Faculty: FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRIK

Subject : MAKMAL Review :1

KEJURUTERAAN Release Date : 2003
ELEKTRIK
Last Amendment : 2003
Subject Code : SEE 3742 Procedure Number : PK-UTM-FKE-(0)-10

SEE 3742
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRIK
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
KAMPUS SKUDAI
JOHOR

CONTROL II LABORATORY

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
THEORY

In practice, the performance of a control system is more realistically measured by its time domain
response characteristic. On the other hand, there are numerous graphical methods available in the
frequency domain, all suitable for the analysis and design of linear control systems. Once the
analysis and design has been carried out in the frequency domain, the time domain properties of
the system can be interpreted based on the relationships that exits between the time domain and
the frequency domain characteristics.

Frequency response of a system is a relationship between the steady state output and the steady
state input of the system where the input is a sinusoidal waveform with a suitable frequency
range. Normally, it is a relation between the output magnitude, the input magnitude and the phase
difference between them.

The purpose of studying the frequency of a system is to determine the system behaviour in terms
of stability or to obtain its transfer function. Normally the frequency of a system is presented in a
graphical form. In this lab session. Bode, Nyquist and Nichols methods will be used. The result
obtained will be compared to simulated results produced by PERISIK.

The starting point of the frequency domain analysis is the transfer function. When a sinusoidal
signal Vi (s) with a constant amplitude and variable and frequency is applied to a linear system as
shown in Figure I, the output Vo (s) is also a sinusoidal signal but its magnitude and phase are
dependent on the system characteristic. The ratio Vo (s)/Vi (s) is defined as the system's transfer
function G(s)

G (s) = Vo(s)/ Vi(s) (1)

Figure 1 : Linear system

The sinusoidal steady state transfer function is obtained by setting s=jω in G(s). The function
G(jω) is generally a complex function of the frequency ω and can be written

Based on these equations, various forms of frequency domain plots of G(jω) versus ω that useful
in the analysis and design of feedback control system in frequency domain can be obtained.

BODE PLOT

Bode plot is also known sometimes as the comer plot or logarithmic plot of G(jω) .It contains two
graphs, one with the magnitude of G(jω) plotted in decibels versus log ω or ω and the other with
the phase of G(jω) in degrees versus log log ω or ω.

In general, the transfer function G(s) of a system without pure time delay can be written
represented in the following form :
The magnitude of G(jω) in decibels is obtained by multiplying the logarithm to the base
of 10 G(jω) by 20 :

The above two equations verify one of the unique characteristics of the Bode plot : each term or
factor contain in the function G(jω) may be considered as a separate plot; the individual plots are
then added or subtracted accordingly to yield the overall magnitude in decibels and phase plot of
G(jω) . The curves may be done on semilog graph paper or linear rectangular coordinate graph
paper, depending on whether ω or ω log10ω is used as the abscissa.

In general, there are just four basic types of factors that need to be considered in the
function G(jω) :
The Bode plot for the above four types offactor are as follows :

the bode plot of the constant factor K is as shown in Figure 2 in semilog coordinates.
The magnitude and phase curves of the function (jω)± p are sketch as shown in Figure 3
for several values of p.

iii) Poles or zero not at the origin : (1 + jωT)±q

The magnitude of (1 + jωT)±q in decibels is given by :

20log ⏐(1 + jωT)±q ⏐ = ±20qlog10 1 + ω 2T 2 db (13)

To obtain asymptotic approximations of the magnitude of ⏐(1 + jωT)±q ⏐db,

Both the very small and very large values of ω have to be considered :
 For ωT « 1 : |(1+jωT)±q | db ≈ 0 db (14)

For ωT » 1 : |(1+jωT)±q | db = ± 20qlog10ωT db (15)

Equation (15) represent a straight line with a slope of ±20 dB/decade of frequency. The
intersection of this line with the O-dB axis is at

ω = 1/T (16)

This frequency is known as the break or torner frequency of the Bode plot, and is where the high-
frequency approximation curve (equation 15) intersects with the low-frequency approximation
plot (0-dB line as given by equation 14).

The magnitude and phase curves of the function (1+jωT)±q are sketch as shown in Figure
4q=1
 iv) Complex poles or zeros :[1+j2γωT + (jωT)2]± r

Consider a second order transfer function with two complex poles (γ 1) as follows :

1
G2(jω) = (20)
1 + j 2 ywT + ( jw) 2

1
= (21)
[ ]
1 − w T + j 2 ywT
2 2

The magnitude of G2(jω) in decibels is :

20log10 | G(jω) | = -20log10 [1 − (wT ) ]

2 2
+ 4( ywT ) 2 (22)

For ωT « 1 : G2 (jω) db ≈ 0 db (23)

For ωT » 1 : G2 (jω) db = -40log10 ωT db (24)

Thus, the low-frequency asymptote of the magnitude plot of G2 (jω) is a straight line that
lies on the O-dB axis of the Bode plot coordinates, while the high-frequency asymptote
of the magnitude plot of G2 (jω) is a straight line with a slope Of-40 dB/decade in the
Bode plot coordinates. The two asymptotes intersect at ω = I/T, the break corner
frequency of the second order transfer function G2 (jω) with the condition that γ ≤ 1.

