Introduction

Sunday, December 08, 2019

6:30 PM

1) What is protocol ?
A protocol is a set of rules that govern how systems communicate. For networking, they govern how
data is transferred from one system to another.

2) What is a Protocol Suite ?

A protocol suite is a collection of protocols that are designed to work together. Before TCP/IP became
the de-facto standard other protocol suites like IPX and SPX were common.

3) Protocol Stacks:
a. It is possible to write a single protocol that takes data from one computer application and sends it to an
application on another computer (a single stack protocol)
b. The problem with this approach is that it is very inflexible, as any changes require the entire application
and protocol software .
c. The approach used in networking is to create layered protocol stacks.
d. Each level of the stacks performs a particular function and communicates with the level above and
below it.
e. Example:
Parcel service between two offices
We will divide the task into two distinct processes as follows:
(1) Take a package, wrap it and address it.
(2) Send it to the destination.
At the receiving end:
(1) Receive the package.
(2) Deliver it to the receipient.
Typically you would have an internal mail man that:
(1) Collects the parcels from the senders and takes them to a mail dispatch room.
(2) The parcels are placed in a van by dispatcher and then driven to the remote office.
At the remote office:
(1) The parcels are received by the dispatcher and placed into a tray for the mail man.
(2) The mail man collects the parcels and delivers them to receipients.

Parcel

Mailman

Delivery

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4) The TCP/IP Protocol suite:
a. The TCP/IP protocol suits consist of many protocols that operate at one of 4 layers.
b. The protocol suite is named after two of the most common protocols TCP and IP.

Layer Protoc
Nam ols
es
Applica HTTP,
tion FTP,
POP3,
SMTP,
SNMP
Transp TCP, UDP
ort
Netwo IP, ICMP
rking
Datalin Ethernet,
k ARP

i) HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) : This is the workhorse of the web.
A. Email protocols:
i) SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
ii) POP3 : Post Office Protocol Version 3
iii) IMap4 : Internet Message Access Protocol Version 4

i) TCP (Transfer Control Protocol) : Connection oriented protocol and is used to provide a reliable end to
end connection.
ii) UDP (Used Datagram Protocol) : Connection less protocol and doesn't guarantee delivery.
iii) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) : Transfers IP address to MAC or physical address (IP4 Networks)

 Applications will choose which protocol should be used based on their function.
 IP = Main networking Protocol
Types : 1) IPV4 2) IPV6

(Reference : steves-internet-guide.com)

 IP Address:

 An Internet protocol address is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer
network that uses the internet protocol for communication.
 An IP Address serves two main functions:
a. Host or network interface identification
b. Location Addressing
 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPV4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.
 However, because of the growth of the internet and the depletion of available IPV4 addresses, a new
version of IP (IPV6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was standardized in 1998.
 IPV6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
 IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 in IPV4, and
2001:db8:0:567:8:1 in IPV6.
 The size of the routing prefix of the address is designated in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with

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 The size of the routing prefix of the address is designated in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with
the number of significant bits.
 The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by
five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to Local
Internet Registries such as internet service providers, and other end users.
 IPV4 addresses were distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addreses
each, but have been exhausted at the IANA level since 2011.
 Only one of the RIRs still has a supply for local assignments in Africa.
 Some IPV4 addresses are reserved for private networks and are not globally unique.
 Network administrators assign an IP address to each device connected to a network.
 Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent)
 or dynamic basics, depending on network practices and software features.

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 IP Address Versions
Monday, December 09, 2019
8:05 PM

 Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use in the internet
today.

1. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPV4)

 The original version of Internet Protocol that was first deployed in 1983 in the ARPANET, the
predecessor of the internet, is Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPV4).
 The IPV4 address is a 32-bit binary address used by the Internet Protocol for delivering packet to a
device located in same or remote network.
 MAC address (Hardware Address) is a globally unique address which represents the network card and
cannot be changed.
 IPV4 address refers to a logical address, which is configurable address used to identify which network
this host belongs to and also a network specific host number.
 In other words, an IPV4 address consists of two parts : 1) network part and 2) host part
 IPV4 addresses are stored internally as binary numbers but they are represented in decimal numbers
because of simplicity.
 Example : IPV4 address is 192.168.10.100, which is actually 11000000.10101000.00001010.01100100.
 For each network, one address is used to represent the network and one address is for broadcast.
Network address is an IPV4 address with all host bits are "0". Broadcast address is an IPV4 address with
all host bits are "1".
 That means, for a network, the first IPV4 address is the network address and the last IPV4 address is the
broadcast address.

