continent, the peripheral sub-
Himalayan valleys and major parts of south–east
Asia. Even though the remnant of Hindu culture
is seen throughout the South-East Asia, India,
Intensity of Hindu population in the world
Nepal and Bali follow Hinduism predominantly.

2.1.1 TREATISES (THE HINDU TEXTS)

There are several ancient scriptures and books in Hinduism. These scriptures were
mostly written in Sanskrit language and categorised as Shruti ("that which is heard") and Smriti
("that which is remembered"). This consists of the Vedas, the Dharmas Shastras, the Puranas,
the Upanishads, the Shilpa shastras, etc. These scriptures guide Hindus in their daily life, help
preserving the religious dimensions of family and society, gives knowledge of medicine,
astrology, sociology, philosophy of religion, techniques and structural rules on architecture.

The technical treatises in Sanskrit on the basic rules in the field of architecture and
sculpture are called as the Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Shastras. The Mayamata and Manasara
are the two well-known treatises of South India on architecture and iconography respectively.
The rules from these treatises were strictly followed for the construction of temples which are
still present throughout the country in different forms and styles dating back from the 5th
Century A.D.
 ‘The typical plan of a Hindu temple is an illustration of sacred geometry where the
temple is representation of the mandala. Here the sacred geometry means the science of the
accurate laying out the ground floor of the temple in relation to the astronomical movements
and positions and the cardinal directions. The mandala is the sacred form consisting of the
intersection of the circle and the square.’

-(Exotic Indian Art 2007)

Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies. It is linked by shared concepts,

recognizable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites.

Classification of Hindu texts-

Rig Veda

Samaveda VEDAS Yajurveda

Atharvaveda

Divisions Of each Veda- Other scriptures-

• Samhitha • Bhagavad-Gita
• Brahmana
• Aranyaka
• Agama
• Upanishads

Other texts-
• Vedangas- Shiksha, Chandas, Vyakarna, Nirukta, Kalpa, Jyotisha
• Puranas- Vishnu purana, Bhagavata purana, Naradeya purana, Vamana purana, Matsya
purana, Garuda purana, Brahma purana, Brahmanda purana, Brahma Vaivarta purana,
Bhavishya purana, Padma purana, Agni purana, Shiva purana, Linga purana, Kurma purana,
Skanda purana, Varaha purana, Markandeya purana.
• Itihasas- Ramayana, Mahabharata
• Upaveda- Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda, Sthapatyaveda
• Shastra and Sutras- Dharma sutra, Artha sutra, Kama sutra, Brahma sutra, Samkhya sutra,
Mimamsa sutra, Nyaya sutra, Vaisesika sutra, Yoga sutra, Pramana sutra, Charaka sutra,
Sushruta sutra, Natya sutra, Panchatantra, Divya prabandha, Tirumurai, Ramacharitamanas,
Yoga Vasistha, Swara yoga, Shiva Samhita, Gheradaa Samhita, Panchadasi Stotra Sutras
2.1.2 THE TEMPLE: DIVINITY AND MAN

The ideology behind the designing of Hindu temples is to link man with the
gods. Popularly, Hindu temple is the seat and dwelling of god. But, metaphysically, it
is the concrete manifestation of supreme reality.
“A Hindu Temple is microcosmic representation of the macrocosmic
Brahman.”
- (Samarangana Sutradhara)
In this world the temple is the symbol of enlightenment, it is the place where
god’s presence can be felt and through rituals and ceremonies men can discover the
divine knowledge.
The sacred and secular lives of Hindus are unified and for the most part, the
daily routines require numerous contacts with the divine, whether it takes place in
miniature temple at home or a local temple.

According to Mundaka Upanishad,

“आहारनिद्राभयमै थुिं च समािमे तत्पशु नभिनराणाम् ।

धमो नह तेषामनधको निशे षो धमे ण हीिााः पशु नभाः समािााः ॥”

Hence, temple structures were built to establish differences between a man and
other organisms. A temple is also the product of a desire to transcend the world of man.
The principles of its construction, the forms of its architecture and decoration, as well
as the rituals that take place within its walls, are all aimed at ultimate liberation.
2.1.3 TEMPLE AND SOCIETY

A large variety of Hindu temples were constructed throughout India with distinction in
scale, techniques of building and particularly the deities that were worshipped, which were the
result of the differences in political, cultural and prosperity between the towns and villages.
The character of Hindu temples reflected local architecture styles and the material and
skills to which they related. It is not easy to distinguish these temples otherwise due to limited
information has survived about the Hindu temple and their builders which are mostly inscribed
on the stone slabs and metal plates and on manuscripts written on the plant leaves.
The information which survived explains that the temple building, especially in stone
and brick was carried out as a result of royal patronage. Building of temple in stone was an
expensive affair and expresses the physical power and economic resources of the ruler. Other
than royal patrons, association of wealthy merchants and group of individuals played an
important role in the construction of temples. However, apart from the royal patrons and the
merchants, every individual donated something to the temple such as they might donate a field
or water tank, or fund a perpetual lamp, or give two sheep to supply milk to make ghee to keep
lamp burning.
In Hindu culture temple is not only a place of worship but they act as a centre for
intellectual and artistic life.
-Michell,1988

The temple complex housed schools,

hospitals and courts for the community.
The spacious halls of the temple were the
place for the recitation and listening of folk
tales, Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata and
debates. Music and dance were the part of
daily rituals in the temple.

