Ancient Greek Science

The Ancient Greeks were the first scientists. Greek

philosophers tried to explain what the world is made of
and how it works. Empedocles (c. 494-434 BC) said
that the world is made of four elements, earth, fire,
water, and air. Aristotle (384-322 BC) accepted the
theory of the four elements. However, he also believed
that the Sun, Moon, and planets are made of a fifth
element and are unchanging. Aristotle also studied
zoology and attempted to classify animals.
Aristotle also believed the body was made up of four
humors or liquids (corresponding to the four elements).
They were phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. If
a person had too much of one humor they fell ill.
Although some of their ideas were wrong the Greeks
did make some scientific discoveries. A man named
Aristarchus believed the Earth revolved around the
Sun. Unfortunately, his theory was not accepted.
However, Eratosthenes (c.276-194 BC) calculated the
circumference of the Earth.
Advances in Astronomy
In the 2nd century AD a man called Ptolemy stated that
the Earth is the center of the universe. The sun and the
other planets orbit the Earth. In the 16th century a Pole
called Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) realized this is
untrue. The Earth and the other planets orbit the Sun.
However, his theory was not published until just before
his death.
Another great astronomer of the 16th century
was Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). He made accurate
observations of the positions of stars. However, Brahe
did not accept the Copernican theory. Instead, he
believed that the Sun revolved around the Earth and
the other planets revolved around the Sun. In 1572
Brahe saw a new star (a nova). The Greek philosopher
Aristotle said the heavens were unchanging. Change
and decay, he said, only happened on Earth.
Obviously, Aristotle was wrong.
Tycho Brahe was followed by Johannes Kepler (1571-
1630). In the 16th century, people believed that the
planets move in circles. Kepler showed they orbit the
Sun in ellipses and they move faster as they approach
the Sun. Kepler published two laws of planetary motion
in 1609. He published a third in 1619. Furthermore in
1604 Kepler published a book on Optics.
One of the most famous early scientists was Galileo.
Aristotle said that if two objects, a heavy one and light
one both fall from a height the large one will reach the
ground first. According to legend, Galileo tested the
theory by dropping two different weights from the
Leaning Tower of Pisa. Both hit the ground at the same
time. However many people now believe this famous
experiment is a myth. it never actually took place. In
any case other scholars had already reached the
conclusion that Aristotle was wrong.
Galileo
Then in 1609 Galileo heard of a new invention from
Holland. A man named Hans Lippershey had invented
the telescope. Galileo made his own telescope and
soon improved it. Using a telescope Galileo was able to
see several things invisible to the naked eye. Firstly he
could see many stars not visible without a telescope.
Secondly, the ancient Greeks believed that the Moon
was smooth. Looking through a telescope Galileo could
see the Moon's surface is actually rough, with
mountains and craters. He also discovered 4 small
'moons' orbiting the planet Jupiter. At the time these
were astonishing discoveries. Until then nobody knew
that any of the other planets, apart from Earth, had
'moons'.
In 1610 Galileo wrote a book called Sidereus Nuncius
or the Sidereal Messenger. At that time astronomers
were debating sunspots. A German named Christoph
Scheiner claimed that they were satellites of the sun. In
1613 Galileo argued that sunspots are actually on the
surface of the sun.
Copernicus also argued that the earth and the other
planets orbit the sun. At first, the church did not have a
problem with his theory. However, opinion gradually
hardened and in 1616 the Copernican theory was
declared heretical. There is a passage in the Old
Testament where a prophet named Joshua
commanded the sun to stand still in the sky (Joshua
10:12-13). Some scholars said this meant the sun must
move. Of course, Joshua knew nothing about
Astronomy. To him, the sun appeared to move across
the sky. Naturally, he would command the sun to stand
still and to him, it would have appeared to stand still.
The church's objection to the Copernican theory was
based on a misinterpretation of the Bible.
However Galileo was a resolute supporter of the
Copernican theory. In 1632 he published a book called
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. As
a result, he was summoned to Rome to be examined
by the Inquisition. He arrived in January 1633. Galileo
was threatened with torture unless he renounced the
Copernican theory. Not surprisingly he agreed to do so.
Nevertheless, he was put under house arrest for the
rest of his life. In 1634 Galileo published a book about
mechanics called Dialogue Concerning Two New
Sciences. Then in 1637, he noticed that the moon
moves slightly from side to side.
Advances in Medicine
At that time doctors made great progress in
understanding how the human body works. In 1628
William Harvey published his discovery of how blood
circulates around the body. The Roman writer Galen
said that blood passes from one side of the heart to the
other through the septum. However, by 1555 the great
surgeon Vesalius had reached the conclusion that no
such holes exist and that blood can not pass from one
side of the heart to the other in that way.
In 1559 a man named Realdo Colombo demonstrated