The actual magnitude plot of G2 (jω) differ strikingly from the asymptotic lines. This is
because the amplitude and phase curves of G2 (jω) depend not only on the corner
frequency but also on the damping ratio y. The actual and the asymptotic magnitude plots
of G2 (jω) are shown in Figure 5 for several values of γs.
The phase of G2 (jω) is given by :

The phase plot of G2 (jω) for values of is as shown in figure 5.

[
Figure 5 : Bode plot of 1 + j 2 ywT + ( jwT 2 ]
−1

The analysis of the Bode plot of the second order transfer function G2(jω) may be applied to a
second order transfer function with two complex zeros.
NYOUIST CRITERION

Nyquist plot is a polar plot of a transfer function G(jω) which depicts the plot of the magnitude of
G(jω) versus the phase of G(jω) on the polar coordinates, as ω is varied from zero to infinity.
Given a transfer function

Figure 6 : Polar plots of G (jω).

It is apparent the accurate plotting of the polar plot of a transfer function is generally a tedious
process, especially if the transfer function is of high order. In practice, a digital computer can be
used to generate the polar plot for wide class of transfer function. However, from analytical point
of view, it is essential that the engineer be completely familiar with the properties of the polar
plot, so that the computer data/plot may be properly interpreted.

In the Nyquist stability study, only the general shape of the polar plot of the transfer function is
needed, and often a rough sketch of the polar plot is quite adequate. In general, the sketching of
the polar plot is facilitated by the following information :

i. The behaviour of the magnitude and phase at W= 0 and at co= ;

ii. The points of intersections of the polar plot with the real and imaginary axes and the
values of ω at these intersections.

The Nyquist plot, like the Bode plot, enable one to determine the stability of a system. Close-loop
stability can be determine with experimental data from the open-loop system, or analytical data
from the open-loop transfer function. The two plots show essentially the same thing. The nyquist
criterion, however, is more complete; if it indicates an instability, the system is absolutely
unstable.

There are some instances when a Bode plot will indicate an instability when in reality the system
is stable. The Nyquist stability criterion stated that : For a close-loop system to be stable, the
Nyquist plot of the open-loop transfer-function must encircle (-1 JO) point as many time as the
number of poles of the open-loop transfer function that are in the right half of the s-plane, and the
encirclement , if any must be made in the clockwise direction. When the open-loop transfer
function does not has any poles in the right half of the
s-plane, the Nyquist stability criterion may be stated as : If the open-loop transfer function has no
poles in the right half of the s-plane, for the close-loop system to be stable, the Nyquist plot of the
open-loop transfer function must not enclose the critical point (-lJO).

NICHOLS METHOD

Nichols method is another technique that can be used to analyze the frequency response and to
give information on the relative stability of the system. This method is very useful in deriving the
closed-loop frequency response of a system from its open loop response. In other words, from the
open-loop frequency response sketch, its closed-loop frequency response can be obtained and
examined.

Figure 7 illustrate a typical Nichols chart constructed for the phase angle that extends from -270 °
to -90 ', which is the useful region of phase for many practical controls systems. The values ofM
on these constant M-loci are given in decibels. From the figure, it can be seen that a nichols chart
is a superposition of the constant M-loci and constant N-loci into the magnitude-versus-phase
plane.
Nichols chart for phase from –2700 to -900
Nichols chart for phase from –2700 to -900
EQUIPMENTS

• Dual-display oscilloscope
• Function generator
• Black box which represents a plant
• Semi-log graph paper
• Linear graph paper
• Nichols chart

EXPERIMENT

(a) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1.

(b) Set the frequency on the function generator to 100 Hz and select a sinusoidal
waveform

(c) Set the input voltage Vi to 5V and measure the peak-to-peak value for the output
signal Vo and the phase between the input and the output signal using the
oscilloscope.

(d) Repeat step (c) for different frequencies up to 200KHz. Set the input voltage Vi to
5V at each reading.

(e) From the result obtained, plot Bode diagram, Nyquist diagram and Nichols graph.

(f) Obtain the system transfer function and check your answer using PERISIK.

Input signal SYSTEM Output signal

(Vi) UNDER TEST (Vo)
(X)

Figure 1 : Experiment set-up