Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
or TRS and widely used for electric instruments, headphones and line-level
connections on semi-pro equipment. (cf. B-Type Plug)
A-Weighting — A form of electrical filter which is designed to mimic the
relative sensitivity of the human ear to different frequencies at low sound
pressure levels (notionally 40 Phons or about 30dBA SPL). Essentially, the
filter rolls-off the low frequencies below about 700Hz and the highs above
about 10kHz. This filtering is often used when making measurements of
low-level sounds, like the noise floor of a device. (See also C-Weighting and
K-Weighting)
AC — Alternating Current (cf. DC). Audio signals are represented in the
electrical domain as currents flowing alternately forward and back in the
circuits as an analogue of the compression and rarefaction of acoustic air
pressure.
Accent Mic — see Close Miking
Acoustic Foam — A specific type of open-celled expanded polyurethane
foam that allows sound waves to enter and flow through the foam,
absorbing their energy and preventing them being reflected. The density
and depth of the foam affects the frequency range over which it is effective
as an absorber.
Acoustic Treatment — A generic term embracing a range of products or
constructions intended to absorb, diffuse or reflect sound waves in a
controlled manner, with the intention of bestowing a room with an
acceptable reverberation time and overall sound character.
Active — Describes a circuit containing transistors, ICs, tubes and other
devices that require power to operate, and which are capable of
amplification.
Active Loudspeaker or Monitor — A loudspeaker system in which the input
signal is passed to a line-level crossover, the suitably filtered outputs of
which feed two (or more) power amplifiers, each connected directly to its
own drive unit. The line-level crossover and amplifiers are usually (but not
always) built in to the loudspeaker cabinet.
A/D [A-D] Converter — A device which converts an analogue audio signal
into a digital representation.
ADAT Lightpipe — A widely used eight-channel optical digital audio
interface developed by Alesis as a bespoke interface for the company's
digital eight-track tape machines in the early 1990s (Alesis Digital Audio
Tape). The interface transfers up to eight channels of 24-bit digital audio at
base sample rates (44.1 or 48kHz) via a single fibre-optic cable. This
'lightpipe' is physically identical to that used for the TOSlink optical S/PDIF
stereo interface found on many digital consumer hi-fi devices, but while the
fibre itself can be used interchangeably for either format, the S/PDIF and
ADAT interfaces are not compatible in any other way. The interface
incorporates embedded clocking, and padding zeros are introduced
automatically if the word length is less than 24 bits.
Although not supported by all ADAT interfaces, most modern devices
employ the S/MUX (Sample Multiplexing) protocol (licensed from Sonorus)
which allows higher sample rates to be employed at the cost of fewer
channels of audio. The S/MUX2 format operates at double sample rates
(88.2 and 96kHz) but carries only four channels, while S/MUX4 operates at
quad rates (176.4 and 192kHz) with two channels. S/MUX uses a clever
technique that divides the high sample rate data across the nominal
channels in such a way that accidental level changes or dithering applied
identically to each channel in the data stream will not destroy the wanted
demultiplexed signal.
Additive Synthesis — A system for generating audio waveforms or sounds
by combining basic waveforms or sampled sounds prior to further
processing with filters and envelope shapers. The Hammond tonewheel
organ was one of the first additive synthesizers.
ADSR — When creating artificial waveforms in a synthesizer, changes in the
signal amplitude over time are controlled by an ‘envelope generator’ which
typically has controls to adjust the Attack, Sustain, Decay and Release
times, controlled by the pressing and subsequent release of a key on the
keyboard. The Attack phase determines the time taken for the signal to
grow to its maximum amplitude, triggered by the pressing of a key. The
envelope then immediately enters the Decay phase during which time the
signal level reduces until it reaches the Sustain level set by the user. The
signal remains at this level until the key is released, at which point the
Release phase is entered and the signal level reduces back to zero.
Active Sensing — A system used to verify that a MIDI connection is
working. It involves the sending device sending frequent short messages to
the receiving device to reassure it that all is well. If these active sensing
messages stop for any reason the receiving device will recognise a fault
condition and switch off all notes. Not all MIDI devices support active
sensing.
AES — Acronym for Audio Engineering Society, one of the industry's
professional audio associations. (www.aes.org)
AES3 — A digital audio interface which passes two digital audio channels,
plus embedded clocking data, with up to 24 bits per sample and sample
rates up to 384kHz. Developed by the Audio Engineering Society and the
European Broadcasting Union, it is often known as the AES-EBU interface.
