Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Analysis of automotive transmission gearbox synchronizer wear

T
due to torsional vibration and the parameters influencing wear
reduction
Barathiraja Ka,b, , Devaradjane Gb, Jibin Paula, Rakesh Sa, Gajanan Jamadadea
⁎

a
Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd, Mahindra Research Valley, Chennai, India
b
Department of Automobile Engineering, Madras Institute of Technology, Anna University, Chennai, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Synchronizers are the heart for the manual transmission, automated manual transmission and
Manual transmission dual clutch transmission. The synchronizers match the speed of the target gears during gear
Carbon synchronizers shifts. Downsizing the high-power density engine develops higher angular accelerations. Higher
Wear angular accelerations create torsional vibrations and are detrimental to the life of the synchro-
Torsional vibration
nizers. The synchronizer rings can move freely in the available space due to torsional vibration.
Lubrication
Angular acceleration
The synchronizers which experience higher angular acceleration collide with the surrounding
parts and wear out. The wear of synchronizer carbon liner reduces the wear gap to zero. The zero-
wear gap hampers the synchronizer functionality and leads to gear clash. This paper presents the
impact of angular acceleration on the life of carbon synchronizer ring and the parameters which
are influencing to overcome the failure are studied. A bench test set-up was developed to simulate
the vehicle level angular accelerations. The bench test results show direct correlation with the life
of the synchronizer on the vehicle. Torsional vibration dampening using clutch size, oil viscosity,
guiding of synchronizer ring, and oil volume are studied. The synchronizer carbon liner wear
reduction is studied and validated with different bench and vehicle level tests.

1. Introduction

Synchronizers are conical mechanical clutches used to synchronize the speed of the rotating parts. Synchronizers are used in
manual transmission, automated manual transmission, and dual clutch transmissions for passenger and commercial vehicles. The
most commonly used material for synchronizer is brass. To improve the friction of cone surface, wear resistance, and durability of
synchronizer, carbon synchronizers are widely used. Under severe test and operating conditions, the carbon synchronizer shows
higher wear resistance and durability when compared with brass synchronizers.
In vehicles, the internal combustion engines are the main source for the angular acceleration and torsional fluctuations due to the
engine firing order [1,2]. Stringent emission norms and the demand for fuel efficient engines force the automotive industries to
downsize the engines. Small sized high-power density internal combustion engines generate high torsional vibration [3]. The tor-
sional fluctuation generated by the engine is transmitted to the gearbox through clutch. Dual mass flywheel can filter the torsional
fluctuations produced by the engine [4]. However, generally not used in commercial vehicle engines, due to high cost when

Abbreviations: TV, Torsional vibration; GSD, Gear shift durability.; CFD, Computational fluid dynamics
⁎
Corresponding author at: Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd, Mahindra Research Valley, Chennai, India.
E-mail address: raja.barathi@mahindra.com (B. K).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.06.084
Received 8 March 2019; Received in revised form 25 June 2019; Accepted 25 June 2019
Available online 26 June 2019
1350-6307/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 1. 6 Speed gearbox layout

compared with single mass flywheel. All the fixed gearwheels in the commercial vehicle coaxial manual transmission gearbox are
mounted on the countershaft. This leads to excitation of all the idler gears by the countershaft, both in neutral and with any gear step
engaged condition [1]. The torsional vibration creates the brass synchronizer ring lug failure and synchronizer ring wear gap re-
duction [5,7].
This paper reports on an experimental investigation of carbon synchronizer liner wear reduction in a conventional manual
gearbox under torsional vibration condition. First, the endurance capacity or amount of wear on the designed synchronizer are
studied with the μ-comp test rig, bench level GSD test rig and vehicle GSD test. Then the vehicle is instrumented to capture the driver
driving pattern such as gear usage pattern and the engine speed. The gearbox and the engine are instrumented to capture the torsional
vibrations on the engine flywheel and input shaft of the gearbox after the clutch. This measurement describes the input torsional
fluctuations to the gearbox. Then the gearbox is instrumented and tested on the TV test rig which replicates the actual vehicle carbon
synchronizer liner wear. On the TV test rig, the gearbox is tested on different clutch sizes, oil volume, oil viscosity and inner diameter
guiding of synchronizer ring. The improvements are validated on the vehicle to confirm meeting of 100,000 km target distance.

