AUTOMOBILE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

The automotive electrical system is classified as-

1. The generation, storage and distribution system

2. The starting system
3. The ignition system
4. The lighting system
5. The accessories

Major components of a typical electrical system are given below:

1) The generation, storage and distribution system

 Generator
 Battery
 Regulator

2) Starting System

 Battery

 Starting motor

 Wiring,

 Switches, etc

3) Charging System

 Alternator

 Regulator, etc.

4) Ignition System

 Spark plugs (for petrol vehicle)

 Distributor

 Ignition coil

 Ignition switch, etc.

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 5) The lighting system

 Head light
 Tail light
 Side light
 Interior light
 Number plate illumination light
 Fog lamps
 Indicator flasher

6) The accessories

 Car heater
 Air conditioner
 Radio sets
 Wind screen wiper
 Horns
 Dash board gauges

THE GENERATION, STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

GENERATOR

The generator is the primary source of electrical energy in a vehicle. It converts mechanical
energy supplied by the engine into electrical energy. It will be sufficient to say for the time being
that a generator consists of an armature, which rotates between the poles of magnets on a
stationary yoke member. The generator used on most of the automobiles of today is 12-V
alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc) unit. The ac unit is often called the alternator. The
primary function of the generator is to recharge the battery. It also supplies current to other
electric units provided on the vehicle when the engine is running. The generator is generally
driven with the help of the engine fan- belt.

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BATTERY

The battery supplies electric current to operate the starting motor and ignition system when the
engine is being started. It is often called the heart of the electrical system. The battery stores
energy in a chemical form.

A chemical reaction takes place inside the battery when any electricity-consuming device like
the starter, lights, etc. is connected to the battery, which produces a flow of current. The current
that the battery can deliver is limited.

If the current is not forced back in to the battery from some external source like the automobile
generator, the battery would soon get discharged and it would not be in a position to deliver any
more current.

Its main job in the automobile is to supply electric energy for cranking the engine and also to
other electric units of the vehicle when the engine is not driving the generator, at a speed
sufficient to produce the needed current. The battery also helps in balancing the voltage in the
system.

REGULATOR

There is also a regulator fitted on the automobile, which regulates the current produced by the
generator. If there had been no regulator, the current produced by the generator would have been
so much that it would have damaged the battery and other electrical units of the vehicle. High
electric current is permitted to flow by the regulator when the battery is in a discharged condition
or when the vehicle’s electric units are turned on. It helps in reducing the current produced by the
generator when the battery is in a charged condition or when the electric units are switched off. It
is essential to have some conducting path for distributing the electric energy from the source to
the different points of utilizations. For this purpose, the generator and the battery are connected
by means of conductors, and likewise the other units like the lamps, the starter, the horn, and the
wipers. Etc. is connected to the battery.

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STARTING SYSTEM

The starting system of an automobile is used to start the internal combustion engine. Both SI
and CI engines cannot start by itself. These engines need to be cranked by a starting motor.
This motor is also called a starter or cranking motor. In present-day automobiles, the method
of starting the vehicle by hand has been replaced by that of the cranking motor. The cranking
motor is a special kind of direct current electric motor. It is designed for intermittent service
under great overload. It is of a high starting torque type and generally of the four-pole series
type. It is clear that when the switch is closed. The current is directed to the cranking motor
from the battery. The motor is provided with a pinion, which is made to mesh with a larger
gear integral with the flywheel of the engine. The electric circuit is completed through earthed
terminals, thus making the crankshaft of the engine to rotate until the engine starts. When the
engine starts, the automatic device in the starter pinion disconnects the pinion from the
flywheel gear ring when the starting switch is switched off.

REQUIREMENTS OF THE STARTING SYSTEM

An internal combustion engine requires-

1) A combustible mixture,
2) Compression stroke,
3) A form of ignition, and
4) The minimum initial starting speed (about 100 rpm) in order to start and continue
running.
To meet the first three of these requirements the minimum starting speed must be attained. This
is where the electric starter comes in. The attainment of this minimum speed is again dependent

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on a number of factors, such as;

1) The rated voltage of the starting system.