Standard AES3 is connected using 3-pin XLRs with a balanced cable of
nominal 110 Ohm impedance and with a signal voltage of up to 7V pk-pk.
The related AES3-id format uses BNC connectors with unbalanced 75 Ohm
coaxial cables and a 1V pk-pk signal. In both cases the datastream is
structured identically to S/PDIF, although some of the Channel status codes
are used differently.
AES10 — An AES standard which defines the MADI interface (serial
Multichannel Audio Digital Interface). MADi can convey either 56 or 64
channels via single coaxial or optical connections.
AES11 — An AES standard that defines the use of a specific form of AES3
signal for clocking purposes. Also known as DARS (Digital Audio Reference
Signal).
AES17 – And AES standard that defines a method of evaluating the dynamic
range performance of A-D and D-A converters.
AES42 — An AES standard which defines the connectivity, powering,
remote control and audio format of ‘digital microphones.’ The audio
information is conveyed as AES3 data, while a bespoke modulated 10V
phantom power supply conveys remote control and clocking information.
AES59 — An AES standard which defines the use and pin-outs of 25-pin D-
sub connectors for eight-channel balanced analogue audio and bi-
directional eight-channel digital interfacing. It conforms fully with the
established Tascam interface standard.
AFL — After Fade listen. A system used within mixing consoles to allow
specific signals to be monitored at the level set by their fader. Aux sends
are generally monitored AFL rather than PFL (see PFL).
Aftertouch — A means of generating a control signal in a synthesizer based
on how much pressure is applied to the keys of a MIDI keyboard. Most
instruments that support this do not have independent pressure sensing for
all keys, but rather detect the overall pressure by means of a sensing strip
running beneath the keys. Aftertouch may be used to control such
functions as vibrato depth, filter brightness, loudness and so on.
Algorithm — A sequence of instructions describing how to perform a
specific task. Algorithms are often implemented in a computer language
and compiled into a computer program. In the context of effects units,
algorithms usually describe a software building block designed to create a
specific effect or combination of effects.
Aliasing — When an analogue signal is sampled for conversion into a digital
data stream, the sampling frequency must be at least twice that of the
highest frequency component of the input signal. If this rule is disobeyed
the sampling process becomes ambiguous as there are insufficient points to
define each cycle of the waveform, resulting in unwanted enharmonic
frequencies being added to the audible signal.
Ambience — The result of sound reflections in a confined space being
added to the original sound. Ambience may also be created electronically
by some digital reverb units. The main difference between ambience and
reverberation is that ambience doesn't have the characteristic long delay
time of reverberation; the reflections mainly give the sound a sense of
space.
Amp (Ampere) — Unit of electrical current (A).
Amp/Amplifier — An Amplifier is an electrical device that typically
increases the voltage or power of an electrical signal. The amount of
amplification can be specified as a multiplication factor (eg. x10) or in
decibels (eg. 20dB).
Amplitude — The waveform signal level. It can refer to acoustic sound
levels or electrical signal levels.
Analogue (cf. Digital) — The origin of the term is that the electrical audio
signal inside a piece of equipment can be thought of as being ‘analogous’ to
the original acoustic signal. Analogue circuitry uses a continually changing
voltage or current to represent the audio signal.
Analogue Synthesis — A system for synthesizing sounds by means of
analogue circuitry, usually by filtering simple repeating waveforms.
Anti-alias Filter — A very steep low-pass filter used to limit the frequency
range of an analogue signal prior to A/D conversion so that the maximum
frequency does not exceed half the sampling rate.
Application (App) — Alternative term for computer program.
Arming — Arming a track or channel on a recording device places it in a
condition where it is ready to record audio when the system is placed in
record mode. Unarmed tracks won’t record audio even if the system is in
record mode. When a track is armed the system monitoring usually
auditions the input signal throughout the recording, whereas unarmed
tracks usually replay any previously recorded audio.
Arpeggiator — A device (or software) that allows a MIDI instrument to
sequence around any notes currently being played. Most arpeggiators also
allows the sound to be sequenced over several octaves, so that holding
down a simple chord can result in an impressive repeating sequence of
notes.
ASCII — American Standard Code for Information Interchange. An
internationally recognised code used to represent computer keyboard
characters.