2. Statement of problem

The gearbox taken for the study is inline manual transmission having input shaft, counter shaft and output shaft. It has dual cone
carbon synchronizers in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th gear positions and single cone carbon synchronizer in 5th and 6th gear positions. All
the synchronizers are located on the output shaft as shown in Fig. 1. The synchronizer assembly consists of synchronizer hub,
synchronizer sleeve, synchronizer blocker ring, dog teeth and strut detent. The outer synchronizer ring and inner synchronizer ring
are made of steel and have cone surface. The carbon liner is bonded on the steel intermediate synchronizer ring. The outer, inter-
mediate and inner synchronizer ring parts are assembled loosely with in the available space of hub to gear assembly as shown in
Figs. 2 and 3. The synchronizer assembly is designed to have a nominal wear gap of 1.5 mm. The useful life target of the gearbox is
100,000 km. The synchronizer rings wear off quickly in the vehicle validation in less than 20,000 km especially in 1st, 2nd, 3rd & 4th
gear positions. Due to ring wear, the wear gap as shown in Fig. 3, is getting closed or become zero. Zero wear gap hampers syn-
chronization and the gearbox results into early gear crash on the non-engaged synchronizer rings.

3. Experimental set-up

The experimental test flow is given in Fig. 4. The synchronizer design is validated for the coefficient of friction generation and the
endurance life with the help of μ-comp synchronizer endurance test, Transmission level GSD test and Vehicle level GSD. These tests
do not include any external noise factors. Then the external factors which affects the synchronizer function are checked using
customer driving pattern analysis, TV test and Highway durability test.
The above experimental test flow can be broadly divided into two types: Bench level test and Vehicle level test according to
Table 1.
The bench tests are the replica of the vehicle test. The bench test gives the flexibility of controlling the test parameters and reduces
the total test duration. The external noise factors are not present in the bench test. However, the vehicle tests are carried out to
simulate the actual vehicle driving conditions.

428
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 2. Synchronizer assembly

Fig. 3. Synchronizer ring wear gap

3.1. Bench tests

3.1.1. μ-comp Synchronizer endurance test rig

The component level endurance test is conducted using a conventional μ-comp test rig as shown in Fig. 5. The synchronizer hub is
mounted on the main shaft of the rig. The main shaft is connected to the electric motor. The sleeve slides over the hub. A hydraulic
shift actuator is used to move the sleeve. The sleeve axial force and the linear travel are measured using force sensor and linear
accelerometers. The outer and the inner synchronizer rings are connected to the inertia disc through the hub assembly. The inter-
mediate synchronizer ring is connected to the gear and it is rigidly fixed to the test rig. An RPM sensor measures the main shaft speed.
The lubrication oil is supplied over the synchronizer ring through a pump. The lubrication oil flow rate is measured and controlled
using a flow meter. A heater is provided in the hydraulic system to heat up the oil during test. The cone torque generated on the
synchronizer cone surfaces is measured using a strain gauge. The coefficient of friction and the wear are calculated by the system. The
test specification is according to Table 2.

3.1.2. Transmission GSD test rig

On the GSD test rig (Fig. 6), the electric motor is coupled to the output shaft. The clutch disc is mounted on the input shaft. Two

429
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 4. Block diagram of test flow sequence

Table 1
Bench tests and vehicle tests
Bench tests Vehicle tests

μ-comp synchronizer endurance test Vehicle GSD test

Transmission GSD Test Driver driving pattern measurement
TV test rig Vehicle angular acceleration measurement
Engine Dyno test High way durability test

Fig. 5. μ-comp test rig setup

pneumatic actuators are connected to the gear shift knob for the gear select and gear shift directions. The input and the output shaft
rpm are measured using speed sensors. The gear shift forces and the travel are measured using strain gauges and position sensors. A
temperature sensor is used to monitor the transmission oil temperature. For dynamic gearshift, the speed of the input shaft during
gear shift is as per the Table 3.
The gears are shifted in the sequence according to Table 4.

