Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(15EC43)
Introduction to Control Systems, Types of Control Systems, Effect ofFeedback Systems, Different
ial equation of Physical Systems Mechanical systems,Electrical systems, Analogous systems. Block
diagram and signal flow graphs: transfer functions, block diagram algebra and signal flow graph.
Structure
1.1 Objectives 6
1.2 Introduction 6
1.2 Introduction
A control system is one which can control any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism or
other equipment in order to achieve the desired performance or output.(or) A control system is an
interconnection of components connected or related in such a manner as to command, direct, or
regulate itself or another system. For example consider, the driving system of an automobile. Speed
of the automobile is a function of the position of its accelerator. The desired speed can be maintained
(or a desired change in speed can be achieved) by controlling pressure on the accelerator pedal. This
automobile driving system (accelerator, carburetor and engine-vehicle) constitutes a control system.
Control systems find numerous and widespread applications from everyday to extraordinary in
science, industry, and home. Here are a few examples:
The above method of representation of a control system is known as block diagram representation
where in each block represents an element, a plant, mechanism, device etc., whose inner details are
not indicated. Each block has an input and output signal which are linked by a relationship
characterizing the block. It may be noted that the signal flow through the block is unidirectional.
Basic Control System components : The basic control system components are objectives i.e inputs or
actuating signals to the system and the Output signals or controlled variables etc.The control system
will control the outputs in accordance with the input signals. The relation between these components
is shown in the block diagram.
Control System
Input Output
Process
The output signal is fed back to the input to produce a new output. A well-designed feedback system
can often increase the accuracy of the output.
Examples for closed loop systems are air conditioners, refrigerators, automatic rice cookers,
automatic ticketing machines, etc. For example An air conditioner, uses a thermostat to detect the
temperature and control the operation of its electrical parts to keep the room temperature at a preset
constant.
One advantage of using the closed loop control system is that it is able to adjust its output
automatically by feeding the output signal back to the input. When the load changes, the error signals
generated by the system will adjust the output suitably. The limitation of a closed loop control
systems is they are generally more complicated and thus also more expensive to design.
(c) Linear versus Nonlinear Control Systems : Linear feedback control systems are idealized models
fabricated by the analyst purely for the simplicity of analysis and design
When the magnitudes of signals in a control system are limited to ranges in which system components
exhibit linear characteristics (i.e., the principle of superposition applies), the system is essentially
linear.
But when the magnitudes of signals are extended beyond the range of the linear operation, depending
on the severity of the nonlinearity, the system should no longer be considered linear. For instance,
amplifiers used in control systems often exhibit a saturation effect when their input signals become
large; the magnetic field of a motor usually has saturation properties. Other common nonlinear effects
DEPT. of ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU 9
found in control systems are the backlash or dead play between coupled gear members, nonlinear
spring characteristics, nonlinear friction force or torque between moving members, and so on. Quite
often, nonlinear characteristics are intentionally introduced in a control system to improve its
performance or provide more effective control.
Also the analysis of linear systems is easy and lot of mathematical solutions is available for their
simplification.
Nonlinear systems, on the other hand, are usually difficult to treat mathematically, and there are no
general methods available for solving a wide class of nonlinear systems. In practice , first a linear-
system is modeled by neglecting the nonlinearities of the system and the designed controller is then
applied to the nonlinear system model for evaluation or redesign by computer simulation.
1. An open loop system has the ability to 1. A closed loop system has got the ability
perform accurately, if its calibration is to perform accurately because of the
good. If the calibration is not perfect its feedback.
performance will go down. 2. It is difficult to build.
2. It is easier to build. 3. Less stable Comparatively
3. In general it is more stable as the feed 4. Even under the presence of non-
back is absent . linearity’s the system operates better
4. If-non-linearity’s are present , the than open loop system.
system operation is not good. 5. Feedback is present
5. Feedback is absent Example:
Example : (i) Pressure control system
(i) Traffic control system (ii) Speed control system
(ii) Control of furnace for coal (iii) Temperature control system
heating
(iii) An Electric washing machine
Fig 1.6 Block diagram of Continuous and Discrete Data Control Systems
In ac control systems, the signals are modulated i.e the information is transmitted by an ac carrier
signal. Here the output controlled variable behaves similarly to that of the dc system. In this case, the
R(S) C(S)
G (S)
After obtaining the block diagram for each & every component, all blocks are combined to get a
complete representation. It is then reduced to a simple form with the help of block diagram algebra.
