1) A Cell is bound by a cell membrane (or plasma
membrane) within which it enloses a complex
material called Protoplasm.
 The protoplasm consists of a central, denser,
part called the nucleus; and an outer less
dense part called the cytoplasm.
 The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm
by a nuclear membrane.
2) The amount of proteins equal or exceeds the
quantity of lipid in nearly all membranes.
 Various cellular membrane have different lipid
and protein compositions. The ratio of protein
to lipid is responsible for the many divergents
functions of cellular organelles.
 The Cell membrane consists of lipid
molecules (which predominantly includes
phospholipids) that constitute the basic
framework of the membrane.
 The trilaminar structure of membranes is
produced by the arrangement of lipid
molecules.
 Each phospholipid molecules consists of an
enlarged head with a phosphate portion and
two thin tails.
 The head end is also called the polar end
while the tail end is the non-polar end.
 The head end is soluble in water and is said to
be hydrophilic. The tail end is insoluble in
water and is said to be hydrophobic.
 But considering molecules, cell membranes
predominantly consists of phospholipids.
 Most plasma membranes consist of
approximately 50% lipid and 50% protein bt
weight, with the carbohydrate portion of
glycolipids and glycoproteins constituting 5 to
10% of the membrane mass.
 Since proteins are much larger than lipids, this
percentage corresponds to about one protein
molecule per every 50 to 100 molecules of
lipid.
3) The term pinocytosis is applied to a process in
which there is absorption of fluids (or other small
molecules) into the cell.
The vesicles involved in the process are called
pinocytotic vesicles.
Other Terms:
 Endocytosis is the process in which large
molecules enter into the cells by invagination
and formation of vesicles.
 Some cells use the process of endocytosis to
engulf foreign matter (e.g.,bacteria). The
process is then referred to as phagocytosis.
 The process releasing the molecules that are
produced within the cytoplasm to the exterior
is called exocytosis or reverse pinocytosis.
4) The presence of the endoplasmic Reticulum
divides the cytoplasm into two components, one
within the channels and one outside them.
The Cytoplasm within the channels is called the
vacuoplasm, and that outside the channels is the
hyaloplasm or cytosal.
5) The chromatin in a nucleus of a cell which
appears loose and stains lightly with Hematoxylin and
eosin is known as Euchromatin.
 On staining with haematoxylin and eosin, the
nucleus stains dark purple or blue while the
cytoplasm is usually stained pink. However, in
some cells the nuclei are relatively large and
light staining.
 Such larger nuclei appear to be made up of a
delicate network of fibres called chromatin
(because of its affinity for dyes).
 At some places (in the nucleus) the chromatin
is seen in the form of irregular dark masses
which are called heterochromatin. At some
other places, the network is loose and stains
lightly and is referred to as euchromatin.
6) The space between the inner and outer
membranes is the perinuclear space.
 This perinuclear space is continous with the
lumen of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 The outer nuclear membrane is continous
with endoplasmic reticulum.
7) Simple epithelia and pseudostratified
epithelium are all unilayered epithelia.
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells.
They are typically where absorption, secretion and
filteraton occur. Depending upon the shape of the
cells the simple epithelia are further classified as
simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar
epithelium.
A pseudostratified epithelium is a type of epithelium
that, though comprising only a single layer of cells,
has its cell nuclei positioned at various levels in a
manner falsely suggestive of stratified epithelia.
8) Multi-layered epithelia are of the following
types:
 Stratified squamous epithelium: The deeper
layers are columnar, but in proceeding
towards the surface of the epithelium the
cells become increasingly flattened (or
squamous).
 Stratified cuboidal/columnar epithelium:
Multi-layered epithelium is made up of two or
more layers of cuboidal or columnar cells
respectively.
 Transitional epithelium: All layers are made
up of cuboidal, polygonal or rounded cells.
The cells towards the surface of the
epithelium are not flattened. This type of
epithelium is called transitional epithelium
(because of the apparent transition from a
stratified cuboidal epithelium to a stratified
squamous epithelium, which occurs as it is
stretched to accommodate urine, particularly
in the bladder).
 Cuboidal epithelium: Consists of cells in
which the height of the cells is about the
same as their width. The nuclei are usually
rounded.
 A cuboidal epithelium is usually seen in the
follicles of the thyroid gland, in the ducts of
many glands, and on the surface of the ovary
(where it is called germinal epithelium).
 Other sites include the choroid plexuses, the
inner surface of the lens, and the pigment
cell layer of the retina.
 Transitional epithelium is found in the renal
pelvis and calyces, the ureter, the urinary
bladder, and pre-prostatic and prostatic
parts of the urethra. Because of the
distribution it is also called urothelium.
 In both male and female, the greater part of
the urethra is lined by pseudostratified
columnar epithelium. A short part adjoining
the urinary bladder is lined by transitional
epithelium, while the part near the external
orifice is lined by stratified squamous
epithelium.
The following are various parts of urethra in males
and their lining epithelium:
 Pre-prostatic & prostatic urethra:
Transitional epithelium.
 Membranous urethra: Pseudostratified
columnar.
 Penile/spongy urethra: proximally:
