Turning-Off of the TSC Valve

The TSC can be disconnected at any current zero by prior removal of the gate drive to
the thyristors. At the current zero crossing, the capacitor voltage is at its peak value .
. . The disconnected capacitor stays charged to this voltage and the voltage
across the nonconducting thyristors varies between zero and the peak-to-peak value
of the applied ac voltage. Therefore, the valve has to block the voltage difference
between the supply voltage and the capacitor voltage.

VT > 2V.

The TSC valve must withstand a dc voltage

stress for sometime after switching off.
In combined schemes with TSCs and TCRs at the same bus, the number of thyristors
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
in the TSC valves is typically about two times the number of thyristors in the TCR valves.
The TSC Configuration The thyristors allow the conduction for integral no. of half-
cycles. The capacitor is not phase controlled, as is a TCR.
Thyristors are turned on at an instant when minimum voltage is sensed across
the valves to minimize the switching transients.
Barring the initial transients, the TSC current is sinusoidal and free from
harmonics, thus obviating the need for any filters.
The small-series inductor is installed to limit current transients during
overvoltage conditions and planned switching operations, as well as when
switching at incorrect instants or at the inappropriate voltage polarity.
The inductor magnitude is chosen to give a natural resonant frequency of 4 to 5
times the system frequency, which ensures that the inductance neither creates a
harmonic-resonant circuit with the network nor hampers the TSC control system.
The inductor also acts in combination with the capacitor as a
filter for harmonics generated by the associated TCR.
In some cases, discharge circuits are provided with the capacitors
to rapidly dissipate the remnant charge on the capacitor after a
switch-off.
A TSC can provide only a step-like change in the reactive current
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
it draws (maximum or zero).
The TSC Configuration
A practical TSC compensator
involves n 3-phase TSC banks of
equal rating connected in shunt.
The overall TSC susceptance at
any given instant is the sum of
conducting TSC.

TSC steps based on a Binary system.

n−1 capacitors are rated for susceptance B and
one capacitor is rated for susceptance B/2. Thus
the total number of possible TSC steps get
extended to 2n.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

TSC Switching Delay

The maximum possible delay in switching in a capacitor bank is one full cycle of the
applied ac voltage, that is, the interval from one positive (negative) peak to the next
positive (negative) peak.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

THE FIXED-CAPACITOR–THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED REACTOR (FC–TCR)
To extend the dynamic controllable range to the leading
power-factor domain, a fixed-capacitor bank is connected
in shunt with the TCR.

The current in the reactor is varied by the firing delay

angle control.

The FC is usually substituted by a filter network that

has the necessary capacitive impedance at the
fundamental frequency to generate the reactive
power required, but it provides a low impedance at
selected frequencies to shunt the dominant
harmonics produced by the TCR.

The FC banks, usually connected in a star

configuration, are split into more than one 3-
phase group. Each capacitor contains a small
tuning inductor that is connected in series and
tunes the branch to act as a filter for different
harmonics. EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
FC-TCR The constant capacitive var generation (Qc) of the
FC is opposed by the variable var absorption (QL)
of the TCR, to yield the total var output (Q) required.
At zero var output, the capacitive and inductive currents
become equal and Qc and QL cancel out.
At α = 90°, TCR conducts current over the full 180°, resulting
in maximum inductive var output that is equal to the
difference between the vars generated by the FC and those
absorbed by the fully conducting reactor.
Operating Characteristic The FC extends the operating range to the leading side.
By dimensioning the ratings of the TCR and FC, respectively, the production and
absorption ranges can be selected according to the system requirements.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

FC-TCR Operating Characteristic With the Step-Down Transformer
An FC–TCR SVC is usually connected to the high-voltage power system
by means of a step-down coupling transformer.
BSVC does not
change linearly
with BTCR.
Nonlinearity is
relatively small for

Reactance of the coupling transformer is greatly smaller than the reactance of

either the fixed capacitor or TCR.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

FC-TCR Losses
Large currents in the FC–TCR loop is
needed for cancellation of capacitive
vars, resulting in high steady-state
losses, even when the SVC is not
exchanging any reactive power. Typical
losses in an FC–TCR scheme vary from
0.5% to 0.7% of the MVA rating.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

FC-TCR Losses
(1) the capacitor (or capacitive filter)
losses (these are relatively small but
constant),
(2) the reactor losses (these increase
with the square of the current), and
(3) thyristor losses (these increase
almost linearly with the current).
Thus, the total losses increase with
increasing TCR current and,
consequently, decrease with
increasing capacitive var output.