430
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Table 2
Test specification for μ-comp test
Parameter Specification

Mean cone diameter 110 mm

Cone angle 8.5°
Force 2000 N
Delta speed 1500 rpm
Inertia 0.125 Kgm2
Cycle time 3.0 s
Test cycle 100,000

Fig. 6. Gear shift durability test set-up

Table 3
GSD test bench gear shift speeds
Shift type Input shaft speed (rpm)

Up-shift 1800
Down-shift 1200

Table 4
Gearbox GSD test cycle
Gear shift sequence No of cycles

1-2-1 50,000
2-3-2 100,000
3-4-3 100,000
4-5-4 100,000
5-6-5 100,000

3.1.3. TV test rig

The TV (Torsional Vibration) test rig consists of gearbox, drive motor, propeller shaft & adopter pivot as shown in Fig. 7. The
clutch disc is mounted on the gearbox input shaft. The electric motor is connected to the gearbox output shaft through the coupling
and the propeller shaft. The adopter plate to the mount is offset by 15°-20° on the vertical axis and 10°-15° in the horizontal axis. The
propeller shaft yokes have a phase difference of 90° as shown in Fig. 8. This gives a phase difference during shaft rotation. A magnetic
pickup speed sensor is used to measure the input shaft speed. The acceleration is processed using sensor electronics. The gearbox is
engaged in the 5th gear position (1:1 gear ratio). The motor is continuously driven at 1100 rpm. This rpm with propeller shaft phase
difference creates 2000 rad/s2 angular acceleration on the input shaft. This set-up vibrates the synchronizer ring assembly. The
synchronizer life in the vehicle can be directly correlated with the TV test rig.
A DOE is performed using one factor at a time DOE methodology. The test sequence on the TV test rig is as per the Table 5.

431
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 7. Torsional vibration test set-up

Fig. 8. Propeller shaft phase out

Table 5
Test configuration of TV test rig
Test No Hub to ring clearance (mm) Oil grade Oil volume (l)

1 3 SAE80 5
2 0.5 SAE80 5
3 0.5 SAE80W90 5
4 0.5 SAE80W90 7

3.1.4. Engine Dyno test

The test transmission is coupled to the engine on the engine dyno test bed as shown in Fig. 9. The gearbox is pre-selected to the 5th
gear position. The engine power is transferred to the gearbox through the flywheel & clutch. The engine rpm is measured with a speed
sensor on the flywheel. The engine is continuously running at 1100–1200 rpm for 300 h. The test configuration for the gearbox is as
per the Table 6.

3.2. Vehicle test

The gearbox is mounted on a vehicle to test the gearbox in the actual driving conditions. The vehicle is loaded to the GVW to
simulate the actual load condition.

3.2.1. Vehicle GSD test

In the vehicle the gears are shifted in the sequence of 1-2-3-4-5-6-5-4-3-2-1. In this test, trained drivers do quick gear shift at an

432
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 9. Engine dyno test set-up

Table 6
Test configuration of engine dyno
Test no Clutch size Hub to ring clearance (mm) Oil grade Oil volume (l)

1 Standard diameter 3 SAE80 5

2 10% increased diameter 0.5 SAE80W90 7

engine speed as per the Table 7. The vehicle was driven for 15,000 shift cycles. This is an abuse test for the synchronizer components.

3.2.2. Vehicle angular acceleration

On the vehicle, the engine and the gearbox are instrumented to measure the angular accelerations. A magnetic pickup tachometer
is mounted on the gearbox focusing the engine flywheel tooth. Another magnetic pickup tachometer was positioned in the gearbox
focusing the input shaft gear. This is used to measure the speed, in revolutions per minute. Whenever the tachometer sensor detects a
gear tooth, it generates a pulse. The tachometers are connected to SCADAS, and LMS Test Lab is used to measure the angular
accelerations of the flywheel and the input shaft gear.

3.2.3. Vehicle high way durability test

The vehicle is driven on the high-speed durability test cycle. Trained drivers are driving the vehicle on the highway. The vehicle is
quickly taken into 5th gear by quick gear shifting from “N” gear. Then the vehicle is driven at an engine speed of 1100–1400 rpm on
5th gear.

4. Results & Discussion

The synchronizer ring wear can occur due to poor design and or due to external factors. The synchronizer capacity is used to
validate the robustness in design. The external factors which causes wear are discussed under drivetrain vibrations.

