Contents

SL.NO MODULE TOPICS PAGE.NO

1.  Meaning of Research
2.  Characteristics of Research
3.  Objectives of Research
4. 1  Research in Social Sciences
5.  Types of Research
6.  Survey, Case study & field study
7.
 Review of Literature
8.  Steps in Research
9.  Scaling & Measurement
10.  Attitude Measurement
11. 2  Sample Design
11.a.  Sampling and Non-Sampling errors
11.b.  Sampling Techniques
12.
 Selection of Sample size
13.  Methods of Data Collection
14.  Observation method of Data Collection
 Interview method of Data Collection
15.  Data collection using Questionnaire
16.  Data collection using Schedules
17. 3  Construction of Questionnaire &
17.a. Schedules
 Data Preparation
18.
 Data Analysis
19.
20.  Statistics in Research
21.  Types of Reports
22. 4  Research Report Format
23.  Writing Research Report and
Presentation
24.  Foot notes & Bibliography
25. 5  Problems in Research in Development
studies

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MODULE-1

1. Meaning of Research:

In broader, larger and common parlance, ‘Research’ means search for knowledge. A careful
investigation or inquiring specially through search for new facts in any ‘branch of knowledge’ in
research says the dictionary definition. ‘Inquisitiveness’ in human beings is said to be the mother
of all knowledge/ discoveries/ inventions/inquiry. The method that one employs for obtaining the
knowledge of whatever the unknown is treated as ‘Research’. Hence, it is movement from known
to the unknown. Theo research is an original contribution to the existing staff stock of knowledge,
making for its advancement. It is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a ‘problem’. Research comprises of defining and re-defining
problem/s. formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating
data; making deduction and reaching conclusions; and testing the conclusion for fitment to the
formulated hypothesis. (C.Woody).

2. Classification of Research:

A good research is –

 Systematic
 Logical
 Empirical
 Replicable

The systematic nature of research design is scientific approach to it, bringing in structure with
specify steps in a sequence in line with well defined set of rules. Though it does not role out
creative thinking, it would not allow guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusion.

Logical Reasoning and logical process of induction and deduction guides a good research. Logical
reasoning makes research more meaningful in the content of decision making. While induction in
the process of moving from specific concept to larger generalization, deduction starts from
generalized conclusion or premise.

The empirical nature of research implies that it in related to one or more concepts of real situation
and deal with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

The replicability of research allows its results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decision.

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3. Objective of Research:

In reality, each research has its own purpose and objectives. It is the researcher or the one who is
facing some kind of a difficulty which is referred to as ‘problem’ ( in research) who decides the
objective of the research one is undertaking.

However, some general and widely used research objectives are –

 To test hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables( hypothesis- research studies)

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or achieve new insights into it( explanatory or
formlutive research studies).
 To portray the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (diagnostic research studies).
 To capture and portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual / situation/
group/ entity.( descriptive research studies)

4. Research in social science:

Social science, which involves the study of human society and social relationships, uses
research for various purposes. Research has tactical utility for a social scientist. In social science
research is concerned with-

 The development of a body of principle that helps in understanding the whole range of
interaction and ,
 The practical science in saving immediate problem of human relation.

Research is a sort of formal training which enables social scientists to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way:

 To students pursuing masters or Ph d it may mean career progression or wait to attain high
professional, social and associated economic levels.
 To professionals, it may mean way and means of life.
 To philosophers and thinkers, it may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights.
 To analysts and intellectuals, it may mean development of new theories.

Social scientists viz. economists, socialists, political scientists and developmental scientists use
research extensively to solve various problems of the society.

5. Types of Research:

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 1. Experimental and Non- experimental research:

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is turned as ‘hypothesis testing’
research. It can be of the experimental design or of the Non-experimental design.

Research, in which, the independent variable is manipulated is called experimental hypothesis

testing research.

A research in which an independent variable not, manipulated is called Non- experimental

hypothesis testing research.

2. Applied Versus Pure/Basic research:

While basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of application
and thus adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge; the central aim of
applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problems.

While basic/ pure/fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalization and with the
formulation of a theory; applied research is aimed at certain conclusions facing concrete social or
business problems.