This type of loss characteristic is advantageous when the

average capacitive var output is relatively high as, for example,
in industrial applications requiring power factor correction, and
it is disadvantageous when the average var output is low, as for
example, in the case of dynamic compensation of power
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
transmission systems.
FC-TCR Losses can be minimized by switching the FCs through mechanical
breakers, ensuring that the capacitors are inserted only when leading vars
are needed. Those FC–TCRs of 300-MVA inductive rating have been installed.
• lower capital cost An MSC–TCR may not be very suitable for
• reduced operating costs in terms of losses voltage-control applications in a system
experiencing frequent disturbances.

Losses: 0.02–0.05%

• slower speed (can close in two cycles and open in about eight)
• residual charge on the capacitors (The MSCs can be switched in only when the
capacitors are discharged.)
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
• finite life (typically 2000–5000 operations)
Control of TCR in FC-TCR
Synchronous timing is
usually provided by a PLL
Circuit.
The function of ‘reactive
current (or admittance) to
firing angle conversion’
can be provided by a real
time circuit
implementation of the
mathematical relationship
between ILF(α) and α.

The required ILF magnitude, from the requested total output current IQ (sum of the
fixed capacitor and the TCR currents) defined by IQRef , can be computed by
subtracting the amplitude of capacitor current, IC from IQRef (+ve polarity for IQRef
means inductive output current, and -ve polarity means capacitive output current.)

The function of ‘thyristor firing pulse generation’ is accomplished by the firing pulse
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
generator (or gate drive) circuit which produces the necessary gate current pulse.
FC-TCR Operating Characteristic

The V-I operating area is defined by the maximum attainable capacitive and
inductive admittances and by the voltage and current ratings of the major power
components (capacitor, reactor, and thyristor valve).

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

THE THYRISTOR-SWITCHED CAPACITOR–THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTOR (TSC–TCR)
TSC-TCR was developed primarily for dynamic compensation of power transmission
systems with minimized standby losses and providing increased operating flexibility.
• n TSC banks and a single TCR connected in parallel.
• TCR rating is chosen to be 1/n of the total SVC rating.
• The capacitors can be switched in discrete steps,
whereas continuous control is provided by the TCR.
• Maximum inductive range of the SVC corresponds to
the rating of the small TCR. This can be expanded by
employing additional TCR branches.
• Number of TSC branches, n, is determined by practical considerations like, operating
voltage level, maximum var output, thyristors current rating, installation cost, etc.
•harmonic generation is substantially reduced for small TCR.

•TSCs are tuned with the series reactor to different

dominant harmonic frequencies.

•A nonswitchable capacitive-filter branch is provided

To avoid a situation in which all TSCs
EE660,are switched
2013-2014, off.
Spring, IITB
TSC-TCR A TSC–TCR can quickly operate to disconnect all capacitors, precluding the
resonant oscillations, unlike FC-TCR.
Capacitive output range in n intervals.
In the first interval, the output is controllable
in the zero to Qcmax/n range.
In the 2nd, 3rd, ..., and nth intervals, the output
is controllable in the Qcmax/n to 2Qcmax/n,
2Qcmax/n to 3Qcmax/n, ..., and (n – 1)Qcmax/n to
Qcmax range by switching in the 2nd, 3rd, ..., and
nth capacitor bank and using the TCR to absorb
the surplus capacitive vars.
Theoretically, the TCR should have the same var
rating as of a TSC. However, TCR var rating is
somewhat larger than that of a TSC to provide
enough overlap (hysteresis) between "switching
in" and "switching out” var levels.
Qc is changed in a step-like manner by the TSCs to
approximate the var demand with a net capacitive var
surplus, and the relatively small inductive var output of the
TCR, QL, is used to cancel the surplus
EE660,capacitive vars.
2013-2014, Spring, IITB
TSC-TCR Control Switching of TSC
branches is controlled in
No. of TSCs to be switched in for "transient-free" manner.
the required iC (with a positive
surplus), and the amplitude of iL
needed to cancel
the surplus
capacitive
current.

Varies the current in the TCR

by firing delay angle control.

IQRef/IC rounded to the next higher integer number of capacitor banks needed

Σ ICn — IQRef = ILf

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
TSC-TCR Operating Characteristics

FC-TCR
TSC-TCR
The response of the TSC-TCR, depending on the number of TSC branches used, may
be somewhat slower than that of its FC-TCR counterpart.
This is because the maximum delay of switching in a single TSC, with a charged
capacitor, is one full cycle, whereas the maximum delay of the TCR is only half of a
cycle. (Note that the maximum switching out delay for both the TSC and TCR is a
half-cycle.)
However, for 2+ TSC branches there is a reasonable chance that, on the average, one
or more capacitor banks will be available with the charge of the desired polarity (or
without any charge) at the instantEE660,
when an increase
2013-2014, Spring, IITB in capacitive output is required.
TSC-TCR Losses
At or near zero var output, all capacitors are
switched out, the TCR current is negligibly small,
and consequently, the losses are almost zero.