2) The lowest possible temperature at which the engine can still be started. This is known as
the starting limit temperature.
3) The torque required to crank the engine at its starting limit temperature (including the
initial stalled torque).
4) The battery characteristics.
5) The voltage drop between the battery and the starter.
6) The starter to ring gear ratio.
7) The characteristics of the starter.
8) The minimum cranking speed of the engine at the starting limit temperature.

The starting system of any vehicle must fulfill the following criteria in addition to the eight
factors listed above for its efficient functioning.

1) Long service life and low maintenance needs.

2) Continuous readiness to operate.
3) Robustness to withstand starting forces, vibration, corrosion and temperature cycles.
4) The lowest possible size and weight.

CHARGING SYSTEM

Charging system is required to recharge the battery which is an important component of

electrical system of an automobile. Charging is required as the capacity of a battery to supply
current is limited to the energy stored in it in the form of chemical energy. Battery supplies the
current to run the starting motor, various lights and horn, etc.
The charging system generates electricity to recharge the battery and run other electrical
components.

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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF CHARGING SYSTEM

A vehicle charging system has been represented in Fig. as three blocks, i.e. the alternator, battery
and vehicle loads. When engine is not running, the alternator voltage is less than the battery
voltage so current flows from the battery to the vehicle loads and the alternator diodes prevent
current flowing into the alternator. When engine is running, the alternator output is greater than
the battery voltage, so current flows from the alternator to the vehicle loads as well as the
battery. This implies that alternator output voltage must always be above the battery voltage
during operation of the engine. However, the actual voltage used is critical and depends on a
number of factors.

REQUIREMENTS OF CHARGING SYSTEM

During running of the engine, the changing system must perform the following:
1) Meeting the current demands of some or all loads at all speeds.
2) Providing charge current required by the battery at all speeds.
3) Maintaining a constant voltage under all conditions.
4) Having an efficient power to weight ratio.
5) Should be reliable, quiet, resistant to contamination etc.
6) Should need little maintenance.
7) Should have some indication of correct operation (warning light).

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CHARGING VOLTAGES

The main consideration in deciding the charging voltage is the battery terminal voltage when it is
in fully charged condition. This value of charging voltage eliminates the risk of overcharging the
battery and is infact a standard constant voltage charging technique. A charging voltage of 14 V
is normally used for a nominal 12 V battery. Commercial vehicles generally use two batteries in
series at a nominal voltage of 24 V and hence charging voltage for this system should be 28 V.
These voltages are also used as the standard input for all vehicle loads. This chapter describes a
12 V system.

The expected voltage drops in the wiring of the charging circuit, and the operating temperature
of the system and battery are the other factors to be considered when determining charging
voltage. The operating temperature and voltage drop should be kept to a minimum. In reality the
terminal voltage of the alternator may be slightly above the voltage supplied to the battery.

COMBINED CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF STARTING AND CHARGING SYSTEM

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IGNITION SYSTEM

In spark ignition engines, a device is required to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture at the end
of compression stroke. Ignition system fulfills this requirement. It is a part of electrical system
which carries the electric current at required voltage to the spark plug which generates spark at
correct time. It consists of a battery, switch, distributor ignition coil, spark plugs and necessary
wiring.

A compression ignition engine, i.e. a diesel engine does not require any ignition system,
because, self ignition of fuel air mixture takes place when diesel is injected in the compressed
air at high temperature at the end of compression stroke.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IGNITION SYSTEM

1) The ignition system should be capable of producing high voltage current, as high as
25000 volts, so that spark plug can produce spark across its electrode gap.
2) It should produce spark for sufficient duration so that mixture can be ignited at all
operating speeds of automobile.
3) Ignition system should function satisfactory at all engine speeds.
4) Longer life of contact points and spark plug.
5) Spark must generate at correct time at the end of compression stroke in every cycle
of engine operation.

6) The system must be easy to maintain, light in weight and compact in size.
7) There should be provision of spark advance with speed and load.
8) It should be able to function smoothly even when the spark plug electrodes are
deposited with carbon lead or oil.