1.4.1 Basic elements of a block diagram
Blocks
Fig.1.9 Block
(b) Summing point:
The blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical operations, like addition and subtraction
and represented by a circle, called a summing point. As shown below diagram a summing point may
have one or several inputs. Each input has its own appropriate plus or minus sign. A summing point
has only one output and is equal to the algebraic sum of the inputs
Individual & Overall performance can be studied A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to be used
by more than one block or summing point
(c)Arrow – associated with each branch to indicate the direction of flow of signal
(2) Combining blocks in Parallel: When two blocks are connected parallel as shown below ,the
resultant transfer function is equal to the algebraic sum (or difference) of the two transfer
functions.This is shown in the diagram below.
(3) Eliminating a feed back loop: The following diagram shows how to eliminate the feed back loop
in the resultant control system
(5) Moving a Take-off point ahead of a block: The effect of moving the takeoff point ahead of a
block is shown below.
The open loop gain of the system is G(S) and the feedback loop gain H(S). Then the feedback
signal b(s) is given by
The transfer function of a system is the mathematical model expressing the differential
equation that relates the output to input of the system.
The transfer function is the property of a system independent of magnitude and the nature of
the input .
The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual elements. But at the
same time, it does not provide any information regarding physical structure of the system
If the transfer function of the system is known, the output response can be studied for various
types of inputs to understand the nature of the system
It is applicable to Linear Time Invariant system.
It is assumed that initial conditions are zero.
It is independent of i/p excitation.
It is used to obtain systems o/p response.
If the transfer function is unknown, it may be found out experimentally by applying known
inputs to the device and studying the output of the system
For any control system to understand its performance the following properties are very important.
(i).Linearity: A system is said to be linear if it follows both the law of addtivity and law of
homogeneity. The system which does not follow the law of homogeneity and additively is called a
non-linear system.
If input x1(t) produces response y1(t) and input x2(t) produces response y2(t) then the scaled and
summed input a1x1(t) +b1x2(t) produces the scaled and summed response a1y1(t) +b1y2(t) where a1 and
a2 are real scalars. It follows that this can be extended to an arbitrary number of terms, and so for real
numbers.
(ii) Time Invariance : A system with input x(t) and output y(t) is time-invariant if x(t- t0) is creates
output y ( t – t0) for all inputs x and shifts t0.
(iii) Causality : A system is causal, if the output y(t) at time t is not a function of future inputs and it
depends only on the present and past inputs . All analog systems are causal and all memeoryless
systems are causal.
If the system is causal, then this implies h (t) = 0, t < 0. Alternatively, h[n] =0, n < 0.
(iv) Stability : A system is said to be a stable if for every bounded-input there exists a bounded output
For a open loop control system shown below the transfer function is the ratio of Laplace transform of
the out-put to the Laplace transform of the input.
R (t) C (t)
G (t)
The Laplace transformed Network is shown above. From the circuit we can write that
Vo(S )/ Vi (S ) = 1/ { [ R + 1/Cs ]} Cs
Vo(S )/ Vi (S ) = 1/ { [ 1 + RCs ]} = 1/ {
1+ τ s ]} Where τ = RC
A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous equations. It consists of a graph
in which nodes are connected by directed branches. The nodes represent each of the system variables.
A branch connected between two nodes acts as a one-way signal multiplier: the direction of signal
flow is indicated by an arrow placed on the branch, and the multiplication factor (transmittance or
transfer function) is indicated by a letter placed near the arrow.
So,in the figure above , the branch transmits the signal x1 from left to right and multiplies it by the
quantity a in the process. The quantity a is the transmittance, or transfer function.
Addition of the signals on all incoming branches and Transmission of the total node signal
(the sum of all incoming signals) to all outgoing
branches
There are three types of nodes .They are Source nodes , Sink nodes and Mixed nodes
Source nodes (independent nodes) : These represent independent variables and have only outgoing
branches. In Fig. 5.21, nodes u and v are source nodes.