that blood actually travels from one side of the heart to
the other through the lungs. Eventually, William Harvey
realized that the heart is a pump. Each time it contracts
it pumps out blood. Harvey then estimated how much
blood was being pumped each time. A Roman writer
named Galen believed that the body constantly makes
new blood and uses up the old (rather like an engine
using up petrol). However, Harvey realized this is not
true. Instead, the blood circulates around the body. In
the 17th century, medicine was helped by the
microscope (invented at the end of the 16th century). In
1658 a man named Jan Swammerdam first observed
red blood corpuscles. In 1661 Marcello Malpighi
discovered capillaries. Then in 1665 Robert Hooke was
the first person to describe cells in his book
Micrographia.
Britain's oldest scientific society began in 1645 a when
group of philosophers and mathematicians began
holding meetings to discuss science or natural
philosophy as it was called. Charles II was interested in
science and in 1662 he granted them a charter and
they became the Royal Society.
Scientists in the 17th Century
Isaac Newton is Britain's greatest scientist. In 1668, he
invented a reflecting telescope.
Newton published his masterpiece Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. It set out his
theory of gravity and his laws of motion. Newton
realized that there is a universal force (gravity) that
attracts all objects in the universe to each other. His
theory of gravity explained the movements of the
planets. In 1704 Newton also published a book on light
called Optics. Newton showed that white light is made
up of several colors.
Many other scientists worked in the late 17th century.
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) discovered Titan, the
moon of Saturn. In 1656 he made the first pendulum
clock, which made accurate measurement of time
possible. A man named Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723) made his own microscopes and through
them he made many observations.
In 1661 Robert Boyle (1627-1691) published the
Skeptical Chemist, which laid the foundations of
modern chemistry. Boyle rejected the Greek thinker
Aristotle's idea that the world is made up of four
elements, water, earth, fire and air. Boyle is also
famous for Boyle's law (The volume of a gas kept at
constant temperature is inversely proportional to its
pressure).
Science in the 18th Century
During the 18th century chemistry made great
advances. In 1751 a man named Axel Cronstedt
discovered nickel. In 1766 Henry Cavendish (1731-
1810) isolated hydrogen and studied its properties. (He
also calculated the density of the Earth). In 1772 Daniel
Rutherford (1749-1819) discovered Nitrogen. In
1774 Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen. In 1756
Joseph Black (1728-1799) discovered carbon dioxide.
Perhaps the greatest chemist of the 18th century was
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794). He discovered that
during combustion oxygen combines with substances.
He also discovered the role of oxygen in respiration
and corrosion of metals. Meanwhile during the 18th
century people began to realized that the Earth is very
old. A landmark in geology came in 1785 when James
Hutton (1726-1797) published his book Theory of the
Earth.
In 1781 the astronomer William Herschel (1738-1822)
discovered the planet Uranus. In 1784 John Goodricke
(1764-1786) discovered variable stars. Two great
biologists of the 18th century were Georges Leclerc,
Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) and Karl Linnaeus
(1707-1778). Linnaeus invented a method of classifying
living things.
Meanwhile people began to investigate electricity. In
1746 a man Petrus van Musschenbroek (1692-1761)
invented a way of storing electricity called a leyden jar.
In 1752 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) proved that
lighting is a form of electricity. In 1800 Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827) invented the first chemical battery.
However during the 18th century medicine made slow
progress. Doctors still did not know what caused
disease. Some continued to believe in the four humors
(although this theory declined during the 18th century).
Other doctors thought disease was caused by
'miasmas' (odorless gases in the air).
Science in the 19th Century
During the 19th century science made great progress.
In 1808 John Dalton (1766-1844) published his atomic
theory. According to the theory matter is made of tiny,
indivisible particles. Dalton also said that atoms of
different elements had different weight. John Dalton
also studied colour blindness. In 1827 the German
chemist Friedrich Wohler (1800-1882) isolated
aluminium. In 1828 he produced urea, an organic
compound from inorganic chemicals. A Russian, Dmitri
Mendeleev (1834-1907) formulated the Periodic Table,
which arranged all the known elements according to
their atomic weight.
Meanwhile people continued to master electricity. In
1819 a Dane, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that
electric current in a wire caused a nearby compass
needle to move. The Englishman Michael
Faraday (1791-1867) invented the dynamo. In 1847 the
German Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
formulated the law of the Conservation of Energy,
which states that energy is never lost but just changes
from one form to another. In 1851 he invented the
ophthalmoscope.
Meanwhile geology made huge strides. Charles Lyell
(1797-1875) saw that rocks were formed by processes
we see today. In 1830 he published his book Principles
of Geology. In 1837 a Swiss, Louis Agassiz (1807-