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TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEMS

There are three types of ignition systems which are used in petrol engines.
1) Battery ignition system or coil ignition system.
2) Magneto ignition system.
3) Electronic ignition system.

In battery ignition system, the current in the primary winding is supplied by a battery whereas it
is supplied by a magneto in magneto ignition system.
Battery ignition system is used in cars and light truck. Magneto ignition system is used in some
scooters.
Both the systems work on the principle of mutual electromagnetic induction.
Electronic ignition systems use solid state devices such as transistors and capacitors.

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BATTERY OR COIL IGNITION SYSTEM

Battery ignition system consists of a battery of 6 or 12 volts, ignition switch, induction coil,
contact breaker, condenser, distributor and spark plugs. A typical battery ignition system for four
cylinder SI engine has been shown in Figure. The primary circuit consists of battery, switch,
primary winding and contact breaker point which are grounded. A condenser is also connected in
parallel to the contact breaker points. One end of the condenser is grounded and other connected
to the contact breaker arm. It is provided to avoid sparking at contact breaker points so as to
increase their life.

The secondary ignition circuit consists of secondary winding distributors and spark plugs. All
spark plugs are grounded.

The ignition coil steps up 12 volts (or 6 volt) supply to a very high voltage which may range
from 20,000 to 30,000 volts. A high voltage is required for the spark to jump across the spark
plug gas. This spark ignites the air-fuel mixture as the end of compression stroke. The rotor of
the distributor revolves and distributors the current to the four segments which send the current

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to different spark plugs. For a 4-cylinder engine the cam of the contact breaker has four lobes.
Therefore, it makes and breaks the contact of the primary circuit four times in every revolution
of cam. Because of which current is distributed to all the spark plugs in some definite sequence.

The primary winding of ignition coil has less number of turns (e.g. 200 turns) of thick wire. The
secondary winding has relatively large number of turns (e.g. 20,000 turns) of thin wire.

When ignition switch in turned on, the current flows from battery to the primary winding. This
produces magnetic field in the coil. When the contact point is open, the magnetic field collapses
and the movement of the magnetic field induces current in the secondary winding of ignition
coil. As the numbers of turns in secondary winding are more, a very high voltage is produced
across the terminals of secondary.

The distributor sends this high voltage to the proper spark plug which generates spark for
ignition of fuel-air mixture. In this way, high voltage current is passed to all spark in a definite
order so that combustion of fuel-air mixture takes place in all cylinders of the engine.

A ballast register is connected in series in primary circuit to regulate the current. At the time of
starting this register is bypassed so that more current can flow in this circuit.
The breaker points are held by a spring except when they are forced apart by lobes of the cam.

Advantages

1) Low initial cost

2) Better spark at low speeds and better starting than magneto system
3) Reliable system
4) No problems due to adjustment of spark timings.
5) Simpler than magneto system

Disadvantages
1) Battery requires periodical maintenance.
2) In case of battery malfunction, engine cannot be started.

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MAGNETO-IGNITION SYSTEM

This system consists of a magneto in place of a battery. So, the magneto produces and supplies
current in primary winding. Rest of the system is same as that in battery ignition system. A
magneto ignition system for a four cylinder SI engine has been shown in Figure.
The magneto consists of a fixed armature having primary and secondary windings and a rotating
magnetic assembly. This rotating assembly is driven by the engine.
Rotation of magneto generates current in primary winding having small number of turns.
Secondary winding having large number of turns generates high voltage current which is
supplied to distributor. The distributor sends this current to respective spark plugs. The magneto
may be of rotating armature type or rotating magnet type. In rotating armature type magneto, the
armature having primary and secondary windings and the condenser rotates between the poles of

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a stationary horse shoe magnet. In magneto, the magnetic field is produced by permanent
magnets.

Advantages
1) Better reliability due to absence of battery and low maintenance
2) Better suited for medium and high speed engines
3) Modern magneto systems are more compact, therefore require less space
Disadvantages
1) Adjustment of spark timings adversely affects the voltage.
2) Burning of electrodes is possible at high engine speeds due to high voltage.
3) Cost is more than that of magneto ignition systems.

FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS USED IN CIRCUITS OF BATTERY (COIL)

IGNITION AND MAGNETO-IGNITION SYSTEMS

Battery

It is an important component of electrical system. The battery supplies the necessary current to
the primary winding of ignition coil which is converted into high voltage current to produce
spark. It also supplied current to run the starting motor when engine is cranked for starting. A
battery stores energy in the form of chemical energy and supplies it for running lights and other
accessories of an automobile. Lead-acid battery is commonly used in most of the automobiles.

Ignition or Induction Coil

The ignition coil is step up transformer to increase the voltage form 12 volt or 6 volt to 20000-
30000 volts. It consists of a primary winding and a secondary winding wound on a laminated
soft iron core. Primary winding contains about 300 turns made of thick wire. Secondary consists
of about 20000 turns of thin wire. In a can type coil, secondary is wound on the soft core over
which primary is wound. This assembly is housed in a steel casing fitted with a cap. The cap is
made of insulating material. The terminals for electrical connections are provided in cap. This
type of coil is shown in Figure 3.3. To save the windings from moisture and to improve
insulation, windings are dipped in oil. One primary terminal is connected to ignition switch and
other to the contact breaker. Secondary terminal is connected to the distributor.

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Contact Breakers

Contact breaker is required to make contact and break contact of the primary circuit of ignition
system. It consists of two contact breaker points as shown in Figures 3.1 and 3.2. One point
remains fixed while the other can move. A cam is used to move the movable point. As cam
moves, the contact is made and broken alternately. Primary circuit breaks when the breaker
points open. Magnetic field collapses due to this. This produces high voltage current in the
secondary winding which is supplied to the distributor. This current is distributor to proper spark
plug where it produces spark for ignition of fuel-air mixture.

Condenser

The function of the condenser in the ignition system is to absorb and store the inductive current
generated in the coil. If condenser is not provided, the induced current will cause arcing at the
breaker points. This will cause burning of the breaker points.

Distributor

The distributor sends the high voltage current, generated in the secondary winding, to the proper
spark plug at proper time. If the automobile is having a four cylinder engine, it will have four
spark plugs.
The cap of the distributor is connected to the secondary winding of coil. It has a rotor which
rotates and comes in contact with the terminals (4 in number for 4 spark plugs) placed around the
rotor. As the rotor comes in contact with the terminals the current is passed to the respective
spark plug at proper time when spark is needed.

Ignition Switch

The function of the ignition switch is to connect the battery and starting motor in the
automobiles having self starting system.
Example: In car, jeep, etc.
Its function is to connect battery to induction coil in the battery ignition system.

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Spark Plugs

The function of the spark plug is to produce spark between its electrodes. This spark is used to
ignite the fuel-air mixture in the spark ignition (SI) engines

Magneto

Magneto is used in magneto ignition system. Magneto is a kind of generator to provide

electrical energy to run the ignition system. It is replacement of battery for ignition. When it is
rotated by the engine, it produces high voltage current to be supplied to spark plugs through the
distributor.

ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEMS

Electronic ignition systems use some solid state devices like transistor and capacitors, etc. to
generate right sparking voltage at right time. These systems have overcome the limitations of
conventional (battery ignition and magneto-ignition) ignition systems.
Modern automobiles make use of these systems. Two systems, common in use, are:
1. Capacitive discharge ignition, and
2. Transistorized coil ignition.
3. Piezo-electric Ignition system
4. The Texaco Ignition system
These systems are more reliable and require less maintenance. Wear and tear of components is
reduced and life of spark plugs is increased with the use of electronic ignition.

The basic difference between the contact point and the electronic ignition system is in the
primary circuit. The primary circuit in a contact point ignition system is open and closed by
contact points. In the electronic system, the primary circuit is open and closed by the electronic
control unit (ECU).The secondary circuits are practically the same for the two systems. The
difference is that the distributor, ignition coil, and wiring are altered to handle the high voltage
produced by the electronic ignition system. One advantage of this higher voltage (up to 60,000
volts) is that spark plugs with wider gaps can be used. This results in a longer spark, which can
ignite leaner air-fuel mixtures. As a result engines can run on leaner mixtures for better fuel
economy and lower emissions.