Mixed nodes (general nodes): These have both incoming and outgoing branches. In Fig. (a), node w
is a mixed node. A mixed node may be treated as a sink node by adding an out going branch of unity
transmittance, as shown in Fig (b), for the equation x = au +bv
A path is any connected sequence of branches whose arrows are in the same direction and A
forward path between two nodes is one that follows the arrows of successive branches and in which a
node appears only once. In Fig.(a) the path uwx is a forward path between the nodes u and x.
Flow-Graph Algebra : The following rules are useful for simplifying a signal flow graph:
Series paths (cascade nodes). Series paths can be combined into a single path by multiplying the
transmittances as shown in Fig ( A ).
Parallel paths. Parallel paths can be combined by adding the transmittances as shown in Fig(B).
Node absorption. A node representing a variable other than a source or sink can be eliminated as
shown in Fig (C).
Feedback loop. Aclosed path that starts at a node and ends at the same node.
1 P1 1
P
k
Where, Pk is gain of k th forward path and Δ is determinant of graph. Here the Δ is given by
Δ = 1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two
non touching loops –sum of gain products of all possible combination of three non touching loops)
Δk is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching k th forward path. It is
obtained from Δ by removing the loops touching the path Pk.
Example1 : Obtain the transfer function of the system whose signal flow graph is shown below.
There are two forward paths: One is Gain of path 1: P1=G1 and the other is Gain of path 2: P2=G2
Δ = 1+G1G3-G1G4+G2G3-G2G4
Forward paths 1 and 2 touch all the loops. Therefore, Δ1= 1, Δ2= 1
System Stability:
The study of stability of a control system is very important to understand the performance . This
means that the system must be stable at all times during operation. Stability may be used to define the
usefulness of the system. Stability studies include absolute & relative stability. Absolute stability is
the quality of stable or unstable performance. Relative Stability is the quantitative study of stability.
(1) When all the roots of the characteristic equation lie in the left half of the S-plane, the system
response due to initial condition will decrease to zero at time Thus the system will be termed as a
stable system.
(2) When one or more roots lie on the imaginary axis & there are no roots on the RHS of
S-plane, the response will be oscillatory without damping. Such a system will be termed as critically
stable.
(3) When one or more roots lie on the RHS of S-plane, the response will exponentially increase
1.13 Outcomes
Standard test signals, Unit step response of the First and Second order Systems. Time
response specifications, steady state errors and error constants. Introduction to PI, PD and PID
controllers.
Structure:
DEPT. of ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU 27
Control Systems 10ES43
2.1 Objectives 28
2.2 Introduction 28
2.7 Outcomes 38
2.1 Objectives
Get an understanding of the standard test signals
Able to analyze the response of First and second order systems
Understand the different types of steady state errors
2.2 Introduction
Transient time response or Natural response describes the behavior of the system in its first short
time until arrives the steady state value. If the input is step function then the output or the
response is called step time response and if the input is ramp, the response is called ramp time
response .. etc.
(b)Transient Response
The transient response is defined as the part of the time response that goes to zero as time
becomes very large. Thus yt(t) has the property
Lim y(t) = 0
t -->∞
The time required to achieve the final value is called transient period. The transient response may
be exponential or oscillatory in nature. Output response consists of the sum of forced response
(form the input) and natural response (from the nature of the system).The transient response is
the change in output response from the beginning of the response to the final state of the
response and the steady state response is the output response as time is approaching infinity (or
no more changes at the output). The behavior of a system in transient state is shown below.
(c) Steady State Response: The steady state response is the part of the total response that
remains after the transient has died out. For a position control system, the steady state
response when compared to with the desired reference position gives an indication of the
final accuracy of the system. If the steady state response of the output does not agree with
the desired reference exactly, the system is said to have steady state error.
t --- > ∞
which is 63.2 percent of the steady value. This time, τ is known as the time constant of the
system. One of the important characteristics about the system is its speed of response or how
fast the response is approaching the final value. The time constant τ is indicative of this measure
and the speed of response is inversely proportional to the time constant of the system.Another
important characteristic of the system is the error between the desired value and the actual value
under steady state conditions. This quantity is known as the steady state error of the - system and
is denoted by ess.
