lift.

Figure 5-6 depicts the L/DMAX by the lowest portion of the blue line labeled
�total drag.� The configuration of an aircraft has a great effect on the L/D.
Drag Drag is the force that resists movement of an aircraft through the air. There
are two basic types: parasite drag and induced drag. The first is called parasite
because it in no way functions to aid flight, while the second, induced drag, is a
result of an airfoil developing lift.
Parasite Drag Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow an
aircraft�s movement. As the term parasite implies, it is the drag that is not
associated with the production of lift. This includes the displacement of the air
by the aircraft, turbulence generated in the airstream, or a hindrance of air
moving over the surface of the aircraft and airfoil. There are three types of
parasite drag: form drag, interference drag, and skin friction.
Form Drag Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft due
to its shape and airflow around it. Examples include the engine cowlings, antennas,
and the aerodynamic shape of other components. When the air has to separate to move
around a moving aircraft and its components, it eventually rejoins after passing
the body. How quickly and smoothly it rejoins is representative of the resistance
that it creates, which requires additional force to overcome. [Figure 5-7]
Notice how the flat plate in Figure 5-7 causes the air to swirl around the edges
until it eventually rejoins downstream. Form
drag is the easiest to reduce when designing an aircraft. The solution is to
streamline as many of the parts as possible.
Interference Drag Interference drag comes from the intersection of airstreams that
creates eddy currents, turbulence, or restricts smooth airflow. For example, the
intersection of the wing and the fuselage at the wing root has significant
interference drag. Air flowing around the fuselage collides with air flowing over
the wing, merging into a current of air different from the two original currents.
The most interference drag is observed when two surfaces meet at perpendicular
angles. Fairings are used to reduce this tendency. If a jet fighter carries two
identical wing tanks, the overall drag is greater than the sum of the individual
tanks because both of these create and generate interference drag. Fairings and
distance between lifting surfaces and external components (such as radar antennas
hung from wings) reduce interference drag. [Figure 5-8]
Skin Friction Drag Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the
contact of moving air with the surface of an aircraft. Every surface, no matter how
apparently smooth, has a rough, ragged surface when viewed under a microscope. The
air molecules, which come in direct contact with the surface of the wing, are
virtually motionless. Each layer of molecules above the surface moves slightly
faster until the molecules are moving at the velocity of the air moving around the
aircraft. This speed is called the free-stream velocity. The area between the wing
and the free-stream velocity level is about as wide as a playing card and is called
the boundary layer. At the top of the boundary layer, the molecules increase
velocity and move at the same speed as the molecules outside the boundary layer.
The actual speed at which the molecules move depends upon the shape of the wing,
the viscosity (stickiness) of the air through which the wing or airfoil is moving,
and its compressibility (how much it can be compacted).