4.1. Synchronizer capacity

The synchronizer capacity was validated to check the life of the synchronizer ring. This validates the capability of the rings to

Table 7
Vehicle GSD gear shift speeds
Shift type Input shaft speed (rpm)

Up-shift 1900
Down-shift 1900

433
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Table 8
Material limits of carbon synchronizer
Specification Material Limits

Energy limit 1.5 J/mm2

Surface pressure 10 N/mm2
Surface velocity 8 to 10 m/s

perform its intended function of synchronization.

4.1.1. Synchronizer level GSD test

The synchronizer ring assembly was validated in μ-comp test rig for the endurance life. To meet the endurance life of the gearbox,
the material limits of the synchronizer for each gear shift operations should be more than the synchronizer capacity as per the
Table 8. The synchronizer capacity material limits are calculated using the expression [6].
1 2
Energy Limit = IRef
2 (1)

Fs Nc A
Surface Pressure =
sin (2)

rpm
Surface Velocity = dmax
60 (3)

= abs ( i a) (4)

rpm = abs (Grpm Hrpm ) (5)

This test was performed in a controlled environment with no vibration in the system. The test gives a stable friction and μ-
dynamic is 0.105 at the end stage. The total wear is 0.21 mm for the entire test cycle (Fig. 10). The wear distribution is 55:45 on the
inner and outer rings with no abnormalities in the entire test cycle.
When the vehicle is driven on top gear with max engine rpm, the idle synchronizer packs in the low gear experience a high surface
velocity. The 1st gear experiences 30% higher surface velocity than the carbon limits. In the next test, the hub speed is increased to
match the vehicle Δrpm on the test rig without performing the gear shift operation. This generates 30% higher surface velocity on the
synchronizer cone surfaces. The test was conducted for 5 h and no wear observed.

4.1.2. Transmission level GSD Endurance test

The wear of 1st synchronizer ring in the 1-2-1 gear shift is 0.55 mm. The 1st gear reflected inertia is higher than other gears. The

Fig. 10. μ-comp coefficient of friction

434
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

1.8
1.6
1.4

Wear Gap (mm)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Gear
Wear Gap Before Test Wear Gap A!er Test

Fig. 11. Wear gap in transmission GSD

higher inertia causes higher wear on the synchronizer rings when compared to other gear positions. During upshift the gearbox drag
helps for synchronization. In downshift the gearbox has to work against the drag for synchronization. The higher work done by the
synchronizer by accelerating the speed of the input shaft as well as overcoming the drag forces increases the wear on the 1st
synchronizer. The wear distribution is 58:42 on the inner and the outer synchronizer rings. The wear of all gear positions is shown in
Fig. 11. The gearbox meets the useful life target of 100,000 gear shift cycles in the GSD bench test in each gear. This will be equal to
100,000 km of the useful life of the vehicle.

4.1.3. Vehicle level GSD endurance test

On the vehicle GSD test the driveline torsional fluctuations are getting included due to no masking provided to isolate the
driveline torsional fluctuations. The wear on the 1st synchronizer ring was 0.65 mm. This wear was due to high inertia load in the 2 to
1 gear shifting with quick gear shifting and the very higher downshift gear speed. Because of this, the work done by the synchronizer
ring is higher and which in-turn wears the ring. The wear of all gear positions is shown in Fig. 12.
The μ-comp test, transmission level GSD and the vehicle GSD test results show the synchronizer ring generates required friction
and have the required capacity to do the synchronization. The wear occurs due to the synchronization load. The inclusion of vehicle
torsional fluctuations in the vehicle GSD did not contribute any wear.

4.2. Drivetrain vibrations

4.2.1. Flywheel and clutch inertia

A user driving pattern is identified on the vehicle to have higher fuel efficiency. The vehicle is mostly driven on the 5th and the 6th
gears on the highway with a constant low engine speed in the range of 1000 to 1400 rpm (Figs. 13, 14 and 15). The drive rattle is
usually worse at higher torque demands and also worse in direct drive [3]. On the 5th and the 6th gears at 1100 rpm the standard
flywheel generates 950 rad/s2 angular acceleration. The standard clutch does not dampen the angular acceleration on the 5th gear
and amplifies to 1600 rad/s2. On the 4th gear 1600 rad/s2 angular acceleration is transferred to the input shaft at 1250 rpm. The usage
of 4th gear in the said rpm is very less and not considered for analysis. In these conditions the standard clutch disc does not fully
dampen the engine torsional fluctuations. The fluctuations are directly transferred to the gearbox (Fig. 16).
If the torsional vibration imparted by the internal combustion engine exceeds a certain amplitude, the idle rotating loose parts are
induced to vibrate within their functionally defined space [2]. The synchronizer ring is excited by the input shaft vibrations and
moves within its clearance and causes impact [8]. In this driving condition, the engaged synchronizer ring does not undergo the
vibrations as they are supported by the sleeve and the synchronizer cone surfaces. The non-engaged synchronizer rings such as 1st,
2nd, 3rd and 4th rings are more prone to vibrate as they are not supported or guided by sleeve and gear cone (Figs. 2 and 3). The