6. Survey, case study and field study:

Surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds are called descriptive research. The main
purpose of this kind of research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. It is also
referred as ‘ex-post facto’ research is social science and in business research the main
characteristics of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only
report what has happened or happening ,in other words report is ‘as in what is’. The method of
research utilized in descriptive research are survey method of all kinds including comparative and
co relational method.

Ex-post facto/ descriptive studies carried out in field- setting and against laboratory research are
called field studies. Most survey social/ development science research are field studies and are
survey based

Case studies involve research methodology that emphasis the full contextual analysis of a few
events or conditions and their interrelationships for a single participant. An emphasis on detail
provider variable insights for problem solving, evaluation and strategy. A single well designed
case study can provide a major challenge to a theory and provide a source for new hypothesis and
contracts simultaneously.

7. Review of literature:

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 This is the second and most important in academic research projects. Post the formulation
of the research problem, a brief summary of it should be written down all available literature
concerning the problem at hand must necessary be surveyed and examined before a definition of
the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well conversant with relevant
theories in the field, reports and records and also all other relevant literature. Knowing what data/
information in available after survey to narrow the problem as well as the technique that must be
used. For a researcher undertaking extensive literature survey/ review, the abstracting and indexing
of journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic
journals conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the
nature of the problem in this

Process it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. One can use search engine
like ‘google scholars’ specifically to search scholarly articles.

8. Steps in research

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Review concepts and theories

Review previous research findings

Define the reach problem

Review the literature

Formulate hypothesis

Design the research

(Including sample design)

Collect the data

(Execution of research)

Analyze the data collected

(Test the hypothesis if any)

Interpret and report

F= Feedback (helps in controlling subsystems to which it is transmitted).

FF= Feed forward (serves the vital function of providing criteria for evaluation).

9. Scaling and measurement

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The process of assigning or associating numbers or symbols to observations obtained in a research
study is called measurement.

These observations can be qualitative or quantitative data. Qualitative characteristics can be

counted, cannot be computed. Therefore the researcher must have a clear understanding of the type
of the characteristics or variables before collecting data. The o thing observations on qualitative
variables nay also big assigned numbers. For example the status of developing or not developed
can be recorded as 1 and 0 respectively. In this artificial or nominal way, categorical data
(qualitative or descriptive) can be made into numerical data and if we this code the various
categories, we refer to the numbers we record as numerical data.

Nominal Data is the numerical in name only because they do not share any of the properties of the
numbers we deal in ordinary or thematic.

In this case or situation when we cannot do anything except setup inequalities, we refer to the data
as ordinal data.

10. Attitude Measurement:

Attitude is a resultant of number of external and internal factors. Attitude are related to self–image
and social acceptance. In order to preserve a positive self image individually responses may
affected by social desirability. They may not well express their true attitudes, but answer in a way
that they feel socially acceptable. Given those problem, various methods of measuring attitudes
have been developed, through all of them have limitation.

One of the approach of attitudes in that they can be measured and that, as they can be measured,
we can access how they might affect behavior and how thing like time and social pressure change
them. Different measures focus on different components of attitude cognitive, affective and
behavioral and, there components do not necessarily coincide.

Attitude measurement can be divided into two basic categories:

1. Direct measurement (Likert and semantic differential scale).

2. Indirect measurement (Projective techniques).

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Likert scale: It was developed by Rensis Likert. Here, the respondents (whose attitude towards an
object or idea etc is being measured ) are asked to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement
with each of a series of statement. Each scale item (statement ) has five response categories
ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree

1 2 3 2 1

Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

Disagree (Different ) disagree

Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 5 dependently on the respondents
response on the continuum. It can also be scaled as -2 to +2

-2 -1 0 +1 +2

Strongly disagree neutral agree strongly

Disagree agree

A typical Likert scale has 20-30 scale items or statements. While designing a good likert scale,
first, a large pool of statements relevant to the measurement of attitude has to be generated. Then
from the pool of statements, the items/statements that one vague and non-discriminating has to be
eliminated.

Each degree of agreement for each item/statement in given a numerical score and the respondents
total score is computed by summing these scores. This total score of a respondent reveals the
particular opinion/attitude of the individual.