Pseudostratified columnar, Distally:
Stratified squamous.
9) Transitional epithelium is found in the renal
pelvis and calyces, the ureter, the urinary bladder,
and pre-prostatic and prostatic parts of the urethra.
 A cuboidal epithelium with a prominents
brush border is seen in the proximal
convoluted tubules (PCT) of the kidneys.
 Both descending and ascending arms of the
thin loop of henle are histologically similar
and are composed of a simple squamous
epithelium.
 The thick ascending loop of Henle is lined by a
thicker simple cuboidal epithelium.
 The distal tubule is lined by a simple cuboidal
epithelium without brush border.
 The collecting tubule is lined by simple
cuboidal epithelium, the tubular epithelium
cells grow progressively taller throughout the
segment until those in the collecting duct
form a simple columnar epithelium.
10) The cornea is made up of five layers, the
outermost layer is of non-keratinised stratified
squamous epithelium (corneal epithelium).
At the periphery of the cornea, the epithelium
becomes continous with that lining the ocular
conjunctiva. The corneal epithelium regenerates
rapidly after damages.
11) The stratified squamous epithelia are subdivided
into two types: keratinized and non-keratinized.
Keratinized epithelium: It is present over the surface
that is subjected to high levels of abrasion and drying.
It is seen in:
 Entire epidermis.
 Mucocutaneous junction of the lips, nostrils,
distal anal canal, the outer surface of the
tympanic membrane.
 Parts of the oral cavity: gingivae, hard palate
and filiform papillae on the anterior part of
the dorsal surface of the tongue.
Non-Keratinised epithelium: It is present over the
surface that is subjected to abrasion but not drying. It
is seen in:
 The lining of the oral cavity except the parts
mentioned above.
 Oropharynx and laryngopharynx
 Oesophagus Vagina Cornea
 Part of the anal canal Distal Urethra
 Inner surface of the eyelids
 Distal uterine cerix
 Vestibule of the nasal cavities.
12) The loop of henle is also called the ansa
nephroni. It is lined by both the squamous and
cuboidal epithelium at different parts.
 A cuboidal epithelium with a prominents
brush border is seen in the proximal
convoluted tubules (PCT) of the kidneys.
 Both descending and ascending arms of the
thin loop of henle are histologically similar
and are composed of a simple squamous
epithelium.
 The thick ascending loop of Henle is lined by a
thicker simple cuboidal epithelium.
 The distal tubule is lined by a simple cuboidal
epithelium without brush border.
 The collecting tubule is lined by simple
cuboidal epithelium, the tubular epithelium
cells grow progressively taller throughout the
segment until those in the collecting duct
form a simple columnar epithelium.
13) The duct of the sebaceous gland is lined by
straified squamous epithelium, whereas the ducts of
sweat gland, salivary gland, and pancreatic duct is
lined by stratified cuboidal epithelium.
14) The serous cavities such as pleura and
peritoneum are lined by simple squamous
epithelium, here it is called mesothelium.
15) The collecting ducts are lined by simple
columnar epithelium without microvilli.
Other options:
 Option A: The small intestine (including
duodenum) is lined by simple columnar
epithelium with regularly arranged microvilli.
 Option B: The gallbladder is lined by simple
columnar epithelium with irregularly arranged
microvilli.
 Option C: The proximal convoluted tubule is
lined by simple cuboidal epithelium with
microvilli.
16) The statified squamous epithelium: The cells in
the deepest layer of the epithelium are columnar; in
the middle layers, they are polygonal; and in the
superficial layers, they are flattened.
 Transitional epithelium is found in the renal
pelvis and calyces, the ureter, the urinary
bladder, and part of the urethra. Because of
this distribution, it is alos called urothelium.
 In the urinary bladder, it is usually observed
that transiyional epithelium can be stretched
considerably without being damaged. When
stretched, it appears to be thinner and the
cells become flattened or rounded.
17) In some glands, the entire cell disintegrate
while discharging its secretion.
This manner of discharging secretion is described as
holocrine and is seen typically in sebaceous glands.
Other types of exocrine glands depending on the
mode of secretion include:
 Eccrine glands: Also known as merocrine or
epicrine glands, in which the secretions are
released out of thee cell through a process
called exocytosis with the cell remaining
intact. E.g, Eccrine sweat glands.
 Apocrine glands: In these glands the apical
parts of the cells are shed off to discharge the
secretion. E.g, Atypical sweat glands, and
mammary glands.
18) Various types of Exocrine Glands with
Examples:
Simple Gland: All the secretory cells of exocrine gland
discharge into one duct.
Compound Gland: There are a number of groups of
secretory cells, each group discharging into its own
duct. These ducts unite to form larger ducts that
ultimately drain on to an epithelial surface.
In both Simple and Compound glands, the secretory
cells may be arranged in various ways.
 The secretory element may be tubular. The
tube may be straight, coiled or branched.
 The cells may form rounded sacs or acini.
 They may form flask shaped structures called
alveoli.
19) Reticular fibers can be stained specifically by
silver impregnation, which render them black. They
can thus be easily distinguished from type I collagen
fibers which are stained brown.
Because of their affinity for silver salts reticular fibers
are sometimes called argentophil fibers.
20) There are various types of cells are present in 23) The zymogen granules are present in serous
connective tissue. These can be classed into two acini, whereas the mucous scini consist of mucoid
distint categories. material.