With each switched-in TSC, the losses increase

by a fixed amount. There are the added losses
of the TCR, which vary from maximum to zero
between successive switchings of the TSCs.

Overall, the losses of a TSC-TCR vary, on the

average, in proportion with the var output.

This type of loss characteristic is advantageous when

the compensator is used for dynamic compensation
and is not required to provide high average var
output for the normally functioning power system.
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SVCS Losses

1. Small, resistive losses are in the permanently TSC–TCR losses are the
connected filter branches in the TSC–TCR and MSC–TCR. least in the floating state,
2. Losses in the main capacitors in all three SVCs. just as with MSC–TCR.
3. Valve-conduction losses and switching losses in the The TCR losses in a TSC–
thyristor power circuit. TCR are lower because of
4. Resistive losses in the inductor of the TCR, which the smaller reactor rating.
increases substantially with the TCR current. MSC–TCR losses have similar
trend as of TSC–TCR, but of
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
Losses are dependent on the operating point. much lower magnitude.
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SVCs Performance
The choice of a specific SVC is based on several considerations—the application requirement,
speed of response, frequency of operation, losses, capital cost, and so forth.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

TSC–TCR is by far the most versatile among all SVCs, although with a cost premium.
SVC Voltage Control Considerations affecting the design of SVC voltage regulator
Dynamic Characteristics

it is desirable to
incorporate a
finite slope in the
V-I characteristics.

1.05 pu to 0.95 pu
Reference Voltage, Vref is the voltage at the SVC terminals during the floating
condition, i.e., when the SVC is neither absorbing nor generating any reactive power.
Linear Range of SVC Control is the control range over which SVC terminal voltage
varies linearly with SVC current or reactive power, as the reactive power is varied
over its entire capacitive-to-inductive range.
Slope or Current Droop is the ratio of voltage-magnitude change to
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
current-magnitude change over the linear-controlled range of the
compensator.
SVC Voltage Control Considerations affecting the design of SVC voltage regulator
Dynamic Characteristics

Overload Range: When the SVC traverses outside the linear-controllable range on
the inductive side, it enters the overload zone, where it behaves like a fixed inductor.

Overcurrent Limit: To prevent the thyristor valves from being subjected to excessive
thermal stresses, the maximum inductive current in the overload range is
constrained to a constant value byEE660,
an additional
2013-2014, Spring,control
IITB action.
SVC Voltage Control Considerations affecting the design of SVC voltage regulator
Steady-State Characteristics
Steady-state and dynamic V-I
characteristics are very similar except for
a deadband in voltage.
In the absence of deadband, in the
steady state the SVC will tend to drift
toward its reactive-power limits to
provide voltage regulation.
It is not desirable to leave the SVC with
very little reactive-power margin for future
voltage control or stabilization excursions in
the event of a system disturbance.
A deadband about Vref holds the ISVC at or near zero value, depending on the location
of the deadband. Thus the reactive power is kept constant at a setpoint, typically
equal to the MVA output of the filters. This output is quite small; hence the total
operating losses are minimized.
A slow susceptance regulator is employed to implement the voltage deadband,
which has a time constant of several minutes. It is ineffective during fast transients
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
and does not interfere with the operation of the voltage controller.
Voltage Control by the SVC
The system impedance Xs corresponds
to the short-circuit MVA at the SVC bus.

In the absence of the SVC voltage regulator,

The SVC current thus results in a voltage drop of ISVCXs

in phase with the system voltage Vs.
The SVC bus voltage decreases with the inductive SVC
current and increases with the capacitive current.

SVC is more effective in controlling voltage in weak

ac systems (high Xs) and less effective in strong ac
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
systems (low Xs).
Voltage Control by the SVC
The intersection of the SVC dynamic
characteristic and the system load line
provides the operating point of the SVC.
The voltage-control action in the linear
range is described as

where ISVC is positive if inductive,

negative if capacitive.

Advantages of the Slope in the SVC Dynamic Characteristic

1. substantially reduces the reactive-power rating of

the SVC for achieving nearly the same control
objectives;
2. prevents the SVC from reaching its reactive-
power limits too frequently; and
3. facilitates the sharing of reactive power among
multiple compensators operating in parallel.
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
Advantages of Slope in SVC Dynamic Characteristic Reduction of the SVC Rating

Reactive-power rating of the SVC

needed for providing flat voltage
regulation is QCm capacitive to QLm
inductive (characteristic OABC).
For the characteristic OA′B′C′,
the required SVC maximum
reactive-power rating for same
variation in the system load line is
Q′Cm capacitive to Q′Lm inductive.
System load line varies between
L1 and L2 for OABC and between
L3 and L4 for OA’B’C’.
Q′Cm < QCm and Q′Lm < QLm.