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CAPACITANCE DISCHARGE IGNITION SYSTEM
It mainly consists of 6-12 V battery, ignition switch, DC to DC convertor, charging resistance,
tank capacitor, Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), SCR-triggering device, step up transformer,
spark plugs. A 6-12 volt battery is connected to DC to DC converter i.e. power circuit through
the ignition switch, which is designed to give or increase the voltage to 250-350 volts. This high
voltage is used to charge the tank capacitor (or condenser) to this voltage through the charging
resistance. The charging resistance is also so designed that it controls the required current in the
SCR. Depending upon the engine firing order, whenever the SCR triggering device, sends a
pulse, then the current flowing through the primary winding is stopped. And the magnetic field
begins to collapse. This collapsing magnetic field will induce or step up high voltage current in
the secondary, which while jumping the spark plug gap produces the spark, and the charge of air
fuel mixture is ignited.

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TRANSISTORIZED ASSISTED CONTACT (TAC) IGNITION SYSTEM

Advantages
1. The low breaker-current ensures longer life.
2. The smaller gap and lighter point assembly increase dwell time minimize
contact bouncing and improve repeatability of secondary voltage.
3. The low primary inductance reduces primary inductance reduces primary
current drop-off at high speeds.
Disadvantages
1. As in the conventional system, mechanical breaker points are necessary for
timing the spark.
2. The cost of the ignition system is increased.
3. The voltage rise-time at the spark plug is about the same as before.
PIEZO-ELECTRIC IGNITION SYSTEM

The development of synthetic piezo-electric materials producing about 22 kV by mechanical

loading of a small crystal resulted in some ignition systems for single cylinder engines. But due
to difficulties of high mechanical loading need of the order of 500 kg timely control and ability
to produce sufficient voltage, these systems have not been able to come up.

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THE TEXACO IGNITION SYSTEM

Due to the increased emphasis on exhaust emission control, there has been a sudden interest
in exhaust gas recirculation systems and lean fuel-air mixtures. To avoid the problems of
burning of lean mixtures, the Texaco Ignition system has been developed. It provides a spark
of controlled duration which means that the spark duration in crank angle degrees can be
made constant at all engine speeds. It is an AC system. This system consists of three basic
units, a power unit, a control unit and a distributor sensor. This system can give stable
ignition up to A/F ratios as high as 24: 1.
FUNCTIONS AND WORKING PRINCIPLES OF MAIN COMPONENTS OF
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

ELECTRIC STARTER MOTORS

Any internal combustion engine must be cranked manually to start it running on its own. Early
automotive vehicles were started by the driver through the use of a handcrank. A system of
cranking the engine with an electric motor was developed as automotive technology progressed.
The modern electric starting system has reduced the task of starting an internal combustion
engine to the turn of a key or the pushing of a button.

SIMPLE DC MOTOR

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CONSTRUCTION

An electric motor is constructed essentially the same as a generator. If the brushes of the simple
generator are connected to a battery and current is permitted to flow through the loop of wire (1,
fig. 14-1), the loop of wire will rotate in the direction indicated by the arrow. This rotation is due
to the repulsion between the field magnetism and the magnetic whirl set up around the loop of
wire by the current.
OPERATION
The repulsion is caused by all the magnetic lines of force tending to flow around the conductor in
the same direction. This distorts and crowds the magnetic lines on one side of the conductor
more than on the other, which results in a repulsion of the conductor (3, fig. 14-1). In other
words, the rubber band characteristic of the lines of force (that is, when they try to shorten to a
minimum length) causes the lines to exert a push on the conductor. If the magnetic field is
reversed, with the direction of current unchanged, the magnetic lines of force will crowd to the
other side of the conductor, and it will be repelled in the opposite direction (4, fig. 14-1). The
same action would result if the current, instead of the magnetism, were reversed. Thus, in figure
14-1, owing to the current flowing in reverse directions in the two sides A and B of the loop, and
the consequent field distortion (2, fig. 14-1), A will be repulsed upward and B downward, and
the loop will rotate in a clockwise direction.