1.8
1.6
1.4
Wear Gap (mm)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Gear
Wear Gap Before Test Wear Gap A!er Test

Fig. 12. Wear gap in vehicle GSD

435
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

40

% Time Ulizaon
20

0
N 1 2 3 4 5 6
Gear

Fig. 13. Customer gear utilization pattern

40
% Time Utilization

30

20

10

Engine Speed (rpm)

Fig. 14. % Time utlilization in 5th gear

Fig. 15. % Time utilization in 6th gear

torsional fluctuations create surface fatigue on the hitting zone and in turn wears the synchronizer ring [7]. The ring moves linearly
and radially in the package space and hitting with the synchronizer cone with very high frequency. The hitting removes the oil film in
between the carbon synchronizer lining and the synchronizer cone surfaces. The hitting removes the carbon particles on the liner
surface.
The angular accelerations can be reduced by using bigger size flywheel and clutch [3]. To reduce the drivetrain vibration, the
clutch disc size was increased to 10%. To accommodate the increased clutch disc diameter, the flywheel diameter also was increased
to 10%. The increased flywheel reduced the engine angular acceleration. The 10% diameter increased clutch & flywheel dampened
the input shaft torsional vibrations to 1100 rad/s2 for the engine speed range of 1100 to 1400 rpm in 5th gear driving condition as
shown in Fig. 16.
The gearbox was validated with the standard diameter clutch disc and the 10% diameter increased clutch disc. Both the vehicles
were tested at a constant speed of 1100 to 1200 rpm for 10,000 km on the 5th gear. On the 3rd gear synchronizer, the wear got reduced
from 0.95 mm to 0.45 mm with the 10% diameter increased clutch when compared with the standard diameter clutch. The reduced
angular acceleration reduces the free movement of the rings and the wear was getting reduced in the bigger diameter clutch gearbox
(Fig. 17).

436
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 16. Engine & gearbox angular acceleration

4.2.2. TV test
The drivetrain vibrations are simulated using TV test rig. On the TV test set-up, the gearbox with 100 rad/s2 angular acceleration
generates 0.05 mm wear on the 3rd gear synchronizer position and no wear in the other gear position, when tested for 65 h. The same
gearbox when tested with 2000 rad/s2 angular acceleration for 35 h had a wear of 1.4 mm on the 3rd gear synchronizer position
which was in line with the 20,000Km highway durability vehicle gearbox. On, further testing, all the synchronizer rings wear out
fully at 65 h as shown in Fig. 18, Fig. 19.
Under the magnification of 500× on the microscope, the vehicle level GSD test synchronizer ring wear pattern shows carbon
particles with oil filled pores and it is due to pressure loading of synchronizer ring (Fig. 20a). When the vehicle is driven continuously
on the 5th gear on the highway, the vehicle failed synchronizer ring does not show any pressure loading. Due to vibration, the
synchronizer ring moves freely and hits on the synchronizer cone surface. The hitting on the gear cone causes abrasion wear and
removes the top layer of carbon and it gets replaced with the next layer of carbon particles. This reduces the life of the synchronizer
ring. The new synchronizer, the highway durability vehicle failed synchronizer, and the TV test rig synchronizer have the same

437
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

0.8

Wear (mm)
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Gear
Standard Ø Clutch 10% Increased Ø Clutch

Fig. 17. Influence of clutch size on wear reduction

Fig. 18. TV simulation comparison with vehicle test

Fig. 19. a) Nominal wear gap, b) Zero wear gap

Fig. 20. a) GSD Test completed carbon surface–loaded carbon surface, b) Torsional vibration failed non-loaded carbon surface

carbon pattern (Fig. 20b).