As t ~ ∞ e (t) ~ 0 . Thus the output of the first order system approaches the reference input,
which is the desired output, without any error. In other words, we say a first order system tracks
the step input without any steady state error.
To study the response of a unit ramp let us consider a feedback system with G)s) = 1/τs as shown below
The time response is obtained by taking inverse Laplace transform of above equation
This is the response of the system to a step input. Thus no additional information about the
speed of response is obtained by considering a ramp input.So, no additional information about
the speed of response is obtained by considering a ramp input.
Thus the steady state error is equal to the time constant of the system. The first order system,
therefore, can not track the ramp input without a finite steady state error. If the time constant is
reduced not only the speed of response increases but also the steady state error for ramp input
decreases. Hence the ramp input is important to the extent that it produces a finite steady state
error.
The response of a first order system for unit ramp input is shown below.
Let us consider a type 1, second order system as shown in Fig. below. Since G(s) has one pole at
the origin, it is a type one system.
The transient response of any system depends on the poles of the transfer function T(s). The
roots of the denominator polynomial in s of T(s) are the poles of the transfer function. Thus the
denominator polynomial of T(s), given by
D(s) = τs2 + S + K
is known as the characteristic polynomial of the system and D(s) = 0 is known as the
characteristic equation of the system. The above Eqn. is normally put in standard from, given
by,
S2 + 2δ ωn s + ωn 2 = 0
Steady State Errors : One of the important design specifications for a control system is the
steady state error. The steady state output of any system should be as close to desired output as
possible. If it deviates from this desired output, the performance of the system is not satisfactory
under steady state conditions. The steady state error reflects the accuracy of the system. Among
many reasons for these errors, the most important ones are the type of input, the type of the
system and the nonlinearities present in the system. Since the actual input in a physical system is
often a random signal, the steady state errors are obtained for the standard test signals, namely,
step, ramp and parabolic signals.
Error Constants : Let us consider a feedback control system as shown below.
Applying final value theorem, we can get the steady state error ess as,
The above equation shows that the steady state error is a function of the input R(s) and the open
loop transfer function G(s). Let us consider various standard test signals and obtain the steady
state error for these inputs.
integral,and derivative. The integral and derivative components of the PID controller have
individual performance implications, and their applications require an understanding ofthe basics
of these elements. Hence a suitable combination of integral and derivative controls results in a
proportional, integral and derivate control, usually called PID control. The transfer function of
the PID controller is given by,
Proper choice of Kp, KD and Kr results in satisfactory transient and steadystate responses. The
process of choosing proper Kp, KD, at Kr for a given system is known as tuning of a P ID
controller.
2.7 Outcomes
Student will be able to analyze the different test signals and apply it to design the first order and
second order systems.
Understand the effect of different steady state errors as the type and order of the system changes
Able to understand the working of P, PI and PID controllers
MODULE – 3
Stability analysis: Concepts of stability, Necessary conditions for Stability, Routh stability
criterion, Relative stability analysis: more on the Routh stability criterion, Introduction to Root -
Locus Techniques, The root locus concepts, Construction of root loci.
Structure
3.1 Objective
3.2 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
Students should be able to make measurements of a system and determine the stability of
the system.
Students will know the Necessary conditions for Stability.
Students will know the Relative stability analysis.
Students will know the concepts of root locus and should be able to Construct root loci.
3.2 Introduction
Every System, for small amount of time has to pass through a transient period. Whether system
will reach its steady state after passing through transients or not. The answer to this question is
whether the system is stable or unstable. This is stability analysis.
For example, we want to go from one station to other. The station we want to reach is our
final steady state. The traveling period is the transient period. Now anything may happen during
the traveling period due to bad weather, road accident etc., there is a chance that we may not
reach the next station in time. The analysis of whether the given system can reach steady state
after passing through the transients successfully is called the stability analysis of the system.
Now consider a container which is pointed one, on which we try to keep a circular object. In this
object will fall down without any external application of force. Such system is called Unstable
system which is shown in Fig 3.2.
The stability of a linear closed loop system can be determined from the locations of closed loop
poles in the S-plane.