 There are five classes of IPV4 addresses:

1) Class A IPV4 Address

 "Class A" IPV4 addresses are for vey large networks.
 The leftmost bit of the leftmost octet of a "Class A" network is reserved as "0".
 The first octet of the "class A" IPV4 address is used to identify the network and the three remaining
octets are used to identify the host in that particular network.
 The 32-bits of a "Class A" IPV4 address can be represented as 0xxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.
 The minimum possible value for the leftmost octet in binaries is 00000000 (decimal equivalent is 0) and
the maximum possible value for the leftmost octet is 01111111 (decimal equivalent is 127).
 Therefore for a "Class A" IPV4 address, leftmost octet must have a value between 0 -127.
 The network 127.0.0.1 is known as loopback network. This network is used by the host computer to
send a message back to itself. It is commonly used for troubleshooting and network testing.
 Computers not connected directly to the internet need not have globally -unique IPV4 addresses. They
need an IPV4 address unique to that network only.
 10.0.0.0 network belongs to "Class A" is reserved for private use and can be used inside any
organization.

2) Class B IPV4 Address

 "Class B" IPV4 addresses are used for medium-sized networks.
 Two leftmost bits of the leftmost octet of a "Class B" network is reserved as "10". The first octet of a
"Class B" IPV4 address is used to identify the network and the remaining two octets are used to identify
the host in that particular network.
 The 32-bits of a "Class B" IPV4 address can be represented as 10xxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.
 The minimum possible value for the leftmost octet in binaries is 10000000 (decimal equivalent is 128)
and the maximum possible value for the leftmost octet is 10111111 (decimal equivalent is 191).

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 and the maximum possible value for the leftmost octet is 10111111 (decimal equivalent is 191).
 Therefore, for a "Class B" IPV4 address, leftmost octet must have a value between 128-191.
 Network 169.254.0.0 is known as APIPA (Automatic Private IPV4 Address).
 APIPA range of IPV4 addresses are used when a client is configured to automatically obtain an IPV4
address from DHCP server was unable to contact DHCP server for dynamic IPV4 address.
 Networks starting from 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.0.0 are reserved for private use.

3) Class C IPV4 Address

 "Class C" IPV4 addresses are commonly used for small to mid-size businesses.
 Three leftmost bits of the leftmost octet of "Class C" network is reserved as "110". The first three octets
of "Class C" IPV4 address is used to identify the network and the remaining one octet is used to identify
the host in that particular network.
 The 32-bits of a "Class C" IPV4 address can be represented as 110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.
 The minimum possible value for the leftmost octet in binaries is 11000000 (decimal equivalent is 192)
and the maximum possible value for the leftmost octet is 11011111 (decimal equivalent is 223).
 Therefore for a "Class C" IPV4 address, the leftmost octet must have a value between 192-223.
 Networks starting from 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.0 are reserved for private use.

4) Class D IPV4 Address

 Class D IPV4 addresses are known as multicast IPV4 addresses.
 Multicasting is a technique developed to send packet from one device to many other devices, without
any necessary packet duplication.
 In multicasting, packet is sent fro a source and is replicated as needed in a network to reach as many
end-users as necessary.
 You cannot assign these IPV4 addresses to your device.
 Four leftmost bits of the leftmost octet of a "Class D" network is reserved as "1110". The other 28 bits
are used to identify the group of computers the multicast message is intended for.
 The minimum possible value for the leftmost octet in binaries is 11100000 (decimal equivalent is 224)
and the maximum possible value for the leftmost octet is 11101111 (decimal equivalent to 239).
 Therefore, for a "Class D" IPV4 address, leftmost octet must have value between 224-239.

5) Class E IPV4 Address

 Class E used for experimental purposes only and you cannot assign these IPV4 addresses to your device.
 Four leftmost bits of the leftmost octet of a "Class E" networked is reserved as "1111".
 The minimum possible value of the leftmost octet in binaries is 11110000 (decimal equivalent is 240)
and the maximum possible value of the leftmost octet is 11111111 (decimal equivalent is 255).
 Therefore, for a "Class E" IPV4 address, leftmost octet must have a value between 240-255.

2. Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6)

 An Internet Protocol Version 6 address (IPV6 address) is a numerical label that is used to identify a
network interface of a computer or a network node participating in an IPV6 computer network and for
locating it in the network.
 IP addresses are transmitted in the fields of the packet header to indicate the source and the destination
of each network packet.
 The IP address of the destination packet is used to make decisions about routing IP packets to other
networks.
 IPV6 is the successor to first addressing infrastructure of the internet, IPV4.
 In contrast to IPV4, which defined an IP address as 32-bit value, IPV6 addresses have a size of 128-bits.
 Therefore, IPV6 has a vastly enlarged address space compared to IPV4.
 IPV6 was developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the problem of IPV4
exhaustion.
 In IPV6, we use Colon-Hexa representation.
 There are 8 groups and each group represents 2 bytes.
 Example: ABCD : EF01 : 2345 : 6789 : ABCD : B201 : 5482 : D023

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 In IPV6 representation, we have three addressing methods:

1) Unicast Address : Unicast Address identifies a single network interface. A packet sent to unicast
address is delivered to the interface identified by that address.
2) Multicast Address : Multicast Address is used by multiple hosts, called as group, acquires a multicast
destination address. These hosts need not be geographically together. If any packet is sent to this
multicast address, it will be distributed to all interfaces corresponding to that multicast address.
3) Anycast Address : Anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces. Any packet sent to anycast
address will be delivered to only one member interface (mostly nearest host possible)

 Types of IPV6 address :

 We have 128 bits in IPV6 address but by looking at first few bits we can identify what type of address it
is.