The presence of these activities eventually gave the people more knowledge about the traditions
and made them appreciate the older practices. The temple also owned cultivable land which
was leased out and revenues were earned. By this method the temple was sustaining the
maintenance of the temple and able to also support the needful during poverty and emergency.
 Brihadeshvara Temple, Thanjavur, Tamil
Nadu
Temple provided means of livelihood for a large number of persons and greatly
influenced the economic life of the community. The written evidences of Brihadeshvara
temple, Thanjavur shows that the temple had 600 employers. The temple is the centre of all
aspects of the life of the community and every member of the community contributed in the
up keeping and building of temple. Although the temple is the hub of different religious and
cultural activities, the nucleus is the main shrine.
REFERENCES

Books, Journals

1. Barker, L. M. 1969. Pears Cyclopaedia. London: Pelham Books Ltd.

2. Michell, G. 1988. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms.
Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
3. Samarangana Sutradhara, Volume-1, (narrated by) Prof. Pushpendra Kumar
4. Building science of Indian Temple Architecture. Shwetha Vardia.

Websites

1. Kumar. N May 2003. The Hindu Temple-Where Man Becomes God.

http://www.exoticindiaart.com
2. Wikipedia. June 2007. History of Hinduism. http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism
2.2 THE HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu Temples commonly known as Mandir in Hindi and derived from the Sanskrit
word Mandira, are identified by several names in different parts of India as Koil or Kovil in
Tamil, Devasthana in Kannada and Devalaya, in Telugu etc.

Definitions

• A space which is reserved for spiritual rituals such as prayer and sacrifice.
• A space which is believed to bring god and humans together.
• A temple is believed to be a world in itself.
• According to George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning
and Forms, Chapter 1, TEMPLE is a space which reflects a synthesis of arts, the
ideals of dharma, beliefs, values, and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It
is a link between man, deities, and the Universal Purusha in a sacred space.
• According to Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, the
underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are
one, everything is connected.

Origin of Temples

Man has never lived without some faith in man ‘supernal’ (relating to heaven). In India,
this faith in man ‘supernal’ has culminated in towering personality of the Hindu Temple,
the Prasada.

According to Shrimad Bhagavat Purana,

“द्रुष्टिा तेषां नमथो िृ णामिज्ञािात्मिां िृ प |

त्रे तानिषु हरे चयान नियायै कनिनभ: कृता ||”

Which means, when great sages and saintly persons saw mutually disrespectful dealings
(jealousy, insult, disrespect) at the beginning of Tretā-yuga, deity worship in the temple
was introduced with all paraphernalia.
2.2.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT STYLES OF TEMPLE

i. Geographical Location

Style and Construction of Temple changes due to the change in Geographical Location due
to the change in climatic, cultural, racial, historic, linguistic differences and treatises according
to that location.

ii. Religious Requirement

iii. Ideas and intentions of the king/ the builder (who is fictionizing things)
iv. Skill of Labour and Craftsmen

DIFFERENT FORMS OF TEMPLE

HOUSE FORM- simple shelter which serves as deities’ home.

PALACE FORM- elaborated, monumental in scale.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEMPLES

Change in temple construction technique due to change in manuscripts of Aryans and

Dravidians.

Aryan style of temple construction is known as “Nagara Style”. Its construction

techniques are derived from the manuscript, Brihath Samhitha written by Varahamihira.
The Dravidian style of temple construction is known as “Dravidian Style”. Its construction
techniques are derived from Mayamata, Manasara Shilpa and Sanasivagurudeva Paddhati.
VESARA style is a combination of features of both Nagara and the Dravidian style of
construction.