AUTOMOTIVE STARTING MOTOR

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In use, the motor armature as many armature coils equally spaced around the entire
circumference of the armature. Each of these coils carries current and consequently exerts a force
to rotate the armature as it passes the pole pieces. The switching of the armature coils to the
brushes is handled by a segmented commutation. The result is a comparatively high turning
power (or torque) that is sufficient to crank the engine if it is applied through suitable gear
reductions.
CONSTRUCTION

A cutaway view of a typical automotive starter is shown in figure 14-3. The basic motor consists
of the following parts.

ARMATURE

The armature contains multiple loops of heavy copper. These coils pass through a laminated core
of iron to increase the permeability of the armature. The commutator segments are made of
heavy copper bars that are set into mica or epoxy resins. The armature rotates on bronze
bushings.

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FIELD COILS

The field coils electromagnetically create the magnetic field that causes armature rotation. They
are constructed of heavy copper wire that is usually rectangular in cross section. An insulating
material is placed within the windings to insulate the coils from each other. The coils then are
insulated on the outside by either wrapping them in paper or sealing them in rubber. The field
coils are secured to the field frame by the pole shoes. The pole shoes serve as a core for the field
coils to increase permeability.

DYNAMOS

Dynamos operate on the same principle as the alternator but, with the basic difference that in the
case of the alternator the magnetic field rotates with the conductor stationary, whereas in case of
dynamo the magnetic field is stationary and the conductors are made to rotate.

A dynamo, in its simplest form (Fig.), consists of a horseshoe magnet with two poles formed at
its open end. Between these poles a single conductor loop is mounted on a support spindle and
the ends of the loop are joined to the two half split-ring segments. Two carbon brushes are placed
on either side of the ring segments. The brushes transfer the generated and rectified direct current
from the split segments to the external circuit for supply of electricity.

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CURRENT GENERATION

Figure A illustrates how the rotating conductor loop is under the influence of the magnetic flux
established by the magnet poles. An emf is induced into the conductors as the two half-
conductors cut through this flux so that a flow of current is produced. The direction of current
flow is towards the rear of the loop in the black half-conductor adjacent to the North Pole, and is
towards the front in the white half-conductor next to the South Pole. Flow of current, therefore,
is in a clockwise direction through the loop, coming out at the right hand split-ring and brush and
returning by the left hand brush and ring segment.

With a further half revolution of the conducting loop (Fig. B) the black half-conductor is placed
next to the South Pole while the white half-conductor is placed adjacent to the North Pole. This
reverses the direction of the current flow in each half-conductor.
COMMUTATION

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As the both half-conductors are rotated, the reversal of current flow in them cannot be avoided,
but the resultant flow of current can be made unidirectional using a special switch called
commutator. This switch commutes or changes the current flow from an alternating current into
an unidirectional one by reversing the connections between the armature loops and the external
circuit in sequence with the reversals of current in these loops.
For commutation the two ends of the conductor loop are connected to two half split-ring
segments, which make rubbing contact with a pair of conducting carbon brushes placed on either
side (Fig. 14.9A and B). As the conductor loop and the split-ring segments rotate together, the
two half-conductors continuously pass through the magnetic fields of the north and south poles.
During this rotation each half segment moves from one brush to another. When the direction of
the current flow is changed in the conductors, the segments switch over and make contact with
the opposite brush so that the direction of the current flowing to and from each individual brush
remains the same. The split-ring and brushes, therefore, act as a mechanical switch to rectify the
alternating current so that only a direct current is passed on to the brushes and hence to the
external circuit.

The direct current generated in a single-loop armature fluctuates from zero to a maximum and
then back to zero for every 180 degrees of rotation. Therefore prototype armatures contain a
number of evenly spaced loops and split-ring segments so that when the voltage declines in one
or more loops it increases in others. All the individual currents are continuously collected by the
brushes as they contact each pair of commutator segments so that a combined steady direct-
current output (Fig. B) is produced.