Attack — The time taken for a sound to achieve its maximum amplitude.
Drums have a fast attack, whereas bowed strings have a slow attack. In
compressors and gates, the attack time equates to how quickly the
processor can reduce the signal level.
Attenuate — To reduce the signal amplitude or level.
Audio Data Reduction — A system used to reduce the amount of data
needed to represent some information such as an audio signal. Lossless
audio data reduction systems, (eg. FLAC and ALAC) can fully and precisely
reconstruct the original audio data with bit-accuracy, but the amount of
data reduction is rarely much more than 2:1. Lossy data audio reduction
systems (eg. MPeg. AAC, AC3 and others) permanently discard audio
information that is deemed to have been 'masked' by more prominent
sounds. The original data can never be retrieved, but the reduction in total
data can be considerable (12:1 is common).
Audio Frequency — Signals in the range of human audio audibility.
Nominally 20Hz to 20kHz.
Audio Interface — A device which acts as the physical bridge between the
computer’s workstation software and the recording environment. An audio
interface may be connected to the computer (via FireWire, USB,
Thunderbolt, Dante, AVB or other current communication protocols) to
pass audio and MIDI data to and from the computer. Audio Interfaces are
available with a wide variety of different facilities including microphone
preamps, DI inputs, analogue line inputs, ADAT or S/PDIF digital inputs,
analogue line and digital outputs, headphone outputs, and so on. The
smallest audio interfaces provide just two channels in and out, while the
largest may offer 30 or more.
Autolocator — A common facility on tape machines or other recording
devices that enables specific time points to be stored and recalled. For
example, you may store the start of a verse as a locate point so that you
can get the tape machine or DAW to automatically relocate the start of the
verse after you've recorded an overdub.
Auxiliary Sends (Auxes) – A separate output signal derived from an input
channel on a mixing console, usually with the option to select a pre- or
post-fader source and to adjust the level. Corresponding auxiliary sends
from all channels are bussed together before being made available to feed
an internal signal processor or external physical output. Sometimes also
called effects or cue sends.
Aux Return — Dedicated mixer inputs used to add effects to the mix. Aux
return channels usually have fewer facilities than normal mixer inputs, such
as no EQ and access to fewer aux sends. (cf. Effects Return)
Azimuth — the alignment of a tape head which references the head gap to
the true vertical relative to the tape path. (cf. Wrap and Zenith).
Safety Copy — A copy or clone of an original tape for use in case of loss or
damage to the original.
Sample — Either a defined short piece of audio which can be replayed
under MIDI control; or a single discrete time element forming part of a
digital audio signal.
Sample rate — The number of times an A/D converter samples the
incoming waveform each second.
Sample and Hold (S&H) — Usually refers to a feature whereby random
amplitude values are generated at regular intervals and then used to
control another function such as pitch or filter frequency. Sample and hold
circuits were also used in old analogue synthesizers to 'remember' the note
being played after a key had been released.
SATA — The acronym stands for 'Serial Advanced Technology Attachment'
and is a computer interface employed for connecting standard ATA hard
drives to a computer motherboard. The SATA interface supersedes the
PATA (parallel ATA) interface which has been used since the 1980s. A
variant of the SATA interface, called eSATA (with the 'e' standing for
'external'), permits the connection of external hard drives. it uses a slightly
different connector but is otherwise a very similar interface.
Sawtooth Wave — So called because it resembles the teeth of a saw, this
waveform contains both odd and even harmonics.
Scrape Flutter — As analogue recording tape moves across the heads or
other non-moving parts in the tape path it can vibrate at a high frquency
(typically above 100Hz) due to a rapid stick-slip action, and this causes a
form of intermodulation distortion. Often mechanical dampers and rollers
are placed in the tape path to prevent scrape flutter.
SCSI — Pronounced SKUZZY, an abbreviation for Small Computer Systems
Interface. An obsolete interfacing system for using hard drives, scanners,
CD-ROM drives and similar peripherals with a computer. Each SCSI device
has its own ID number and no two SCSI devices in the same chain must be
set to the same number. The last SCSI device in the chain should be
terminated, either via an internal terminator or via a plug-in terminator
fitted to a free SCSI socket.
Session Tape — The original tape recording made during a recording
session.
Sequencer — A device for recording and replaying MIDI data, usually in a
multitrack format, allowing complex compositions to be built up a part at a
time.