NAGARA VESARA DRAVIDIAN

2.2.1.1 Influence of Geographic Locations and Periods on Temple Construction

i. The history of Northern Style of temple begins from the Guptas and their successors
(5th to 7th century) and advanced to Early Chalukyas (7th to 8th century), the
Kalingas and Eastern Ganges (8th to 13th century), the Pratiharas and Chandellas
(8th to 11th century), the Maitrakas and the Solankis (8th to 13th century) and the
Rajputanas (8th to 12th century).
ii. In the Southern style of temples, the history begins with the Early Chalukyas, and
Kalchuris (6th to 8th century) and advanced to the Pallavas (7th to 8th centuries),
the Rashtrakutas (8th to 10th century), the Cholas (10th to 11th century), the
Hoyshalas and Later Chalukyas (11th to 14th century) and the Vijayanagaras and
the Nayakas (15th to 17th century).
 Sangam style Badami Chalukya style

Odisha style

Pallava style Rashtrakuta style

Khajuraho/ Chandel style

Pandya style Chola style

Solanki style Kerala style Jaffna style

NAGARA STYLE DRAVIDIAN STYLE

In Northern India the evolution of Hindu Temple Architecture was largely interrupted
by the Muslim invaders whose presence was increasingly felt from the 11th century AD
onwards. Many of the finest temples were destroyed during this time.

In contrast, the Southern India did not experience Muslim rule until a late period and
thus had a less disrupting effect upon Hindu tradition and architecture of South India. The
temples architecture of South India is therefore relatively better preserved till present time.
2.2.2 ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE

‘Shikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire. It is

the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple
which represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or
the highest mountain peak. The shape and the
size of the tower vary from region to region.
Shikhara (North) Vimana (South)

‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. It

is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the
temple where the image or idol of the deity is
placed. The chamber is mostly square in plan
and is entered by a doorway on its eastern side.
The visitors are not allowed inside the
garbhagriha in most of the temples, only the
priests perform the rituals and worship.

‘Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory

passageway for circumambulation. It consists of
enclosed corridor carried around the outside of
garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the
deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual
and symbol of respect to the temple god or
goddess.

Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the

garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. It
is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant,
meditate and watch the priests performing the
rituals.
 ‘Antarala’ meaning the vestibule or the
intermediate chamber. It unites the main
sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple.

‘Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front

porch or the main entrance of the temple
leading to the mandapa.

‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and

ornate tower at the entrance of the temple
complex, specially found in South India.

‘Pitha’, the plinth or the platform of the

temple.

‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple

mostly found in North Indian Temple.

a. ‘
 b.

Amalaka’ the fluted disc like stone placed at the

apex of the shikhara.

Basic Plan Layout- Elements

2.2.2.1 Distinct Features of ‘Northern style’ and ‘Southern style’ temples

The major and distinct features between the North Indian temple and the South Indian
Temple are their superstructures. In the North, the beehive shaped tower is the most
distinguished element called as the shikhara. The gateways in the North are plain, simple
and small. The plans of the north Indian temples are based on square but the walls are
sometimes broken at so many places that it gives an impression of temple being circular
in plan. The tower is made up of miniature shikhara creating an amazing visual effect
resembling mountain.

In the South, the distinct features are the vimana and the gopurams. The vimana is a tall
pyramidal tower consisting of several progressively smaller storeys, the peak of the
vimana is called as shikhara in the South Indian Temples. This stands on a square base.
The temple complex consisting of the main shrine and other smaller shrines are enclosed
by the outer wall called as the prakara. Along these outer walls are the intricate and
marvellous gateways called as gopurams. These gopurams became taller and taller
overpowering the main shrine and its superstructure and dominating the whole temple
complex.

NAGARA STYLE

DRAVIDIAN STYLE
2.2.3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
The Indian temples were built with all types of materials depending upon the
availability from region to region. The range of material varied from timber to mud, plaster,
brick and stone during all periods and throughout India. The materials play an important role
in the overall appearance, construction techniques and monumental character of these temples.

As the earlier structures were fashioned from less durable materials such as timber,
brick and plaster the early examples of Hindu architecture and art have mostly disappeared or
are detectable only by the most fragmentary remains.

However, some of the relief carvings and paintings show that the earlier Hindu temples
were constructed in timber and bamboo. Many of the later stone temples were modelled on
wood and bamboo architecture is apparent from the carvings, roof forms and window shapes.
This usage of timber and bamboo governs the form of temples mostly in the Himalayan valleys
and regions of Kerala and Bengal.

The remains of temples constructed in brick dates back to the centuries before the
Christian era. The brick and mortar temples were constructed in the region were there was easy
availability of brick and the availability of suitable stone were limited.

The construction of temple in stone is the most distinctive expression of Hindu architecture.
The highly evolved techniques of excavating and cutting blocks of stone constitute one of the
major technical achievements associated with the history of the Hindu temple. The construction
in stone dates back to 2nd and 3rd centuries in the form of rock cut sanctuaries and later in the
form of temples with use of stones like granite, marble, soap stone, sandstone and locally
available stones. The stones were used with most intricate and ornate carvings and sculptors
throughout India.
2.2.4 PURPOSE OF A TEMPLE

Irrespective of the fact that temples are built for worship; they are also the structures
created for interaction within oneself or with other individuals/ surroundings for
increasing the intellect of an individual. They are created to achieve the purposes of life.
(Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha)

Sculptures depicting Purusarthas

2.2.5 THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE
Although, the elements of Indian temples may differ across regions, the real motive was
derived from a single philosophy of design. All small and large Hindu temples built since
historic times have been following the same philosophy. This philosophy has apparently
percolated to the remotest parts of India. The Vastushastra and Shipshastra along with
other general manuals on Hindu architecture are still referred for the construction of the
sacred Hindu temples.