OUTPUT CONTROL AND REGULATION

The simple dynamo in fig. has no control over the amount of voltage and current generated when
the armature speed increases. But the voltage and current output (Fig. A) from a dynamo in use
is controlled by varying the strength of the magnetic field established between the poles. This is
achieved by converting the permanent-magnet poles to electromagnets by winding coils (known
as the field windings) around each soft-iron pole-piece (Fig. B).

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Regulation of the generator output is carried out by limiting the field windings current and so,
reducing the magnetic field strength. A pair of vibrating contacts is put in series with the field
winding circuits. The contacts open when the generator output reaches the upper limit and close
with increasing frequency as the generator speed rises or the battery demands are high. A resistor
is shunted across the points to prevent excessive contacts arching during opening. When contacts
open, a reduced flow of current passes through the resistor in preference to jump the contacts.
CUT-OUT

The cut-out is a type of switch, which disconnects the battery from the generator and reconnects
it when the generated voltage exceeds the • battery voltage. In absence of this switch if the
generator and battery are permanently connected together, the battery would discharge through
the generator armature to earth when the generator is either stationary or when its generated
output voltage is less than that of the battery.

The cut-out consists of a pair of contracts operated by an electromagnet net relay, which senses
any change of generated voltage and automatically breaks or joins up the battery to the generator
circuit. The electromagnet relay has two bobbin windings, one connected in shunt (parallel) with
the generator output and the other in series with the battery and the generator (Fig.). The series
winding circuit is opened by the contact, and are held open by spring tension. When the

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generator output voltage rises above that of the battery due to increase in its speed, the
magnetism of the shunt winding overcomes spring tension and closes the contacts. Charging
current now flows from the generator to the battery through the series winding. The extra
magnetism is now created to assist that of the shunt winding to hold the contacts together.

When the generator output voltage becomes less than the battery voltage due to fall in its speed,
current begins to flow in the reverse direction, i.e. from the battery to the generator through the
series winding. The magnetism of the series winding now opposes and partially cancels the
magnetic field of the shunt winding, so that contacts open under spring tension, thereby
disconnecting the generator from the battery.

CURRENT CONTROL

Output current from the generator is controlled to safeguard its windings against overloading due
to excessive current demands of the utilities such as a flat battery or perhaps a large lighting or
heater load. Control is achieved through a series current winding wound on to a relay bobbin

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(Fig.), so that the current flowing through the generator field windings is interrupted when the set
maximum charging rate has been reached.

At the increased speed, current from the generator (dynamo) flows to the battery through the
series current winding. When the generated current attains its maximum, the series bobbin
winding is sufficiently energized to pull the L-shaped armature arm downwards so that the
contacts open against the tension of the leaf spring. The generator field winding circuit then
opens, as a result of which the magnetic field strength across the generator poles reduces and the
output falls. Consequently the energizing current in the series bobbin winding falls so that the
regulator contacts close again to allow the output to rise. This opening and closing cycle repeats
at between 60 and 100 times per second and thereby limits the maximum output current flow.

VOLTAGE CONTROL

In addition to current control, the maximum generated voltage is also controlled, which
otherwise continues to increase with rising speed. This voltage build-up blows components like
light-bulbs, heater elements, and other electrical equipment.

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The terminal voltage of the battery rises, as it becomes charged causing a general increase in line
voltage between the generator and the battery. When the line voltage reaches its set value, the
voltage shunt winding wound on to a relay bobbin is sufficiently energised to pull downwards
the armature arm (Fig. 14.13), so that the contacts open against the spring tension. Now the field
resistor is in series with the generator field winding so that the field exciting current is reduced
and so also the generator’s magnetic field strength causing a drop in the generator output voltage.
In practice the cut-out, and the current and voltage regulators are built as one control unit.