Prefi Alloca Fraction

x tion of
Address
Space
0000 Reserved 1/256
0000
0000 Unassign 1/256
0001 ed
0000 Reserved 1/128
001 for NSAP
0000 01 Unassign 1/64
ed
0000 1 Unassign 1/32
ed
0001 Unassign 1/16
ed
0001 Global 1/8
Unicast
010 Unassign 1/8
ed
011 Unassign 1/8
ed
100 Unassign 1/8
ed
101 Unassign 1/8
ed
110 Unassign 1/8
ed
1110 Unassign 1/16
ed
1111 0 Unassign 1/32
ed

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 ed
1111 10 Unassign 1/64
ed
1111 Unassign 1/128
110 ed
1111 Unassign 1/512
1110 0 ed
1111 Link- 1/1024
1110 10 Local
Unicast
Addresse
s
1111 Site- 1/1024
1110 11 Local
Unicast
Addresse
s
1111 Multicast 1/256
1111 Address
 Note : In IPV6, all 0's and all 1's can be assigned to any host, there is no restriction
like IPV4.

 Address Formats
1) Unicast and Anycast address format
 Unicast and Anycast addresses are typically composed of two logical parts : a 64 -bit network prefix used
for routing, and a 64-bit interface identifier used to identify a host's network interface.

 General Unicast address format (routing prefix size varies)

bits 48 (or 16 (or 64
more) fewer)
field Routing Subnet Interfac
prefix id e
identifi
er

 The network prefix (the routing prefix combined with the subnet id) is contained in the most significant
64 bits of the address.
 The size of the routing prefix may vary; a larger prefix size means a smaller subnet id size.
 The bits of the subnet id field are available to the network administrator to define subnet within the
given network.
 The 64-bit interface identifier is either automatically generated from the interface's MAC address using
the modified EUI-64 format, obtained from a DHCPv6 server, automatically established randomly, or
assigned manually.
 A link address is also based on the interface identifier, nut uses a different format for the network prefix.

2) Link-local address format

bits 10 54 64
field prefix zeroes Interfa
ce
identif

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 identif
ier

 The prefix field contains the binary value 1111111010.

 The 54 zeroes that follow make the total network prefix the same for all link -local addresses, rendering
them non-routable.

3) Multicast address format

 Multicast addresses are formed according to several specific formatting rules, depending on the
application.

 General multicast address format

bits 8 4 4 112

field prefix flg sc Group

id

 The prefix holds the binary value 11111111 for any multicast address.
 Currently, 3 of the 4 flag bits in the flg field are defined; the most significant flag bit is reserved for
future use.

 Multicast address flags

bit flag Meanin Meaning
g when when 1
11000000 000000101 00100010 00001011
8 reserve reserved reserved
22222222 22222222 22222222 22222222
d
octet(8bits) octet(8bits) octet(8bits) octet(8bits)
9 R Rendezvo Rendezvous
(Rende us point point
zvous) Network
not embedded Host
embedded
10 P Without 32bits
Address
(Prefix) prefix based on
informatio network
172 n prefix
16 122 204
11 T Well- Dynamically
(Transie known assigned
nt) multicast multicast
8bits each (1byte)
address address
Fig. IP address as a 32-bit binary number
 The 4-bit scope field (sc) is used to indicate where the address is valid and unique.

 Difference between IPV4 and IPV6

IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 has 32-bit IPv6 has 128-bit address
address length length
It supports manual It supports auto and
and DHCP address renumbering address
configuration configuration
In IPv4, end to end In IPv6, end to end

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 In IPv4, end to end In IPv6, end to end
connection connection integrity is
integrity is un achievable
achievable
It can generate Address space of IPv6 is
4.29x109 address quite large it can produce
space 3.4x1038 address space
Security feature is IPSEC is inbuilt security
dependent on feature in the IPv6
application protocol
Address Address representation of
representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal
IPv4 in decimal
Fragmentation In IPv6, fragmentation
performed by performed only by sender
sender and
forwarding routers
In IPv4, packet flow In IPv6, packet flow
identification is not identification is available
available and uses flow label field in
the header
In IPv4, In IPv6, checksumfield is
checksumfield is not available
available
It has broadcast It has multicast ad anycast
message message transmission
transmission scheme
scheme
In IPv4, encryption In IPv6, encryption and
and authentication authentication facility is
facility is not provied
provided

 IP address as a 32-bit binary number

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Subnet Mask
Wednesday, December 11, 2019
6:51 PM

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