2.2.5.1 Cosmology and Hindu Temple

According to the ancient Hindu scriptures, the temple is the microcosm of the cosmos
and the cosmic order is perceived as integral to the human body, mind and spirit; with the
human being a microcosm. The Hindu temple structure presents the significant information
about the science and cosmology of the period in which they were constructed. It is a
symbolism of the outer and the inner cosmos where outer cosmos is expressed in terms of
various astronomical connections between the temple structure and the motions of the sun,
the moon, and the planets, whereas the inner cosmos is represented in terms of the
consciousness at the womb of the temple and various levels of the superstructure
correspond to the levels of consciousness.

The temple is a link between the physical world of man and divine world of God. And
to connect them, the plan of cosmos was graphically copied in the foundation of the temples
called as the Vastupurusamandala. The Hindu architecture, religious or vernacular, in the
ancient times were based on the geometry of the Vastupurusamandala.

“The temple is the concrete shape (mūrti) of the Essence; as such it is the residence
and vesture of God. The masonry is the sheath (kośa) and body. The temple is the
monument of manifestation.”

- Stella Kramrisch,

The expansion may be seen either as proceeding from the central point of the
garbhagriha in all the directions of space, reaching to the bindu above the finial of the
temple and beyond, or as a manifestation held together by a tension between the bindu and
the garbhagriha, with the axis joining the two being the world axis.
2.2.5.2 The Concept: Vastupurusamandala

The Hindu philosophy was among the first to relate the human figure as the basis of a
system of proportion, which was years later demonstrated by Leonardo da Vinci and by
Le Corbusier in Modular system of measurement. In Hindu philosophy, the form of the
purusha (human) body was made to suit the abstract idea of the square, as the supreme
geometric form.
NORTH

WEST EAST

SOUTH

The Vastupurusamandala is derived from three separate words each having a specific
meaning where Vastu refers to physical environment, purusha refers to energy, power or
cosmic being, and mandala is the diagram or chart.

The basic form of the Vastupurusamandala is the square and square is the important
and ideal geometric form in Hindu philosophy, which represents the earth. All the necessary
forms like the triangle, hexagon, octagon and circle, etc can be derived from the square.
The four sides of the square represent the four cardinal directions.
 According to Hindu beliefs, man’s everyday life is also governed by the number four
as in four classes(varnas), four phase of life, four great eras, four head of Brahma (the
creator God), the four Vedas, etc. Similarly, the circle represents the universe and is
considered as the perfect shape, without any beginning and end, suggesting timelessness
and infinity, a typically heavenly feature.

The Vastupurusamandala are the square grids and are of various types formed from the
fundamental shape, The Square. The smaller squares in the grid are called as the one pada
and they may vary from 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, and so on 1024. There can be even numbers of pada
and odd numbers of pada in a mandala and are called as yugma mandala and ayugma
mandala respectively.
 Vastupurusamandala has different names according to the numbers of padas within the
grid. The mandala having 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and 36 numbers of pada within the grid are known as
sakala mandala, pechaka mandala, pitah mandala, mahapitah mandala, manduka chandita
mandala and paramasayika mandala, respectively.

The Vastupurusamandala, having all the geometrical, astronomical and human

properties was the basis of the ground floor plan for all Hindu Temples.

Parama Sayika Mandala- 9 x 9 grid - 81 Manduka Mandala- 8 x 8 grid - 64 Padas

Padas
2.2.5.3 The Layout of Hindu Temple

The Vastupurusamandala is first sketched on the planning sheets and afterwards

outlined on the earth on the place of the actual temple building site. This divine diagram is the
symbolic representation of the universe with its fractal behaviour. Each unit of square
represents the birth of new universe and the central square is the creation of each unit. The
mandala is a square grid and the repetition of even number of square grids develops into 4
square grids and further to 16 square grids and so on. Similarly, the repetition of odd number
of square grids develops into 9 square grids and further to 81 and so on.

The mandala is now placed on the foundation plan of the temple to seize all the cosmic
energies underneath the temple. The centre of the mandala generates the energies and emits to
the physical world. The square shape of mandala significantly implies to maintain the energy
equilibrium. Each side of the squares applies the force towards the centre and in return the
centre applies the force towards the sides, thus maintaining the equilibrium.

Fields of Forces in Square

2.2.5.4 The Plan

The plan of a temple is the replica of the Vastupurusamandala, the grids of the square
of 8 x 8.