ALTERNATOR OR AC GENERATOR FUNCTION

“An alternator generates alternating current (AC) unlike a dynamo which generates direct current
(DC)”.
Modern automobiles which require more electric loads are fitted with alternators instead of
dynamos. These vehicles require more electrical power because they have power steering, power
windows, electrical system for automobile transmission, etc.
A rectifier is required to convert AC to DC as all electrical equipments use DC.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The principle of operation of the alternator is illustrated in above Fig. A single conductor loop
passes through the pole-pieces of a soft-iron horseshoe-shaped yoke. Open ends of the loop form

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the leads for the external circuit (in this case connected to a light bulb). A permanent magnet
pivots in between the pole-pieces and establishes a magnetic field (lines of flux) around the yoke.
When the rotor shaft is driven by the fan belt drive, the permanent magnet rotates on its axis.
During this rotation as the orientation of the magnet changes relative to the pole-pieces, the
magnetic field in the yoke is continually in a state of growth and decay. As a result, the magnetic
flux lines constantly cut through the two half-conductors of the loop. Whenever the two magnet
poles are adjacent to the yoke poles the maximum flux lines cut through the two half-conductors
due to which a flow of current is established in the conductor loop by the induced emf.
In Fig. A the magnet rotates clockwise with its North Pole on the left-hand side and the South
Pole on the right-hand side of the iron yoke. The lines of flux circulate round the yoke in a
clockwise direction from the North to the South Pole. Also, the movement of the magnet causes
the lines of flux to cut through the conductors and the induced voltage produces a flow of current
in the conductor loop in a clockwise direction.
In Fig. B the magnet is now rotated a further half revolution so that the position of the magnet
poles is reversed, with the North Pole being on the right-hand side of the yoke and the South
Pole on the left-hand side. As a result, the direction of the lines of flux round the yoke is in an
anticlockwise direction. This reverses the direction of flow of the generated current in an
anticlockwise direction.
Thus due to the rotation of the magnet, the yoke poles continually change their north and south
polarities. Consequently, the direction of the flux-path lines is constantly reversed so that the
current in the conductors continuously changes from a maximum value in one direction to a
maximum value in the opposite direction. A current with repeatedly changing of its direction of
flow is termed as an alternating current (AC). With a two pole magnet the change of its direction
takes place once in every complete revolution of the magnet. The output produced by one
complete revolution is called as an alternating-current cycle.

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REGULATORS FOR ALTERNATOR

A regulator controls the current and voltage produced by the alternator. It is provided to prevent
alternator to generate excessively high voltage. The battery is charged by the current generated
by the alternator. For this, the battery is connected to the stator of the alternator through a diode.
Diode allows flow of current from stator to battery but it prevents the flow of current from
battery to stator when alternator is not working. Thus, it prevents discharging of battery back.
Therefore, diode acts as regulator. It is put inside the alternator.

TRANSISTORIZED REGULATORS

Some regulators, e.g. transistorized regulators are placed outside the designed. These regulators
are designed to prevent the problem of damage of contact breaker points. As contact breaker
points used I other regulators, are required to open several times in a second, they have reduced
working life. To get rid of this problem transistors are used as switches which can be actuated by
very small currents. Thus, the life of contact points is increased due to reduced arcing on account
of reduced current. If whole circuit A is based on transistorized regulators, the system has no
moving parts. This type of regulators provides a very accurate voltage control.

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LIGHTING SYSTEM

The lighting system comprises the lamps used for warning purposes, the pilot lights, indicators
and lights for illumination purposes The main lamps include the head-lamps, the tail and the
number plate lamps, the direction-indicator lamps, the car panel and illumination lamps, the
beam indicator lamp, the oil pressure warning lamp. Ignition warning lamp, etc,. The complete
lighting circuit consists of a number of individual circuits for a single lamp or pair of lamps, each
with its own switch, lives connection and earth connection. Seine of the accessories like the horn,
the wiper, the car-heater and the radio are included in this diagram. They are all connected in

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parallel across the battery terminals. The battery supplies current through the ammeter to the
lighting circuits. These circuits get their supply of current irrespective of whether the ignition
switch is ON or OFF. In most automobiles they are protected by a single fuse F1 of 40-50 A
capacity.

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