4.2.3. Center support of synchronizer ring

In the dual cone synchronizer ring, the outer cone is guided by the sleeve and or hub with a nominal radial clearance of 0.5 mm.
The inner cone has a radial clearance of 3 mm with the surrounding parts such as hub or gear. Due to this the inner cone can move
freely in the radial direction. On the high way durability test, the wear of the inner carbon liner contributes to 85% of total syn-
chronizer wear. The inner cone radial clearance with the hub is reduced to 0.5 mm as shown in Fig. 21. This reduces the free
movement of the inner synchronizer ring and gives good guidance to the inner synchronizer ring. On the TV test rig for 65 h, the

438
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 21. Center support for inner synchronizer ring

gearbox with 0.5 mm radial clearance had a wear of 0.98 mm compared with 1.4 mm wear of 3 mm radial clearance synchronizer ring
(Fig. 22). Due to center support the wear of the inner and the outer carbon liners became 60:40 ratio. The reduced clearances reduced
the radial movement of the synchronizer rings and reduced the intensity of the hitting of the synchronizer ring and in turn reduced
the wear in all gear synchronizer positions.

4.2.4. Oil viscosity

Kinematic viscosity has a major influence on the loose part vibration generated by the transmissions. Correct selection of lubricant
enables the loose part vibration limit to be moved to higher angular acceleration amplitudes and vibration can be reduced [2].
On the TV test rig, the gearbox was tested with SAE80 oil and SAE80W90 oil for 65 h. The oil parameters are given in Table 9.
For the low viscosity, the movement of the ring is higher due to less dampening in the synchronizers contact [8]. The high
viscosity oil has higher compressibility which results in higher load carrying capacities. The thicker oil provides an oil cushion for
contact [9]. The oil viscosity increases the drag in the gearbox and reduces the movement of loose parts [3]. In 65 h of TV test, the
SAE80 oil had a wear of 0.98 mm compared with 0.52 mm wear in SAE80W90 oil for the 3rd synchronizer position. The wear got
reduced in SAE80W90 oil compared with SAE80 oil in all gear synchronizer positions as shown in Fig. 23.

4.2.5. Oil volume

Due to torsional vibration the intermediate synchronizer ring vibrates within the available space and causes hammering effect.
The oil film in between the carbon liner and the cone breaks away and leads to wear of carbon liner. The synchronizer ring can move
within the available package space. In the gearbox the synchronizer ring can move an axial distance of 1 mm. This axial movement
creates a radial gap of 0.15 mm. The outer ring can move 0.5 mm inside the hub and the inner ring can move 0.5 mm towards the hub
center support. Sufficient oil quantity should be available in the gaps (Fig. 24) to dampen the vibrations.
The oil level in the gearbox is to be optimized to have enough oil movement within the gearbox during churning lubrication [10].
The level of lubrication oil in the gearbox is of importance, as it develops drag torque thus reducing the vibration of loose parts
[2,11].
The drag torque is generated by the shear torque of lubrication in the gap (or gaps) between the synchronizer ring and the
synchronizer cone, which are rotating at different speeds. The axial velocity of the oil due to the centrifugal force is given as below
[12].
2
(8)
u (Z ) = k1 k 0 Z (0.5 2 +2 +2 )
a a

k1 = tan (9)

1.6
1.4
1.2
Wear (mm)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4
Gear
Clearance 3mm, SAE80, 5L Oil Clearance 0.5mm, SAE80, 5L Oil

Fig. 22. Influence of center support on synchronizer wear

439
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Table 9
Oil properties
Parameter SAE80 SAE 80W90

Kinematic viscosity, mm2/s at 40 °C 74.6 135

Kinematic viscosity, mm2/s at 100 °C 10.2 16
Base oil density kg/dm3 0.85 0.88

1.2
1
0.8
Wear (mm)

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4
Gear
Clearance 0.5mm, SAE80, 5L Oil Clearance 0.5mm, SAE80W90, 5L Oil

Fig. 23. Influence of oil viscosity on synchronizer wear

Fig. 24. Synchronizer in neutral position with oil flow

1
k 0 = rm + bsin
2 (10)

Axial volumetric flow rate due to the centrifugal force is as follows [12].
Q = 2 h ( k1 Z + k 0 0.5h) u (Z ) (11)