The Nagara style of temples in the West and the Central India followed the Orthogonal
grids of the mandala. In examples from 7th century at the Vishnu Temple Deogarh in Madhya
Pradesh, the square grid was modified by extending one time on each side outwards. Further,
during the 10th century at the Surya temple, Modera the square grid was modified by extending
twice on each side outwards. Later on, in the 11th century the Hindu temple plan became
complex and reached their final form. This time the square grid was modified by extending
thrice on each side outwards, The Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho in Madhya
Pradesh is the best example for this.
 The temples in the South India in the early 7th to 8th century and later in the 13th
century developed the stellate plans meaning the plan of the garbhagriha was in the elaborate
star shaped. These complex plans were derived from the basic square. This was achieved by
rotating the square around its fixed centre, and turning it diagonal through a series of equal
angles. Thus, the corners formed by overlapping so many squares resulted in a star. The number
of points and their proportions could be varied merely by changing the angle through which
the diagonal was turned up at every step.

Development of Stellate plans through rotation of squares

2.2.6 METHOD OF ANALYSING GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE THROUGH
SCS (Square-Circle Sequence)

Square-Circle-Sequence is a method of interconnecting the symbolic realms of the

cosmos.

2.2.6.1 Ratios between expanding squares of SCS

The SCS is a generic figure which will have a sequence for its side of a square in the
following order. The side of the first square is 1x, where ‘x’ is actually dimension of the side
of the square with the sequence of following squares as 1x, 1.4x, 2x, 2.8x, 4x, 5.6x, 8x,
11.3x, 16x…… We can note alternatively the dimension doubles.

Squares in the sequence- 1. 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11.3, 16…

 Considering the first square having its side equal to 1x and the second square as will
be 1.4x. If the first square is rotated at 22.5° to construct a 16-point star shape, the subsequent
square that can be drawn through their intersection points will have their sides equal to 1.1x
and 1.2x.

Each square in the sequence- 1. 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11.3, 16… is rotated
at 22.5° to form other 2 squares from each square.
2.2.6.2 Location of Garbhagriha with respect to SCS

Case-I:

In the first case, where the garbhagriha is generated from the first single intersection
point.

The Garbhagriha is generated from the single intersection point. The other elements
in the plan occur at the other following squares.
Case-II:

The second case is, the garbhagriha will be lying on the second pair of intersection
points of the rotated 16-point star shape of any square of SCS.

The Garbhagriha is generated from the second pair of intersection points. The other
elements in the plan occur at the other following squares.
Case-III:

Here, both the inner single and outer double intersection ‘marma’ points are used. The
first square or circle of the SCS sequence will be the diameter of the Shiva Linga in Saivite
temples. The circle of receptacle of Shiva Linga (yoni- pitha) will all be part of this SCS.
Hence, the garbhagriha will then be related to the rotated square of the 5th - 7th such square of
the SCS sequence. Even in this case all the relationships between the Shiva Linga, yoni-pitha,
garbhagriha inner wall (antarabhitti) can be numerically established.

The Garbhagriha and Shiva Linga generated from SCS through Case(iii)
2.2.6.3 DERIVING SIKHARA PROFILE THROUGH SCS

Consider the radius of the circle which defines the curve of the shikhara is ‘r’ and the
height of the shikhara from the base to the skandha is ‘h’. Two lines are formed joining the
centre of the circle ‘o’ with the base of the shikhara ‘o’ and the other joins the top of the
shikhara curveted to the centre of the circle o-o. The angle thus formed between the two lines
is the angle of the shikhara.

Gali gopuram

r h
O ` idol
` Dwaja-Sthambam

The Rekha segments shown as a part of complete circle, along with the height of the
shikhara, skandha, and the base of the shikhara

• h = r tanθ
• d = r (1 – cosθ)
• m1 – m2 = r (π/ 180. θ °)

Where,
‘m1’, ‘m2’ the ends of height ‘h’
‘m’, ‘m2’ Rekha profile
‘d’ is the distance from ‘m’ to ‘m1’
2.2.7 THE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
The basic Structural components of a Hindu Temple include-

6
The Base/ The Pitha The Walls

Nagara Style

Nagara Style

Dravidian Style
Dravidian Style

Supporting Elements/ The Columns The Superstructure/ The Shikhara

Phamsana Latina Sekhari

Bell type Column Nagara Style

Ghata- Pallava
type Column
Kutina Shala

Dravidian Style
Cushion type Column
2.2.8 THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM OF THE HINDU TEMPLES
The basic construction technique used in the Hindu temple was the Trabeated system or the
post and the beam method and which was extended by the use of corbelling techniques. This
method was originally used for wooden construction in India and was later adopted for the
stone structures as well.