Likert scale in of ordinal type, they enable one to rank attitudes, but do not measure the difference
between attitudes likerts scale in more reliable than Thurston scale owing to larger range of
references typically given in it. Thus likert scale in a five point scale ranging from strong
agreement to strong disagreement. No judging gap involved in this method.

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Semantic Differential scale: This is a seven point scale where in the end points of the scale are
associated with bipolar labels. Bipolar means two opposite streams for example if you want to
measure leader ship style of a particular person we have bipolar labels viz.

1. Democratic
2. Autocratic

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Autocratic Democratic

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

A respondent can score between 1 to 7 or between -3 to 3 on the basis of these responses, profiles
are made few set of such leadership related qualities are used with bipolar labels and profile
analysis is prepared mean and median are used for comparison. This scale helps to determine
overall similarities and differences among objects.

When semantic differential scale is used to develop an image profile. It provides good basis for
comparing images of two or more items. The big advantages of this scale are its simplicity while
producing results compared with those of the more complex scaling methods. The method is easy
and fast administer, but is also sensitive to small differences in attitude highly versatile reliable
and generally valid.

Staple’s Scale: It was developed by Jan Staple this scale has some distinct features:-

1. Each item has only one word or phrase indicating dimension of presence.
2. Each item has 10 response categories.
3. Each item has an even number of categories.
4. The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.

For Example: In the following items, suppose for quality of higher education in Mysore we asked
respondents rank from +5 to -5. We select a plus number forwards which best describe the higher
education quality accurately. We select a minimum number for words we think do not describe

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accurately. Thus we can select any number from +5 for words we think are accurate to -5, for
words we think are very inaccurate. This scale is usually presented vertically.

+5

+4 (Staple scale)

+3 This is a unit polar rating scale

+2

+1

High Quality

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

Thurston Scales: There are known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure
the attitude to words a given concept or construct for this purpose a large number of statements
are collected that relate to the concept or construct being measured the judges rate the statements
along on 11 category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of favorableness
to words the concept the items are than ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned
by the judges and are used to construct questioner of 20 to 30 items that are chosen more or less
evenly across the range o ratings.

The statements are worded in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with
them. A scale is than administrate assemble of respondents whose cores are determined by
computing the mean or median value of the items agreed with a person who disagree with all the
items has a score of zero. So the advantage this scale in that it is an interval measurement scale.

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But it is the time consuming method and labor intensive. They are commonly used in psychology
and education research.

Sample design:

‘Population or Universe’ refers to all items in a given field of inquiring. A complete enumeration
of all the items in a given population is known as “Census / Census Survey/ census inquiry.”

However in an infinite population, census survey is not feasible or in almost impossible, except
for human population survey which is called census in India.

Unlike the ‘census survey’, sample survey include only few selected items of a given universe,
which produce a miniature cross section of it, meaning the items the items selected ( Sample)
should be truly representative of the total population.

Algebraically, if the population size is ‘N’, and if a part of size ‘n, of the population is selected
for a research study, the group consisting of this ‘n’ units/ items is called ‘Sample’. What should
be the size of such sample? How should the sample units be driven from the population? All those
constitute the “Sample Design”.

A sample design in a definite plan for obtaining a sample forms a given population. It lays down
the number of items to be included in the sample. That is the size of the sample or the sample size
and the techniques or the procedure that the researcher would adopt in selecting the items for
sample. Sample design in decided before the data collection. The main steps for sample design
are:-

1. Objective: The sample design has to be in line with the objective of the research which
decimates the men, money, material, time and other resources available.
2. Population: Who or which is the population for the research unit has to be clear.
3. Sampling Units and Frame: The list of sampling units is called the ‘frame’ or sampling
frame, consisting of all items of a given universe/population.
A sampling unit may be a social unit like a family / club/ school / individual or it may be a
geographical one such as a state / distinct / village or a construction unit such as a house/ flat,
apartment, etc. The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that has to be
selected for the study.
4. Size of the sample:It refers to the number of items to be selected to be selected from the
Universe. It is very critical and also problematic. It should neither be too small nor too big
but should be optimum.
An optimum sample is one which fulfils the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and Flexibility. Some of the considerations that the research needs to have while
deciding the sample size are:
 Determination of the desired precision.