The axial volumetric flow increases linearly by increasing the space between the synchronizer ring to have fully wetted surface.
When the oil full film wetting surface of synchronizer ring width increases, the axial volumetric flow needed to maintain full film
wetted volume also increases as shown in Fig. 25. The full film wetted surface area generates higher drag than the oil-air mixture in
the annular space of synchronizer ring. To increase the full film wetted surface area the oil volume and or the oil level in the gearbox
is to be increased.
A CFD analysis of gearbox was performed on the 3rd and the 4th gear positions. The purpose was to increase the drag (reduce the
torsional vibration) and improve lubrication/oil flow in the synchronizer components. Churning loss is a speed dependent loss that
will produce higher gearbox drag at higher speeds as large quantity of oil has to be moved per time unit [11]. The oil resists
movement of parts, there by dampening vibrations and mechanical shocks.
The oil volume in the gearbox was 5 l. The volume of the oil was increased to 7 l to provide higher splash in to wear gap, better
lubrication and to dampen the vibrations. The 5 l CFD analysis showed less oil movement around the 3rd and the 4th synchronizer
rings. The 7 l CFD analysis revealed that more oil reached the friction lining material on the 4th gear side via the openings of clutch
body ring lugs. The opening of clutch body ring lugs in the 3rd gear side was covered by the larger 3rd gear, so less quantity of oil was
reaching the lining material as shown in Fig. 26, Fig. 27. The 4th counter shaft gear had larger diameter and had higher immersion
depth on the oil compared with the 3rd gear. It drew up more oil and created more splash and stirred the oil bath more [13]. In the TV

440
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

Q (L/min)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
h (mm)

z=4 z=5 z=6 z=7

Fig. 25. Volume of Oil required for full wetting of gear cone surface for different gear cone to synchronizer ring gaps

Fig. 26. Oil flow distribution on the 3rd & the 4th gear positions for 5 l and 7 l of oil (section taken between synchronizer ring and CB ring).

test for 65 h, the 3rd synchronizer had a wear of 0.52 mm in 5 l gearbox and the wear reduced to 0.3 mm in 7 l gearbox. For the 4th
gear the wear was 0.5 mm in the 3rd gear and the wear reduced to 0.2 mm in the 7 l oil gearbox as shown in Fig. 28. This wear
reduction happened due to the higher oil level and higher oil churning. The increased level of oil volume increased the drag of
counter shaft gears and increased the drag torque on synchronizers [14]. This reduced the free movement of the synchronizer rings by
dampening the vibration transferring from the 5th gear to counter shaft gears and in turn reduced the impact in all gear synchronizer
positions.

4.2.6. Engine dyno test

The improvements carried out in the study such as clutch diameter increase, reduced inner synchronizer ring clearance, oil grade
and oil volume were validated in the engine dyno test.
The initial design had a wear of 0.9 mm in the 3rd synchronizer position on the engine dyno. This wear reduced to 0.1 mm with

441
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

Fig. 27. Oil flow distribution on the 3rd & the 4th gear positions

0.6
0.5
Wear (mm)

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4
Gear
Clearance 0.5mm, SAE80W90, 5L Oil Clearance 0.5mm, SAE80W90, 7L Oil

Fig. 28. Influence of oil volume on synchronizer wear

the 10% increased clutch diameter, 0.5 mm inner synchronizer ring clearance, with 7 l of SAE80W90 oil as shown in Fig. 29. The
wear was reduced in all gear synchronizer positions.

5. Conclusion

This paper describes the synchronizer ring wear due to torsional vibration in manual transmission gearbox synchronizers. The
experimental study reduces the synchronizer wear. The conclusions from the study and the experimental results are as follows:

0.8
Wear (mm)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 4 3 5 6
Gear
Std. Dia Clutch, Clearance 3mm, SAE80, 5 Ltr oil
10% increaesd Dia Clutch, Clearance 0.5mm, SAE80W90, 7 Ltr oil

Fig. 29. Configuration of engine dyno test and synchronizer wear

442
B. K, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 427–443

1. The torsional vibration causes non-uniform wear on the synchronizer ring. The inner ring wear is higher than the outer ring wear.
2. The transfer of torsional vibration into the gearbox is dampened by the bigger diameter clutch. The inner synchronizer ring guide
restricts the free movement of the ring. Further high viscosity oil dampens the vibration which cause impact of synchronizer ring
and wear.
3. More amount of oil is getting churned with the increased oil volume, which pushes more oil in to the synchronizer ring and
dampen the vibration. The increase in the drag on the counter shaft gears further cut the vibration transfer path.