2.2.8.1 Trabeated System

In the Trabeated system only the horizontal and the vertical members are used and the stability
is achieved by the massive arrangements of vertical elements such as pillars and pilasters
together and heavy cross beams and lintels.

The use of the spanning system to enclose the

interior spaces was the most typical feature of
this system. The openings in the Hindu temple
have lintel made of stone or timber. The
roofing system consists of horizontally laid
slabs of stone spanning from one supporting
beam or wall to the other.
The arrangement of the internal ceilings in the Hindu temple were deliberately confined to the
overlapping of the one stone course with the another or, alternatively, to the laying of the
diagonal and square stone course to produce designs with rotating and diminishing squares.

Later in the 10th and 11th centuries the internal ceilings were spanned circular stone courses,
seated one above the other in receding diameters, to produce complex designs.
2.2.8.2 Corbelling System

In the corbelling system the stones or the bricks in each horizontal course are projected out to
bridge the gap between the two walls to diminish until it can be closed with a single piece of
stone or brick. The corbelling system was used to create the interiors of the temple and the
stone shells of the super structure that rise above the sanctuary. Later in the 13th century the
use of iron clamps and wedges to hold the stone slabs together, allowed the special feature of
corbelling in which horizontal stone layers were projected out over large spans and cut into
unusual shapes to produce highly decorative ceiling schemes.

The use of mortar was pointless because there being almost no inclined pressure to distribute
between the courses of masonry. Therefore, the Hindu temple architecture masonry developed
as dry masonry system.
REFERENCES

Books, Journals:

1. Barker, L. M. 1969. Pears Cyclopaedia. London: Pelham Books Ltd.

2. Michell, G. 1988. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms.
Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
3. Samarangana Sutradhara, Volume-1, (narrated by) Prof. Pushpendra Kumar
4. Building science of Indian Temple Architecture. Shwetha Vardia.
5. Brown, Percy. 1942. Indian Architecture: Buddhists and Hindu Period. Bombay:
Taraporevala & Sons.
6. Fletcher, Sir. Banister. 1992. The History of Architecture. New Delhi: CBS
Publishers and Distributors.
7. Grover, Satish. 1988. The Architecture of India: Buddhist and Hindu. Ghaziabad:
Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd.
8. Hardy, Adam. 2007. The Temple Architecture of India. Great Britain: Wiley.
9. Indian Temple Architecture: Analysis of Plans, Elevations and Roof Forms. Ananya
Gandotra

Websites:

1. Kumar. N May 2003. The Hindu Temple-Where Man Becomes God.

http://www.exoticindiaart.com
2. Wikipedia. June 2007. History of Hinduism. http://www.wikipedia.org/Hinduism.
3. sreenivasaraos.com
2.3 CONTEMPORARY
CONTEMPORARY- belonging to/ occurring in the present.

CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE-

Contemporary Architecture can be considered as the architecture occurring for the current
context (21st century now). It does not involve any particular style of construction.

Most of the architects follow- minimalism, usage of High-tech materials and technology…as
their personalised style for construction.

Contemporary is not a phase of construction. It continues to other generation with a new style
and requirements.
REFERENCES

Websites
1. socialecologies.wordpress.com/2013/06/28/architecture-for-the-21st-century-
postmodernism-and-beyond/
2. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary architecture
CHAPTER- 3
 Chapter- 3.1

3 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES OF STUDY

CONTEMPORARY TEMPLE DESIGNS
DESKTOP STUDY

TEMPLE IN STONE AND LIGHT, RAJASTHAN

Location - Bhadresh, Barmer, Rajasthan Client- JSW Raj West Power Ltd

Designers- Space Matters Plot Area- 4360 sq.m

Area- 4360 sq.m Built-up Area- 138 sq.m

Project Year- 2016

DESIGN PROPOSAL
A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva was to be designed in the sand dunes of Rajasthan.
CONCEPT
According to the designers, Lord Shiva, to whom this temple is dedicated, dwells in
paradoxes and apparent dualities. In Hindu scriptures and mythology he manifests as both
- the Preserver and the Destroyer. In unison with goddess Shakti, he transcends the duality
of the masculine and feminine principle.

This symbolism needed to be translated into evocative spatial clues to deliver this project.
The architecture of the temple combines the heavy materiality of the stone with the
lightness of the form, where the solid looking stone exterior dissolves as the night dawns
and transforms into a delicate lantern in the dunes.

During the day, light filters into the sanctum of the temple. At night, light turns the temple
inside-out, extending an invitation to those outside while rewarding those within. This
gesture also subtly seeks to illuminate the need for inclusion in contemporary religious
spaces, which still tend exclude based on old age biases of gender, class, caste or
orientation.
Site and Surroundings
Located in Barmer, Rajasthan.

Nearby Oil Plant

Floor Plans, Section and Elevation

Floor Plan

Section through N-S axis

Section through E-W axis.