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  Acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
 Size of the population variance.
 Parameters of insert in the research.
 Cost involved etc.
5. Parameters of interest: It refers to the statistical constants of the population viz. population
mean, population proportion etc. Unlike Census survey wherein actual values of parameters
are obtained, in a sample survey in its place, we get the estimate of the unknown population
parameters.
6. Data collection: Care should be taken to collect all relevant information and discard not
essential ones.
7. Non- Respondents: Owing to practical difficulties data from all the selected sampled with
may not be collected. This non-response tends to change the result of the research. This has
to be explained and handled with caution by the researchers.
8. Selection of proper sampling deign: researcher has to ensure representativeness with the
objective of minimizing sampling error.
9. Organising fieldwork: Efficient supervisory staff and trained for field work determined the
success of a survey.
10. Pilot survey: A small scale survey before going to the field that given a better idea of
practical problems and troubles likely is called a ‘pre-test or pilot survey’. It also helps refine
the research tool.
11. Budgeting constraints: Cost consideration will have a major impact on the size of the
sample and the type of sample. These facts even lead to the use of a non–probability sample.

11a. Sampling and non sampling errors

While sampling errors are absent in a census survey, they arise in sample surveys due to the fact
that only part of the population in used to estimate population parameters and to draw inference
about the population. Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and size. The
measurement of sampling in usually called the precision of the sampling plan. Precision can be
improved with increase in the sample size. But this increase the data collection cost and enhances
the systematic bias. Hence, the effective way to increase precision is normally to select a better
sampling design which has a smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost.

A procedure that causes relatively smaller sampling error and helps control the systematic bias in
a better way has to be ensured by the researcher while selecting a sampling procedure.

The errors involved in collection of data are classified into sampling and non sampling errors.

Non sampling errors arise at the stage of allocation and preparation of data, and this are present in
both – sample survey as well as census survey is free from sampling errors, however subjected to
non sampling errors. They can reduced by defining the sampling units frame and population
correctly and by employing skilled people in the investigations.

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11b. Types of sampling designs/ sampling techniques.

Depending on the nature of the data and the investigation techniques of selecting a sample are
classified as

1. Non probability sampling also known as deliberate or purposive or judgment sampling.

2. Probability sampling also known as random or chance sampling.

A sampling procedure which does not provide basis for estimating the probability that each item
in the population has of being included in the sample is called non probability sampling technique.
Here items /sample units are selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice in relation to the
item/sample units remains supreme. In other words the organizers of the enquiry purposively
choose particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small was that
they so select out of the huge population will be typical or representative of the whole.

However in non –probability sampling designs, ‘personal’ element has a great chose of
entering into the selection of the sample. There could chances of the researcher/ investigator
selecting a sample that is likely to yield favourable results, which may vitiate the whole inquiry.
Thus, there is always the danger of ‘laws in this technique.

Also as there is no assurance that every unit in the population having some specifiable chance of
being included in the sample, Sampling error/s cannot be estimated in non-probability sampling
and the element of bias big or small, in always there. It in comparatively reliable for smaller
inquires Quota sampling in also an example of non – probability sampling.

A sampling procedure is which every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample is called probability sampling techniques.

Probability sampling can be said to be a lottery method, in which individual units are picked up
from the whole group not deliberately, but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance
alone that determines whether on time or other in selected into the sample. Here we can measure
the errors estimation or the significance of results. This fact brings out the superiority of random
sampling design ever the deliberate sampling design. Such a sampling technique ensure the law of
Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average, the sample chosen in a random one, the
sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the universe/population hence it is
considered as the best for representative sampling.

Various probability sampling techniques

1. Simple random sampling design :

a. gives each element in the population as equal chance of getting into the sample and all
choices are independent of one another

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 b. Gives possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.
2. Complex random sampling design :
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified sampling
c. Clustered sampling
d. Multi stage sampling
e. Sampling with probability.

Systematic sampling: - a sampling technique in which only the first sample unit in selected
randomly and the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals in referred to as
systematic sampling in practice, the researcher select every item on the list an eliminate of
randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by using random number to take up the first
unit

Example:- if a 5% sample in desired the first item would be selected randomly from the first 20
and thereafter every 20th item would automatically he intended in the sample.