Shockmount — a mechanical isolator intended to prevent the transfer of
vibrations which may be transmitted through a microphone stand from
reaching a microphone where they would otherwise produce unwanted
low frequency sound.
Short-Circuit — A very low resistance path that allows electrical current to
flow. The term is usually used to describe a current path that exists through
a fault condition. (See Open Circuit)
Sibilance — A high-frequency whistling or lisping sound that affects vocal
recordings, due either to poor mic technique or excessive HF equalisation.
Side-chain — A part of an audio circuit that splits off a proportion of the
main signal to be processed in some way. Compressors use a side-chain
process to derive a control signals to adjust the main path attenuation.
Signal — An electrical representation of an audio event.
Signal Chain — The route taken by a signal from the input of a system to
the output.
Signal-to-noise Ratio — The ratio of nominal or maximum signal level to
the residual noise floor, expressed in decibels.
Sine Wave — The waveform of a pure sinusoidal tone with no harmonics.
Single-ended Noise Reduction — A device for removing or attenuating the
noise component of a recording or transmission system without pre-
conditioning the signal. Most digital noise-reduction systems are of the
Single-ended type.
Slate — The term 'slate' comes from the silent film practice of writing the
scene, take and shot numbers with chalk on a slate and holding it up in
front of the camera before the action starts, so that the film editor can
identify the material. A role now replaced by the 'clapper-board' which
adds an audio synchronisation marking facility as well. In an audio context,
a slate is a verbal identification recorded just before each take to help
identify it subsequently. This is normally achieved by using a talkback
microphone routed to the main, group and/or direct outputs of a mixer.
The console slate function often mixed a low frequency tone in with the
microphone signal to help make locating the start of each take much easier
when fast-winding the tape against the playback head. Each slate ident
would be heard as a short, steady mid-frequency tone.
Slave — A device under the control of a master device. Often used to refer
to synchronised recorders, or digital clocking devices.
SMPS — see Switching Power Supply
SMPTE — The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
(www.smpte.org) an American standards body. The term is also used to
refer to a form of time code developed for the film industry but now
extensively used in music and recording. SMPTE is a real-time digital code
describing hours, minutes, seconds and film or video frames. Usually
conveyed as an audible warble.
S/MUX — Sample Multiplexing (see ADAT ).
Snake — A term used to describe a cable used to carry multiple individual
audio signals, typically between a stage and mixing console in live sound
applications.
Solid-state Drive (cf. Hard Disk Drive) — A large capacity solid-state
memory configured to work like a conventional hard disk drive. Some
computers are now available with solid state flash drives instead of normal
internal hard disk drives. Also used in digital cameras and audio recorders
in formats such as SD and CF2 cards, as well as in ‘pen drives’ or ‘USB
memory sticks’.
Sound Card — A dedicated interface to transfer audio signals in and out of
a computer. A Sound Card can be installed internally, or connected
externally via USB2 or FireWire, and they are available in a wide range of
formats, accommodating multiple analogue or digital audio signals (or
both) in and out, as well as MIDI data in and out.
Sound On Sound — An early recording technique pioneered by Les Paul
and others which was a simple form of overdubbing to build up a mix of
sources. Also, the world's best recording technology magazine (see
www.soundonsound.com).
Soundproofing — The use of materials and construction techniques with
the aim of preventing unwanted sound from entering or leaving a room.
Spaced Array — A means of arranging two or more microphone capsules
such that they receive sound waves from different directions at different
times — these timing differences being used to convey information about
the relatice directions of those sound sources. The technique is usually
used with omnidirectional microphones, although directional mics can also
be employed. The best known form of spaced array is the Decca Tree.
Mono-compatibility is often reduced because the timing differences
between channels often results in comb-filtering colouration when the
channels are summed to mono.
S/PDIF — Sony/Philips Digital Interface. Pronounced either ‘S-peedif’ or
‘Spudif’. A stereo or dual-channel self-clocking digital interfacing standard
employed by Sony and Philips in consumer digital hi-fi products. The S/PDIF
signal is essentially identical in data format to the professional AES3
interface, and is available as either an unbalanced electrical interface (using
phono connectors and 75ohm coaxial cable), or as an optical interface
called TOSlink.
Speaker (also Loudspeaker and Monitor) — An accurate loudspeaker
intended for critical sound auditioning purposes.