(a) Cells that are intrinsic components of connective The following table shows comparison between
tissue: serous and mucous acid:
In typical connective tissue, the most important cells
are fibroblasts. Other present are undifferentiated Serous Acini Mucous Acini
mesenchymal cells, pigment cells and fat cells Triangular cells with Tall cells with flat nuclus
(adipocytes). rounded nuclus at the at the base
base
(b) Cells that belongs to the immune system and are The cell boundaries are The cell boundaries are
identical or closely related with certains cells present indistinct distinct
in blood and in lymphoid tissues: These include Contains zymogen Contain mucoid material
macrophage cells (or histiocytes), mast cells, granules
lymphocytes, plasma cells, monocytes and Darkly stained with H&E Lightly stained and
eosinophills. appear empty with H&E
Thin watery secretion Thick mucoid secretion
Example: Parotid gland Example: Sublingual
gland
21) The adipose tissue can be brightly stained by
using certain dyes such as Suden III, Suden IV.

During the preparation of slides, the tissues have to

be treated with fat solvents (like xylene or benzene)
which dissolve the fat, so that in such preparations fat
cells look like rounded empty spaces.

22) In some parts of the body, adipose tissue has a

brownish colour unlike the yellowish colour of ordinay
fat.
The cells in this type of tissue diffe from those in
ordinary adipose tissue as follows.
 They are smaller than in typical adipose
tissue.
 The fat in the cytoplasm occurs in the form of
several small droplets. Hence, brown fat is
also regarded as multilocular adipose tissue,
unlike the typical variety which is described as
unilocular adipose tissue.
 The cytoplasm and nucleus of the cell are not
pushed to the periphery.
 The cytoplasm contains numerous
mitochondria which are few in typical fat
cells.
24) Halocrine is a term used to classify the mode of
secretion in exocrine glands in the study of histology.
Holocrine secretions are produced in the cytoplasm of
the cell and released by the rupture of the plasma
membrane, which destroys the cell and results in the
secretion of the product into the lumen.
Example of holocrine glands
 Sebaceous glands of the skin and
 The meibomian glands of the eyelid.
Other options:
Option A : Sweat glands- Eccrine/ Merocrine glands-
glands remain intact
Option C : Mammary gland- Apocrine gland- Apical
part sheds to secrete.
Option D : Ceruminous gland- Apocrine glands.
Various Stains and their applications in
Pathology and Microbiology:
 Pathology stains:
Staining Technique Uses
H&E Most common stain used in
routine histopathology
Papanicolaou stain Universal stain for
cytological preparatons
PAS Demonstrate glycogen,
mucin, fungi, macrophages
in Whipple's diseases,
adenocarcinomas and
glycogen-positive tumors
(Ewings sarcoma, renal-cell
carcinoma)
Alcian blue For acid mucins: Positive
stain for mucins of the
intestinal mucosa and
negative stain for mucins of
gastric mucosa and
Brunner's gland.
Perl's Prussian blue Demonstrate hemosiderin
and iron
Masson-Fontana stain Demonstrate melanin in
nerus and malignant
melanoma
Von kossa method Demonstrate calcium
Van Gieson stain Demonstrate collagen in
spindle-cell neoplasm;
Delineate extent of fibrosis;
Differentiate amyloid from
collagen
Masson trichrome stain Demonstrate collagen and
muscle in connective tissue
disorders, muscle and
fivroblast tumors,liver
cirrhosis, neuromuscular
diseases
Reticulin stain Demonstrate reticulin fibers
to distinguish eoithelium
from non-epithelium
neoplasm, Hodgkin's
lymphoma, early cirrhosis of
the liver, myelofibrosis
Verhoeff's method Demonstrate elastic fibers
in malignant hypertension,
arteriovenous malformation
aneurysms, Marfan's
syndrome, emphysema lung
Oil red O Sudan Black Demonstarte fat/lipids:
Sudan III/IV Fatty liver-fat embolism-
fibroma vs the coma of the
ovary-liposarcoma
Microbiology stains:
Stain Uses
Ziehl-Neelson Stain Mycobacteria (all species,
including Mycobacterium
leprae), Nocardia spp.
Cyss of Cryptosporidium
parvum, Isospora
Spp.,and cyclospora spp.,
Head of sperms
Masson's Fontana Melanin and argentaffin
cells
Gomori Methenamine Fungi
Silver
Luxol Fast Blue (LFB) Myelin
Phosphotungstic Acid- Cross striation of skeletal
hematoxylin muscle, fibrin
Toluidine blue Mast cells
Warthin- Starry Helicobacter pylori
spirochetes
Van Gieson Collagen fibers
Mucicarmine Mucin, Cryptococcus
capsule