6. Future Scope of work

Increase of clutch size increases the downshift reflected inertia. Oil volume and the oil viscosity increases the drag of the gearbox.
These will affect the gear shift quality, which can be solved by optimizing the synchronizer index percentage, tooth thickness and
tooth chamfer angles.

Nomenclature

A Surface area (mm2)

b width of synchronizer ring (mm)
dmax Max cone diameter (mm)
Fs Force at sleeve (N)
Grpm Gear speed (rpm)
Hrpm Hub speed (rpm)
h radial space between the gear cone and synchronizer ring (mm)
rm Mean radius of synchronizer ring (mm)
IRef Reflected inertia of the gear (Kgm2)
Nc Number of cones
Q Axial volumetric flow rate (mm3)
u(z) Axial velocity (mm/s2)
Z Full oil film length (mm)
α Cone Angle (°)
∆rpm Difference in speed (rpm)
ω Angular acceleration (rad/s2)
ωa Angular acceleration of the synchronizer ring / hub (rad/s2)
ωi Angular acceleration of the gear (rad/s2)

References

[1] Paul D. Walker and Nong Zhang, “Transmission of engine harmonics to synchronizer mechanisms in dual clutch transmissions”, J. Vib. Acoust., Paper No: VIB-
14-1015; doi: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4028079.
[2] S.N. Dogan, J. Ryborz, G. Lechner, The Effect of Transmission Lubricants on Rattling and Clattering Noise in Automotive Transmissions, WTC World Tribology
Congress, Vienna, Austria, 2001 (03.-07.09.01).
[3] R. Seaman, C. Johnson, R. Hamilton, Component inertial effects on transmission design, SAE Tech. Pap. (1984), https://doi.org/10.4271/841686 841686.
[4] W.R. Reik, The dual mass flywheel, 6th Luk Symposium, 1998.
[5] N. Tawhare, D. Aswale, M. Ponkshe, Torsional fluctuations consideration while design of synchro rings, SAE Tech. Pap. (2018), https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-
01-1823 2018-01-1823.
[6] R. Socin, L. Walters, Manual transmission synchronizers, SAE Tech. Pap. (1968), https://doi.org/10.4271/680008 680008.
[7] Singh, M., Singh, P., Kumar, K., and Rawla, V., "Development of test method to validate Synchronizer Ring design for torsional fluctuations in manual trans-
mission," SAE Tech. Pap. (2016-28-0012).
[8] P. Fietkau, A. Baumann, B. Bertsche, Simulation of passenger car synchronizer ring movement during rattling, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part K 226 (2012) 3–16,
https://doi.org/10.1177/1464419311428394.
[9] Erwin Adi Hartono, Study of Fluid Flow Inside the Gearbox, PhD Thesis Department of Applied Mechanics Division of Fluid Dynamics Chalmers University Of
Technology, Sweden, 2014.
[10] Hua Liu, Thomas Jurkschat, Thomas Lohner, Karsten Stahl, Detailed investigations on the oil flow in dip-lubricated gearboxes by the finite volume CFD method,
Lubricants 6 (2) (2018) 47, https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants6020047.
[11] Keerthi Medleri Hire Math, Mikael Lund, Drag Torque and Synchronization Modelling in a Dual Clutch Transmission, Master Thesis, Chalmers University Of
Technology & Lund University.
[12] Y. Shen, Z. Liu, S. Rinderknecht, Modelling of power losses of transmission synchronizers in neutral position, SAE Tech. Pap. (2018), https://doi.org/10.4271/
2018-01-1228 2018-01-1228.
[13] E.A. Hartono, M. Golubev, V. Chernoray, PIV study of fluid flow inside a gearbox, Proc. of 10th International Symposium on Particle Image Velocimetry, 2013,
pp. 1–11.
[14] Z. Liu, Y. Shen, S. Rinderknecht, Theoretical and experimental investigation on power loss of vehicle transmission synchronizers with spray lubrication, SAE
Tech. Pap. (2019), https://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-0028 2019-01-0028.

443