Merits of systematic sample:-

 Spread more evenly over the entire population

 Can be conveniently used over large population size
 Easier and less costlier compared to sample random sampling
 Useful when list of population are available and are of corridor able length

Demerits:-

If there is a hidden periodicity in the population systematic sampling would prove to be

an inefficient method of sampling

Stratified sampling:-

A sampling technique which is used when the population form which the sample in drawn in not
homogenous in nature .this technique helps get a representative sample the population is divided
into several homogeneous group/ sub-population that are individually more homogeneous that
the total population. each sub-population in called ‘ strata ‘. Then sample units are selected from
each strata either randomly or systematically. stratified sampling results are more reliable and
detailed .however , three important question have to be well answered or relevant in the content
of this technique

 How to form the strata?

 How should items be selected from each starters?
 How many items must be selected each stratum? or allocation of sample size for each
stratum

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Formation of strata – homogenous within the strata & heterogeneous between the strata based an
experience & judgment of the researcher , strata is purposively formed.

Selection of items / sample units can be simple random or systematic sampling

Allocation of sample size – proportional allocation (to the size of each strata)

Cluster sampling – the total population is divided into a number of relatively small sub- divisions
which are themselves clients of still smaller randomly selected for inclusion ‘r’. the overall sample
while ‘n’ number of clusters are randomly selected into the sample all in included in the study.

It in used only become of the economic advantages in processes estimates based on cluster sample
are usually more reliable per unit cost it in less precise than random sample.

It cluster happen to be some geographic sub-division it is referred to an area sample

12. selection of sample size ( n )

As a general rule the sample should be of “optimum size “ i.e. it should neither be excessively
large nor too small .technically, the sample size should be large enough to give a confidence
interval of desired width and as such the size of sample must be chosen by some logical forces
before sample is taken from the universe .

The following points must be consider while determining the size of sample :

1. Nature of universe:

 Homogenous small sample size

 Heterogeneous large sample size

2. Number of classes proposed

 Higher the number of class / sub groups, larger the sample.

As small sample may not be able to give reasonable number of items in each sub- groups

3. Nature of study

 Intensive and continuous study – small sample

 Technical survey – general survey large sample , small sample size

4. Type of sampling – for a random sampling technique, small sample size in superior to a large,
but badly selected sample.

5. Availability of finance – large sample size increases the cost of research.

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6. other considerations - nature of units , size of population ,size of questionnaire , availability of
trained investigators , the conditions under which the sample in being conducted , the time
available etc .

Two alternatives approaches to determining the size of the sample :

Approach to sample size determination.

1. Confidence level approach :

 While estimating ‘mean ‘
 While estimating a percentage or proportion
 Specifies the precision of estimation desired and then determines the sample size
necessary to insure it .
 Capable of giving a mathematical solution .
 Frequently used technique
 Limitation in that it does not analyze the cost of gathering information visa and
versa. The expected value of information .
2. Bayesian approach :
 Uses the cost of additional information against the expected value of additional
information.

 Theoretically optimal, but seldom used, cumber some .

13. Methods of data collection.

Primarily, the method o data collection depends on the type of the data

Primary data Second data

 These which are collected afresh and
for the first time and thus happen to be
original in character.
 Originally collected data directly from
the target respondents /target sample
unit.
 Those which have already been
collected by someone else and have
been presented on through the
statistical process.
 Nature of data collection is nearly that
of compilation.

1. Primary data collection method:

 Observation method
 Interview method

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  Telephonic
 Personal
 Web interview, etc.
 Questionnaires
 Interview schedule
 Other method
 Warranty cards
 Stare /distributor audits
 Pantry audits
 Mystery audits
 Consumer panels
 Use of mechanical devices.