If the closed loop poles are located in left half of s-plane, Output response contains exponential
terms with negative indices will approach zero & output will be the steady state output.
i.e
Transient output = 0
Such systems are called absolutely stable systems.
Now let us have a system with one closed loop pole located in right half of s- plane
From the above table, it is clear that output response instead of approaching to steady
state value as t -> ∞ due to exponential term with positive index, transients go on increasing in
amplitude.
So such system is said to be unstable. In such system output is uncontrollable &
unbounded one. Output response of such system is as shown in fig 3.4.
For such unstable systems, if input is removed output may not return to zero. And if the input
power is turned on, output tends to ∞. If no saturation takes place in system & no mechanical
stop is provided then system may get damaged.
If all the closed loop poles or roots of the characteristic equation lie in left of s-plane,
then in the output response contains steady state terms & transient terms. Such transient terms
approach to zero as time advances eventually output reaches to equilibrium & attains steady state
value. Transient terms in such system may give oscillation but the amplitude of such oscillation
will be decreasing with time & finally will vanish. So output response of such system is shown in
fig 3.5 (a) & (b).
Unstable system:
A linear time invariant system is said to be unstable if,
1. For a bounded input it produces unbounded output.
2. In the absence of input, output may not be returning to zero. It shows certain output without
input.
Besides these two cases, if one or more pairs simple non repeated roots are located on the
imaginary axis of the s-plane, but there are no roots in the right half of s-plane, the output
response will be undamped sinusoidal oscillations of constant frequency & amplitude. Such
systems are said to be critically or marginally stable systems.
A linear time invariant system is said to be critically or marginally stable if for a bounded input
its output oscillates with constant frequency & Amplitude. Such oscillation of output is called
Undamped or Sustained oscillations.
For such system one or more pairs of non-repeated roots are located on the imaginary axis as
shown in fig 3.6(a). Output response of such systems is as shown in fig 3.6(b).
Fig 3.6(a) & (b): Location of one or more non repeated roots on imaginary axis and the output
response
If there are repeated poles located purely on imaginary axis system is said to be unstable which is
as shown in the figure 3.7 (a) & (b).
Fig 3.7 (a) & (b): Location of repeated roots purely on imaginary axis and the output response
Conditionally Stable:
A linear time invariant system is said to be conditionally stable, if for a certain condition if a
particular parameter of the system, its output is bounded one. Otherwise if that condition is
violated output becomes unbounded system becomes unstable. i.e. Stability of the system
depends the on condition of the parameter of the system. Such system is called conditionally
stable system.
S-plane can be divided into three zones from stability point of view which is as shown in the
below fig 3.8.
Fig 3.8: S-plane divided into three zones from stability point of view
Relative Stability:
The system is said to be relatively more stable or unstable on the basis of settling time. System is
said to be more stable if settling time for that system is less than that of other system. The
settling time of the root or pair of complex conjugate roots is inversely proportional to the real
part of the roots. So far the roots located near the J axis, settling time will be large. As the roots
move away from J axis i.e towards left half of the s-plane settling time becomes lesser or smaller
& system becomes more & more stable. So the relative stability improves.
Fig 3.9: Location of roots on left side of RH Plane and the output response
This represents a method of determining the location of poles of a characteristics equation with
the respect to the left half & right half of the s-plane without actually solving the equation.
The T.F. of any linear closed loop system can be represented as,
Thus the roots of the characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system which decide
the stability of the system.
The order is n*n where n = order of characteristic equation. In Hurwitz determinant, all
coefficients with suffices greater than ‘n’ or negative suffices must all be replaced by zeros.
From Hurwitz determinant subdeterminants, Dk, k = 1,2,3,. . .n must be formed as follows:
Coefficients of first two rows are written directly from characteristics equation.
From these two rows next rows can be obtained as follows.
This process is to be continued till the coefficient for s0 is obtained which will be an. From this
array stability of system can be predicted.
Z5 + 2Z4+ 6Z3+3Z2+2Z+ 1 = 0
2. A pair of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig. 3.10(b).
3. The non-repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig. 3.10 (c).
5. By using the criterion, critical value of system gain can be determined hence frequency of
sustained oscillations can be determined.