1873) realized that a vast sheet of ice had once
covered northern Europe. Furthermore, scientists
discovered more and more fossils and the word
Dinosaur was coined in 1842.
Charles Darwin
In 1831 Darwin sailed on the beagle. In February 1832
the Beagle reached Brazil. Darwin spent three years in
different parts of South America collecting specimens.
Then in September 1835, the Beagle sailed to the
Galapagos Islands. Darwin was surprised to learn the
local people could tell by looking at a tortoise which
island it came from. Darwin also studied finches. Each
island had a different species of finch. Later Darwin
came to the conclusion that all were descended from a
single species of finch. On each island, the finches had
diverged and become slightly different.
By 1836 Darwin believed that species of animals could
change. In October 1838 Darwin thought of a way in
which one species could change into another. He
noticed that individual members of a species vary.
Furthermore, all animals are competing with each other
to survive. If the environment changed in some way,
say if a new, faster predator appeared then any
herbivores that could run slightly faster then other
members of its species would be more likely to survive
and reproduce. Any herbivores that ran slightly slower
than most would be more likely to be eaten. Slowly a
new, faster herbivore would evolve. This was later
called the survival of the fittest. Darwin's monumental
work The Origin of Species was published in 1859. It
proved to be a bestseller. However, Darwin's book also
caused controversy.
In 1866 an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel
discovered the laws of hereditary by breeding peas.
Furthermore, medicine and surgery made great
advances in the 19th century. There were several
outbreaks of cholera in Britain. It struck in 1832, 1848,
1854 and 1866. During the 1854 epidemic, John Snow
(1813-1858) showed that cholera was transmitted by
water. However doctors were not certain how. Later
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) proved that microscopic
organisms caused disease. In the early 19th century
many scientists believed in spontaneous generation i.e.
that some living things spontaneously grew from non-
living matter. In a series of experiments between 1857
and 1863 Pasteur proved this was not so. Once doctors
what caused disease they made rapid headway in
finding cures or prevention.
In the late 19th century physics made great strides. In
1873 James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) showed that
light is an electromagnetic wave. He also predicted
there were other electromagnetic waves with longer
and shorter wavelengths than light. Then in 1888
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) proved the electromagnetic
waves predicted by Maxwell exist. In 1896 Henri
Becquerel (1852-1908) discovered radioactivity. Then
in 1898 Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie
(1859-1906) discovered radium.
At the end of the century scientists began to investigate
the atom. In 1897 Joseph Thomson discovered the
electron. In astronomy Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the
first asteroid, Ceres in 1801. In 1838 Friedrich Bessel
(1784-1846) measured the distance to a star (61 Cygni)
for the first time. The planet Neptune was discovered in
1846.
Science in the 20th Century
During the 20th century science continued to go
forward at fantastic speed. Scientists came to
understand the atom. In 1910 Ernest Rutherford (1871-
1937) discovered the atomic nucleus. He realized that
almost all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus with
electrons orbiting it. In 1932 James Chadwick (1891-
1974) discovered the neutron.
Physics was revolutionized by two men, Max Planck
(1858-1947) and Albert Einstein (1879-1955). In 1900
Planck proposed quantum theory, which states that
energy is exchanged in discrete packets he called
quanta. Einstein published his theory of Special
Relativity in 1905 and his General Theory of Relativity
in 1915. In 1927 Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)
published his uncertainty principle, which states that is
impossible to determine the position and speed of a
subatomic particle.
In 1915 Alfred Wegener proposed continental drift. He
said that all continents were once joined and they have
drifted apart. In 1926 Arthur Eddington (1882-1944)
suggested that stars are powered by nuclear fusion.
Also in the 1920s Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) showed
that our galaxy is only one of many galaxies. He also
proved that the universe is expanding. In 1930 Clyde
Tombaugh discovered Pluto. The first radio telescope
was built in 1937.
Medicine was making great advances. In
1928 Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) discovered
penicillin. Meanwhile genetics was making great
strides. In 1953 Francis Crick and James Watson
discovered the double-helix structure of DNA. At the
end of the 20th century genetic engineering became
possible.
In astronomy quasars were discovered in 1963 and
pulsars were discovered in 1968. The Hubble Space
Telescope was launched in 1990. At the end of the
20th century the first extrasolar planets were
discovered. At the other end of the scale scientists
discovered many new sub-atomic particles. In 1964
Murray Gell-Mann (1929-) suggested that quarks exist.
The most famous physicist of the late 20th century and
early 21st century was Stephen Hawking (1942-2018).
Hawking is known for his research into black holes,
relativity and cosAncient Greek Science