2. Projective techniques

Projective techniques of primary data collection method

 Word association tests

 Sentence completion tests
 Story completion tests
 Verbal projection tests
 Pictorial techniques
 Thematic appreciation test
 Rosenzweig test
 Rorschach test
 Holtzmar inkblot test (H I T)
 Tomkins – Horn picture arrangement test
 Play technique
 Quizzes , tests and examination
 Sociometry

3. Depth interview are among other the methods of primary data collection.

4. Content analysis

14. Observation method of data collection

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 In this method, the required information/ data in sought by way investigator’s own
direct observation without asking from the respondent. If the observation is done accurately, the
subjective bias would be eliminated .Also, the information obtained through this method relates to
what is currently happening, it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intention
or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondent’s willingness to respond and as
such in relatively less demanding of active co-operation on the part of respondents as happens to
be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. Particularly suitable in studies that deal
with subject who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the
other.

Limitations

 Expensive method
 Information obtained is limited
 Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task.
 Unavailability of some people for direct observation may become an hindrance.

Observation methods

1. Structural v/s Unstructured observation

2. Participant v/s Disguised observation
3. Controlled v/s Uncontrolled observation (spontaneous)

15. Interview method of data collection :

This method involves presentation of oral - verbal stimulators and replay in term of oral –
verb Reponses. Here, the information is recorded in the interview schedule / the research
tools by the researcher him /herself. It can either be :
 Personal or face –to –face interviews
Or
 Telephone interviews

15 .a. Personal interviews may be (Direct personal investigation)

Or

(Indirect oral investigation)

In direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the
sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and meet the respondent in person. Suitable for
intensive investigations.

In case of extensive scope of enquiry, indirect oral examination in done where in the interview
cross –examines other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem .under

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investigation and the information obtained is recorded. This method is used by commission and
committees appointed by government to carry out investigations.

Personal interview can be:

 Structured interview
or
 Unstructured interview

Structured interview involves the use of a set of pre –determination questions and highly
standardized techniques of recording the data. Then a rigid producer is followed, asking questions
in a form and order prescribed. Used in descriptive studies.

Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized

techniques of recording information . Interviewer has the freedom to add or omit or change
sequence of questions as the situation /case may demand. However, comparison between two
interviews may be difficult, analysis could become more time coursing they demand deep
knowledge and greater skill on part of the interviewer. Applicable in exploratory or Formulate
studies.

a. Focused interview
b. Chemical interview
c. Non directive interview Are the other personal interview techniques.

Merits of Interview method of data collection

Despites the variations in interview technique

 More Information
 Greater length
 Interviewer can overcome the respondent’s resistance if any.
 Greater flexibility to relook at the questions
 Usage of observation method
 Ease of obtaining personal information
 Low member of non-sense responses.
 Spontaneous reaction can be captured.
 Language adoptability in line with that of the respondent.
 Low level of misinterpretation of questions
 Possibility /Scope to collect supplementary information.

Limitations of Interview method

 Expensive when largely and widely spread geographical sample is taken.

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  Supervision and control of interviewers needed.
 Possibility of bias of the interviewer and respondent.
 Inaccessibility to high profile people, hence inadequate data.
 Overstimulation of the respondent, hence imaginary information.
 Building report with the respondents may be difficult.

Telephonic interview method of data collection.

Involves contracting respondents on telephone not widely used method, place role in individual
survey in developed regions.

Merits ;

 Competitive flexible
 Quick and faster method
 Cost for response in relatively low
 No response in low compare to mailing method
 No embarrassment to respondents
 Access can be gained to respondents on multiple attempt without costing much
 No field staff required
 Wider distribution of sample in possible

Demerits:

 Little time given by respondent to interviewer

 Restricted to respondents present in telephone
 Not suitable for intensive investigation
 Possibility basic by interviewer high
 Short and to the point question probing in different

Collection of data through questionnaire

Useful in case of big engineers. It differentiate itself from an interview

schedule as a research tool in the sense that, the respondent fills the required information, not the
interviewer \research as in case of interview method. It consists of a number of questions printed
in a definite order on a farm or set of farms. The questionnaire in sent to the respondent who is
expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
Extensively employed in various economic and business surveys.

Merits:

 Low cost even in large universe case

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  Free from basic of the interviewer
 Adequate time for the respondent to give well through out answer
 Large sample size can be use hence responsible results.