Thus a much lower SVC reactive-power rating and, hence, a much lower cost is
required for nearly the same control objective.
With a 5% slope in the V-I characteristic the SVC rating can be reduced to half. The
resulting tradeoff is a 2.5% voltageEE660,
excursion.
2013-2014, Spring, IITB
Advantages of Slope.. Prevention of Frequent Operation at Reactive-Power Limits

For no or minimal slope in the

dynamic characteristic, even a
small change in the system load
line (e.g., from E2 to E1) may
cause the SVC to traverse from
one extreme to another to
maintain constant voltage.

The SVC reactive-power limits are

reached more frequently if the ac
system is strong, i.e., when the slope
of the system load line is quite small.

With a finite slope in the V-I characteristic, the SVC continues to operate in the
linear-controllable range for a much larger variation in the load line of the external
ac system. E.g., the SVC can exercise voltage control for a significantly larger
variation, E4 − E3, in the equivalent ac system no-load voltage.
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
Advantages of Slope.. Load Sharing Between Parallel-Connected SVCs

On the left of A, SVC2 controls the bus voltage, whereas SVC1 remains
at full production. Opposite happens on the right of A.
Demands coordinated
control.

Reliability via redundancy,

and for minimizing the net
harmonic generation.

At A, full reactive-power production on SVC1 (point B) and full one SVC partially
inductive-reactive power absorption on SVC2 (point C). compensates the other

The composite V-I control characteristic of the two SVCs is derived by summing up
the individual currents of both SVCs for the same bus-voltage magnitude.
EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
Advantages of Slope.. Load Sharing Between Parallel-Connected SVCs
The current droop ensures that
the composite V-I control
characteristic of both SVCs is
continuous despite the
difference in voltage-reference
setpoints. If the two SVCs and
the power system achieve a
stable-operating point at A, SVC1
operates at B and SVC2 at C.
The reactive-load sharing of the two compensators is improved, and the losses are
minimized. The zones where only one compensator controls the voltage while the
other is already at a limit reduce to small portions at both ends of the control range.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB
Switching Converter Type Shunt Compensators
• Proposed by Gyugyi in 1976.
• Does not involve ac capacitors or inductors.
• Generate reactive power by circulating
alternating currents among the phases.
• With only reactive power exchange: -> STATCOM
• When real power exchange is involved: Static Synchronous Generator: -> (SSG)
• Controllable reactive power can be generated by all types of dc-ac (inverters) or ac-
ac converters (frequency changers or frequency converters or cycloconverters).
• They contain array of devices and no internal energy storage. Therefore, the input
and output instantaneous powers must be same.
• Input and output source terminations are complementary.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

Switching Converters VSIs are preferred because;
(1) CSIs require power semiconductors with bi-directional
voltage blocking capability.
(2) A current charged reactor on the dc side as required in a CSI is much lossier than a
voltage-charged capacitor as required in a VSI,
(3) A CSI requires a voltage source termination at ac terminals, usually in the form of
a capacitive filter. The voltage requires a current source termination at the ac
terminals that is naturally provided by the leakage inductance of the coupling
transformer,
(4) VSIs provide automatic protection against transmission line voltage transients.
CSIs may require additional overvoltage protection.
CSIs are immune to terminal shorts due to their inherent output current limitation
provided by the dc current source.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

Switching Converters PWM CSI fed ac motor drives are often used in high power
(1,000–10 000 hp) applications. The CSI drive has the features of
simple structure: 1. Reliable short circuit protection , 2. Four quadrant operation capability
and nearly sinusoidal outputs, 3. Low output dv/dt resulting from filtering effect of output
capacitors, 4. In addition, the switching device [symmetrical GTO or gate commutated
thyristor (GCT)] used in the CSI can be easily connected in series, which makes the CSI drive
particularly suitable for implementation at medium voltage (2300 V–7200 V) levels.

Operating principles of a VSI or CSI

based FACTS remain same.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB

Three-Phase VSI

The transformer primaries provideEE660,

a phase shift
2013-2014, Spring,of
IITB30°.
Multi-Step VSI
• In a similar way 6n-step output voltage can be obtained by connecting n basic 6-
step inverters and by providing phase shift through transformer connections.
• For example, a 24-step inverter can be constructed by phase shifting each of the
four 6-step inverters by 15°.
• Similarly a phase shift of 7.5° between 8 basic inverter output will produce a 48-
step output waveform.
• Note that the firing pulses of the 6-step basic inverters must also be phase shifted
by 15°or 7.5° to obtain 24 or 48-step output waveforms respectively.
• The lowest order harmonics in a 6n-step inverter is 6n ±1 in the ac side and 6n in
the dc side.

EE660, 2013-2014, Spring, IITB