Joining details of walls and gopura

INFERENCES

EVOLUTION OF CONCEPTS
The design concepts were evolved from mythological aspects of the particular god.

USAGE OF MATERIALS
Locally available sustainable materials were used.
The physical properties of the material were imbibed in the design concept.

STYLE OF CONSTRUCTION
Nagara Style of shikara.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Tusk and Tenon joint. Small blocks of sand stone were used for interlocking.

ANALYSING GEOMETRY THROUGH SCS METHOD

The Plan is occurring through second set of intersection points.
 Rekha profile is according to SCS.

REFERENCES
1. https://www.archdaily.com
2. https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/...built/temple-in-stone-and-light-spacematters
3. www.posts.architecturelive.in › Architecture
4. https://architizer.com/projects/temple-in-stone-and-light/
CASE STUDY

SAI SPIRITUAL CENTER, BANGALORE

Location - Tyagaraja nagar, Bangalore, Karnataka

Designers - Mindspace (Chief Architect- Sanjay Mohe)

Area - 945 sq.m

Project Year- 2005

Client - Sri Radhakrishna Swamiji

Built-up Area -825 sq.m

DESIGN PROPOSAL

A temple dedicated to Sai baba was to be rennovated.

INTRODUCTION

The Sri SaiSpiritual Centre ,Bangalore was founded by its founder patron,his holiness
Sri Radhakrishna Swamiji ,in 1954 with a mission to spread sai devotion and set forth a
tradition in which the Sai temple would provide spiritual comfort and solutions to the problems
and needs of the community. Since its inception, the centre has played a pivotal role in shaping
the destinies of thousands of Sai devotees.

After the Mahasamadhi of his holiness Sri Radhakrishna Swamiji in 1980, expansion
of the temple and its facilities were taken up in 1984. However, this was not able to susstain
the incresing number of devotees. In 2005, to commemorate the birth century of the founder,
the rebuilding of the temple was started and the new Center was started in 2007.

The design brief chiefly addressed three points:

1. The capapcity of the gathering hall in front of the sanctum (garbha griha) had to be
increased to accomodate as manydevotees as possible.
2. The large number of devotees on thurdays who seek darshan had to be specially managed
in addition to the activities and devotees had to remain undisturbed inthe new structure.
3. Areas such as the sanctum, swamiji's room and others which had the religious and
sentimental significance had to remain undisturbed in the new structure.

DESIGN CHALLENGE

To arrive at an architectural solution which could still communicate to local devotees who
have been visiting the old temple for years.
OLD TEMPLE

Old Temple Floor Plan

CONCEPTUALS
• Sikhara exploited through which the light filters in.
• The garbha griha was depicted as a lamp (with
bright colors) surrounded by infinite dark space.
• The space under the shikhara allowed in the natural
light creating masses and voids.

Light penetrating through

sikhara

SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FORM GENERATION

CONCEPTUAL VIEWS

Renovated Temple Floor Plans

 ANALYSIS, INFERENCES

EVOLUTION OF CONCEPTS
The design concepts were evolved by space visualisation.

USAGE OF MATERIALS
Black Granite cladding and Glass was used.

STYLE OF CONSTRUCTION
Nagara Style of shikara.

ANALYSING GEOMETRY THROUGH SCS METHOD

This temple doesn’t follow the geometry of SCS.

REFERENCES
1. srisaispiritualcentre.vrdevotee.com
2. http://theinsigmaproject.blogspot.com
3. www.posts.architecturelive.in › Architecture
DESKTOP STUDY
CONTEMPORARY SHIV TEMPLE, MAHARASHTRA

Project Year - 2010

Architects - Sameep Padora and Associates
Design Team - Sameep Padora, Minal Modak, Vinay Mathias
Location - Wadeshwar, Maharashtra, India
Site Area - 900 sq. m

About the Project

This temple was constructed with a shoe
string budget and locally available stone as
a primary building block because of its
availability from a quarry within 200mts
from the temple site by the villagers.
The stone’s natural patina seems to confer
age, as if the temple had always existed.

Only embellishments integral to the essence

of temple architecture in memory actually
appear in the finished temple.

The heavy foliage of trees along the site edge demarcate an outdoor room, which become
the traditional ‘mandapa’ (pillared hall), a room with trees as walls and sky the roof.
 INFERENCES

EVOLUTION OF CONCEPTS
The design concepts were evolved imitating traditional Sikhara, Temple Plan form.

USAGE OF MATERIALS
Locally available materials were used.

STYLE OF CONSTRUCTION
Nagara Style of shikara.