Spill — Unwanted sound picked up by microphones on one instrument
from other nearby instruments.
SPL — Sound Pressure Level. A measure of the intensity of an acoustic
sound wave. Normally specified in terms of Pascals for an absolute value, or
relative to the typical sensitivity of human hearing. One Pascal is 94dB SPL,
or to relate it to atmospheric pressures, 0.00001 Bar or 0.000145psi!
SPP — Song Position Pointer (MIDI).
Square Wave — A symmetrical rectangular waveform. Square waves
contain a series of odd harmonics.
SRA — see Stereo Recording Angle
SSD — see Solid-state Drive
Standard Midi File — A standard file format that allows MIDI files to be
transferred between different sequencers and MIDI file players.
Standing Waves — Resonant low frequency sound waves bouncing
between opposite surfaces such that each reflected wave aligns perfectly
with previous waves to create static areas of maximum and minimum
sound pressure within the room. (See also Modes and Modal Frequencies)
Stage Box — A connection box terminating a multicore cable (see Snake)
which is usually placed on a stage for the easy connection of individual
microphone cables.
Stems — When mixing complex audio material it is often useful to divide
the tracks into related sections and mix those sections separately before
combining the whole. In mixing film soundtracks, the material would often
be grouped as a dialogue stem, a music stem, and an effects stem. Each
stem might be mono, stereo or multichannel, as appropriate to the
situation. In music mixing, stems might be used for the rhythm section,
backline instruments, frontline instruments, backing vocals, lead vocals and
effects — or any other combination that suited the particular project.
Step Time — A system for programming a sequencer in non-real time.
Stereo — By convention, two channels of related audio which can create
the impression of separate sound source positions when auditioned on a
pair of loudspeakers or headphones.
Stereo Recording Angle — The angle over which sound sources can be
captured by a microphone array. For a stereo array with a stereo recording
angle of 90 degrees, sound sources can be placed ±45 degree relative to the
array’s centre front axis, with a source at the extreme angle appearing fully
left or right in the stereo image.
Sticky Shed Syndrome — A problem affecting some brands of analogue
tape after a long time in storage. A breakdown of the binder causes the
oxide to shed, and the tape tends to adhere to the tape heads and guides
when played. A short term cure can be affected by baking the affected
tape.
Stripe — The practice of recording a time code signal onto one track of a
multitrack tape machine to facilitate subsequent synchronisation.
Sub-bass — Frequencies below the range of typical monitor loudspeakers.
Some define sub-bass as frequencies that can be felt rather than heard.
Subcode — Hidden data within the CD and DAT format that includes such
information as the absolute time location, number of tracks, total running
time and so on.
Subgroup — See Group
Subtractive Synthesis — The process of creating a new sound by filtering
and shaping a raw, harmonically complex waveform.
Subwoofer — A specific type of efficient loudspeaker system intended to
reproduce only the lowest frequencies (typically below 120Hz).
Surge — A sudden increase in mains voltage.
Surround — The use of multiple loudspeakers placed around the listening
position with the aim of reproducing a sense of envelopment within a
soundstage. Numerous surround formats exist, but the most common
currently is the 5.1 configuration in which three loudspeakers are placed in
front of the listener (at ±30degrees and straight ahead), with two behind
(at ±120 degrees or thereabouts), supplemented with a separate
subwoofer.
Sustain — Part of the ADSR envelope which determines the level to which
the sound will settle if a key is held down. Once the key is released, the
sound decays at a rate set by the Release parameter. Also refers to a
guitar's ability to hold notes which decay very slowly.
Swan Neck — See Gooseneck
Sweet Spot — The optimum position for a microphone, or for a listener
relative to monitor loudspeakers.
Switching Power Supply — (Also SMPS) A type of power supply that uses
mains power to drive directly a high frequency oscillator so that a smaller,
lighter transformer may be used. These power supplies are commonly used
because they can be made to accept a wide range of mains supply voltages,
and are thus universal.
Sync — A system for making two or more pieces of equipment run in
synchronism with each other.
Synthesis — The creation of artificial sound.
Synthesiser — An electronic musical instrument designed to create a wide
range of sounds, both imitative and abstract.
SysEx — (System Exclusive) A part of the MIDI standard that allows
manufacturers to define their own specific message formats, commonly
used to dump and load a specific product’s patch data.
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