Demerits :

 Low rate of returns of duly filled in questionnaire ; has due to no response is often
indeterminate
 Can be used only in case of literel and educated respondent
 In built inflexibility once the questionnaire reach respondents
 Possibility of ambiguous reply or omission of replies to same questions ; hence loss of data.
 Difficulty in knowing if willing respondent or truly respondent
 Slowest of all methods

Pilot survey:

In done to refine the questionnaire. It imposes the weaknesses and or incompetence

of the questionnaire and the survey technique.

Three important aspects of the questionnaire.

A] general form questionnaire

1- structured 2- unstructured

B] sequence of the questions

C] questions formulation and wording

Collection of data through schedules

Very much like a questionnaire but the research tool in this case is filled by the researcher or
interviewer. Needs trained, skilled and intelligent people in addition to since honest and
hardworking qualities to collect the data.

Construction of a questionnaire and schedule- guideline:

1- As the research problem provides the starting point for the questionnaire slag schedule, the
researcher has to clear about the various aspects of it to be dealt within the course of
research.
2- The nature of information sought , the sampled respondents and the kind of analysis
intended decides the opportunities of a research tool. Based on these, the researcher decide
whether the questions are open or close ended, simple easy for tabulation, obtaining full
and accurate information.

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 3- Preparation of a rough draft of a questionnaire giving you through to the appropriate
sequence of putting questions previously draft tools can be looked at.
4- Rough draft has to be invanably re examine for technical defects, removal of the same
through scouting.
5- Pilot study must for pre testing, post which it as to be edited for the finale one
6- The research tool must be simple and strait has to enable the respondent to answer with
case.

18- Data preparation

Post the data collection, it has to be processed in such a way that it in enable for analysis.
This calls for making the raw information\data into consumable for even at the stage of analysis.
Important steps in the data preparation process are;

1- Questionnaire checking
2- Editing
3- Coding
4- Classification
5- Tabulation
6- Graphical representation
7- Data screening
8- Data adjustment

Checking for competences\adequacy of knowledge on the information sought course of

understanding the question.

Editing- to ensure data are accurate consisted with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as
complete as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

Coding- assign numerical or other symbol to answers so that response can be put.

Data classification- it is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Depending on the nature of the phenomena involved, classification can be

A] according to attributes- 1] simple 2] minefield

Classification depending on one attribute or number of attributes. Here data are classified on the
basis of descriptive[ sex, literacy, honesty] and numerical[ height, weight] descriptive statistic refer
to qualitative phenomena which cannot be quantitative measured, their presence or absence in an
incident can be notice obtained this on the basis of some

B] according to class intervals usually involves the following three main problems;

1- how many classes should be there? What should be there magnitude?

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The size of the class interval in determined by i= R\{1+3.3logN} where, i= size of class intervals.

R= range{i,e difference between the values of the largest and smallest among the given items} ;

N=number of items to be grouped.

2- How to choose limits?

3- How to determine the frequency of each class?

Tabulation – it refers to the procedure of arranging the assembled mass data in some kind of consist
and logical order. It is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact
form [ that is in the form of statistical tables] for further analysis.

Graphical representation- enhances or provides for readability of the data, MS Excel, OH statistical
packages offer wide range graphs .common graphs are 1- bar chart 2- line chart 3- pie chart

Data cleaning-it involves checking for consistency or outliners such data may either be discarded
or replaced by mean value.

Data adjusting- through not necessary may improve the quality of analysis at some of the methods
are data adjustment

1- Weight assignment
2- Variable respectification
3- Scale transformation.

Data analysis-

Broadly, by data analysis we mean the competition of certain indices or measures

along with searching for pattern of relationship that exists among the data groups. Can be

1- Descriptive analysis;

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 Study of the distribution one or more variable involved in the study. Works out various
measures that size and shape of distributions along with study of meaning relationship between
two or more variable

2- Informational analysis;

After known as statistical analysis particularly in case of survey or implemental data involves
estimating the values of unknown population and treating of hypothesis for drawing inferences.

3- Correlation –
Studies the joint venture of two or more variable for determine the amount of correlation
between two or more variables.
4- Causal analysis;
5- Multi variant analysis:

With computer and inbuilt software,

 Multiple regression analysis

 Multiple discriminate analysis
 Multi variant analysis of variant[or multi approval
 Canonical analysis

Statistics in research; two major areas of statistics in research

1- Descriptive statistics- concern with development of certain indices from the raw data
2- Inferential statistics – also known as sample statistics in concern with process
generalization, concern with two major types of problems.