A TIMELINE OF THE
HISTORY OF SCIENCE

494-434 BC Empedocles lives. He says the world is

made of 4 elements, earth, fire, water and air.

384-322 BC Aristotle lives. Many of his ideas are wrong

but the dominate science for the next 2,000 years.
276-194 BC Eratosthenes lives. He measures the
circumference of the Earth.

c 150 BC Aglaonike a woman astronomer lives

130-210 AD The doctor Galen lives. His ideas about

the human body dominate medicine for the next 1,500
years.

c 150 AD Ptolemy writes his book Almagest which

states that the Sun and other planets orbit the Earth

1543 Copernicus publishes his theory that the Earth

orbits the Sun

1572 Tycho Brahe observes a supernova

Science in the 17th Century

1600 William Gilbert shows that the Earth is a magnet

1604 Johannes Kepler publishes a book on optics

1609 Kepler publishes 2 laws of planetary motion.

Galileo observes the Heavens with a telescope

1619 Kepler publishes a 3rd law of planetary motion

1628 William Harvey publishes his discovery of how

blood circulates around the body

1632 Galileo publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two

Chief World Systems

1634 Galileo publishes a book about mechanics called

Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences

1643 Evangelista Torricelli invents the barometer

1650 Otto von Guericke invents an air pump

1658 Jan Swammerdann observes red blood
corpuscles

1661 Robert Boyle publishes The Skeptical Chemist.

Marcello Malpighi discovers capillaries

1662 The Royal Society is given a charter by Charles II

1665 Robert Hooke describes cells

1687 Isaac Newton publishes Principia Mathematica

Science in the 18th Century

1704 Isaac Newton publishes a book about optics

1743-1794 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier lives

1746 Petrus van Musschenbroek invents the leyden jar

1751 Axel Cronstedt discovers nickel

1752 Benjamin Franklin proves lightning is a form of

electricity

1758 Carl Linnaeus publishes his work Systema

Naturae classifying living things

1766 Henry Cavendish isolates hydrogen

1772 Daniel Rutherford discovers nitrogen

1774 Joseph Priestley discovers oxygen

1781 William Herschel discovers Uranus

1784 John Goodricke discovers variable stars

1785 James Hutton publishes Theory of the Earth

1798 Henry Cavendish measures the density of the

Earth

Science in the 19th Century

1800 Allessandro Volta invents the battery

1801 The first asteroid is discovered

1808 John Dalton publishes his atomic theory

1828 Friedrich Wohler produces urea

1830 Charles Lyell publishes Principles of Geology

1831 Michael Faraday invents the dynamo

1842 The word dinosaur is coined

1846 Neptune is discovered

1847 Axel Herman von Helmholtz formulates the law of

the Conservation of Energy

1859 The Origin of Species is published by Charles

Darwin

1866 Gregor Mendel discovers the law of hereditary

1873 James Clerk Maxwell shows that light is an

electromagnetic wave
1895 X-rays are discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen

1896 Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity

1897 Joseph Thomson discovers the electron

1898 Marie Curie discovers radium

Science in the 20th Century

1900 Max Planck proposes quantum theory

1905 Einstein publishes his theory of Special Relativity

1910 Ernest Rutherford discovers the atomic nucleus

1915 Einstein publishes his General Theory of

Relativity
1926 Arthur Eddington suggests that stars are powered
by nuclear fusion

1927 Werner Heisenberg publishes his uncertainty

principle

1928 Alexander Fleming invents penicillin

1930 Pluto is discovered

1932 James Chadwick discovers the neutron

1937 The first radio telescope is built

1953 Francis Crick and James Watson discover the

structure of DNA

1960 The laser is invented

1963 Quasars are discovered

1964 Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig suggest

that quarks exist

1967 Pulsars are discovered

1990 The Hubble Space Telescope is launchedmology.