REFERENCES

1. www.architectural-review.com
2. www.archdaily.com
DESKTOP STUDY

THE CONTEMPORARY BUDDHIST TEMPLE, CHINA

Project Year - 2011

Architects - Miliy Design
Architect in Charge- Steven Wang
Design Team - Jeff Ding, Chenjia Tang, Wen Zhang, Xin Qi
Location - Taichang, Jiangsu, P.R. China
Site Area - 1200 sq. m

Concept Evolution-
Mobius ring is used as the metaphor of
It’s a contemporary Buddhism
reincarnation in this design. The inner
temple based on the concept of
surface and outer surface meets in the
reincarnation. The essence of Buddhism’s
same point seamlessly. This process is just
Sutra is so called “formlessness”.
like the reincarnation in Buddhism.
Circulation revolves from outside to inside
through the space just like the
reincarnation through different life forms.
 SITE PLAN

LEVEL +1
LEVEL +3

SECTION SHOWING VERTICAL

CIRCULATION

LEVEL +4
LEVEL +2
 ANALYSIS, INFERENCES

EVOLUTION OF CONCEPTS
The design concepts were evolved from the concepts of Buddhism.

USAGE OF MATERIALS
Modern Construction materials- Glass is used

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Large span structures are used.

REFERENCES

1. aasarchitecture.com
2. creators.vice.com
DESKTOP STUDY

WONG DAI SIN TEMPLE, CANADA

Project Year- 2015

Architects- Shim-Sutcliffe Architects
Lead Architects- Brigitte Shim, Howard Sutcliffe
Location- Markham, ON, Canada
Site Area- 303.8 sq. m

PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The Wong Dai Sin Temple is a modern sacred space that houses a dynamic Taoist
community committed to their inner spiritual development through the ancient physical
practice of tai chi.
The Fung Loy Kok Institute of Taoism needed a new spiritual home in suburban Toronto
that had to reflect not only the heart and soul of their religious beliefs but also the modern
contemporary world of their congregants. This place of worship is located on a major
suburban arterial road surrounded by a shopping mall and cul de sac’s lined with oversized
single-family residential mansions.

This temple building demonstrates asymmetry and counterbalance

while maintaining its equilibrium much like a measured tai chi pose.

EVOLUTION OF PROJECT CONCEPTS

SITE PLAN
 ANALYSIS, INFERENCES

EVOLUTION OF CONCEPTS
The design was inspired from a religious pose.

USAGE OF MATERIALS
Wooden finish cladding.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Modern construction techniques. (structural members- columns)

REFERENCES

1. www.archdaily.com
2. www.detail-online.com
 Chapter- 3.2

4 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES OF STUDY

OLD TEMPLE DESIGNS
DESKTOP STUDY

BRIHADESHWARA TEMPLE

Style of Construction - Dravidian

Project year - 1010 AD
Period - Chola Dynasty
Location -Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Site Area - 23.7 acres
INFERENCES

USAGE OF MATERIALS
Granite (long life)

STYLE OF CONSTRUCTION
Dravidian Style of construction

ANALYSING GEOMETRY THROUGH SCS METHOD

The Plan is occurring through both the inner single and the outer double intersection points.
The side of the garbhagriha is coinciding with the 5th square of the sequence.

Temple Layout Analysis

Garbhagriha Analysis
Rekha profile Analysis

REFERENCES

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. Indian Temple Architecture: Analysis of Plans, Elevations and Roof Forms. Ananya
Gandotra
DESKTOP STUDY
SHORE TEMPLE

Style of Construction- Dravidian

Project year- 700- 728 AD
Period- Pallava Dynasty
Location- Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu
Site Area- 1 acre
ANALYSIS, INFERENCES

USAGE OF MATERIALS
Granite (long life)

STYLE OF CONSTRUCTION
Dravidian Style of construction

ANALYSING GEOMETRY THROUGH SCS METHOD

The Plan is occurring through both the inner single and the outer double intersection points.
The side of the garbhagriha is coinciding with the 7th square of the sequence.
 SURVEY

An online Survey was conducted to understand and gather the opinion of people about
Temples.

SURVEY QUESTIONS
• How often do you visit temples?
• Do you prefer old constructed temple over new ones?
• Do you believe old style temples are more sacred than new ones?
• Do you think temples should evolve?
• Do you think temples style of construction, materials used and the segregation of
spaces must change with the changing needs of people?
• Do you think temples should reflect the style of construction of the period that it was
built in?

INFERENCES
This survey was conducted among all kinds of individuals in India and other parts of the
world out of which, 65% of them were 15 -23 years of age and 18.7% of them were 23- 30
years of age.
Hence, considering the statistics apply to most of the youth,
• 27.7 % of the youth visit temples less than once in a month.
Hence, there is a need to create a space that attracts this generation of people.

• 56.6 % of individuals think temple architecture must evolve according to needs the
of present situation.

• 38.6% of them think spaces in the temple must change according to changing needs.

• 69.5% of them think temples should reflect the style of construction in which they
were built.

Hence, a Hind temple must be designed to inculcate their needs and attract people to
visit it.