A] Estimation of population per mentors

B] Testing of statistical hypothesis.

Important statistical measures used to

1- Measure of external tendency or statistical avena

2- Measure of disruption

Types of report

Depending on the nature of the problem on hand and the purpose research report vary greatly the
type and length the result of research instigation can be presented in number of ways

Technical report

An article

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Monograph

Oral presentation

Popular report

1) Technical report

Methods involved

Assumption made

Detailed penetration of findings including every `data and limitations.

General outline of the technical report

 Summary of result
 Nature of the study
 Method employed
 Data
 Analysis of data and penetration of findings
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
 Technical approach

2) POPULAR REPORT:

Avoid technical details of all……to the entreat possible, give emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications from the operational point of view. It is characterized by clear written, Minimization
of technical details, particularly mathematical, liberal use of charts and diagrams, Attractive layout
with large print, many sub-headings, an occasional cartoon, emphasis on particular aspects.

GENERAL OUTLINE OF “POPULAR REPORT”:

 Finding and their implications

 Recommendations for action.
 Objective of the study.
 Method employed.
 Results
 Technical appendices.

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22. RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT:

The layout of the research report speaks volumes about scientific temperance of the researchers ,
adequacy of methods used and the scenarios with which one should ……the findings of the
report

A comprehensive layout of a research report has to contain

 Preliminary page
 The main text
 The end matter.

PRELIMINARY PAGE CONTAINS:

 Title and Data

 Acknowledgement in the form of preface/fore word
 Table of contents
 List of tables and illustrations/figures.

MAIN TEXT OF A RESEARCH REPORT CONTAINS:

o Introduction
o Statement of findings/recommendations
o Results
o Implication of research
o Summary

END MATTER:

 Appendences
 Bibliography of sources command
 Index(alphabetical listing names, place, topic, along with page numbers)

23) Writing the research report and presentation

An acceptable report for the scientific communicating should essentially fallow very definite and
set rules in the actual presentable of the research report.

Some of the must mention points that are needed to pay alternatives to in the machines of the
research report writing are:-

1) Size and physical design

 Unrolled paper f 8.5 and X11 in size.

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  Hand writing (black or blue ink pen) or printed.
 1.5 inches margin of left side of paper and main 1st on right side.
 1st margin top and bottom of paper
 If printed double pared on side of the page only.

2) Procedure if all steps are achieved to

3) Layout depending on problem, pre decided and adhered to on detailed in point 22 (pg. 45 and
46)

4) Treatment of quotation

5) The formats

6) Presentations

7) Punctuation and observation in footnotes

8) Use of charts and graphs

9) The final draft

10) Preparation of the index

24) Footnotes and bibliography

1) Foot note serves two purposes

A) Identification of materials used in quotation in the report

b) the note of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the research tect byut still of
supplemental value

Serves the purpose for

 Cost reference
 Creation of authors and sources
 Acknowledgement and elucidation, explanation of a view point

2) Footnotes are placed on the bottom of the page

3) There should be numbered consotionusly use from the beginning with 1 in each chapter
separately
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4) Always typed in single space through they are able to getting-----------------------

Bibliography

It refers to all sources (books, newspaper, research reports, magazines, daily newspaper etc.)

That the research has consolidated for the purpose of research.

It should be arranged alphabetically and in divided in to two parts

1) Name of the books and publishers

 Name of another last name first.

 Title in italic
 Publisher, place and date of publications.
 Number of volumes.

2) Names of magazines of newspaper, articles.

 Name of the author and last name first.

 Title of the article in quotation marks
 Name of the periodical in article
 Volume number and issues number
 Date of issue
 designation

25) Problem of research in development studies

1) Study on structural transformation brought about by globalization and its impact on

 Share of agriculture in national income

 Rural urban divide
 Gender inequality
 Stress on urban land, water and other sources.
 Loss of native /indigenous culture.

2) Financing of education in India what is the right approach?

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3) Reverse migration of the elite from cities to villages -case studies

4) An inward looked education policy that instill pride of activity include mother tongue

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