6. It helps in finding out range of values of K for system stability.
7. It helps in finding out intersection points of roots locus with imaginary axis.
Ex. S6 + 4S5 +3S4- 16S2- 64S -48 = 0 Find the number of roots of this equation with positive
real part, zero real part & negative real part
Therefore One sign change & system is unstable. Thus there is one root in R.H.S of the s plane
i.e. with positive real part. Now solve A(s) = 0 for the dominant roots
A(s) = 3s4 -48 =0
Put S2 = Y
3Y2 = 48
Y2 =16,
Y= 16 = 4
So S = 2j are the two parts on imaginary axis i.e. with zero real part. Root in R.H.S. indicated
by a sign change is S = 2 as obtained by solving A(s) = 0. Total there are 6 roots as n = 6.
makes row of s0 as row of zeros but K = 0 cannot be marginal value because for K = 0, constant
term in characteristic equation becomes zeros ie one coefficient for s0 vanishes which makes
system unstable instead of marginally stable.
Trancating the series & considering only first two terms we get
esT = 1 sT
s2 + s + 1 sT = 0
s2 + s (1- T) + 1 = 0
So Routh’s array is
Two sign change, there are two roots to the right of s = -2 & remaining ‘2’ are to the left
of the line s = -2. Hence the system is unstable.
Recommended Questions:
1. Explain briefly how system depends on poles and zeros.
2. Mention the necessary condition to have all closed loop poles in LHS of S-Plane
3. Explain briefly the hurwitz’s Criterion.
4. Explain briefly the Routh’s Stability Criterion.
5. Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method
s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0
6. Examine the stability of given equation using Routh’s method
s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0
7. Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback system whose open loop
transfer function is
Where, K and a are constants. The open loop transfer function has two poles one at origin s = 0
and the other at s = -a. The closed loop transfer function of the system shown in Fig.3.11 is
The characteristic equation for the closed loop system is obtained by setting the denominator of
the right hand side of Eqn.(2) equal to zero. That is,
The second order system under consideration is always stable for positive values of a and K but
its dynamic behaviour is controlled by the roots of Eqn.(3) and hence, in turn by the magnitudes
of a and K, since the roots are given by
From Eqn.(4), it is seen that as the system parameters a or K varies, the roots change. Consider a
to be constant and gain K to be variable. As K is varied from zero to infinity, the two roots s1 and
s2 describe loci in the s-plane. Root locations for various ranges of K are:
1) K= 0, the two roots are real and coincide with open loop poles of the system s1 =
0, s2 = -a.
2) 0 K < a2/4, the roots are real and distinct.
3) K= a2/4, roots are real and equal.
4) a2/4 < K < , the rots are complex conjugates
Where, (s) is the determinant of the signal flow graph of the system given by Eqn.(5).
Where, Pmr is gain product of mth possible combination of r non touching loops of the graph.
The characteristic equation can be written in the form.
Where, G(s) H(s) is open loop transfer function in block diagram terminology or transmittance in
signal flow graph terminology.
Since, s is a complex variable, Eqn.(9) can be converted into the two Evans conditions given
below.
Roots of 1+P(s) = 0 are those values of s at which the magnitude and angle condition given by
Eqn.(10) and Eqn.(11). A plot of points in the complex plane satisfying the angle criterion is the
root locus. The value of gain corresponding to a root can be determined from the magnitude
criterion.
To make the root locus sketching certain rules have been developed which helps in visualizing
the effects of variation of system gain K ( K > 0 corresponds to the negative feedback and K < 0
corresponds to positive feedback control system) and the effects of shifting pole-zero locations
and adding in a new set of poles and zeros.
2) As K increases from zero to infinity, each branch of the root locus originates from an open
loop pole (n nos.) with K= 0 and terminates either on an open loop zero (m nos.) with K =
along the asymptotes or on infinity (zero at ). The number of branches
terminating on infinity is equal to (n- m).
3) Determine the root locus on the real axis. Root loci on the real axis are determined by open
loop poles and zeros lying on it. In constructing the root loci on the real axis choose a test point
on it. If the total number of real poles and real zeros to the right of this point is odd, then the
point lies on root locus. The complex conjugate poles and zeros of the open loop transfer
function have no effect on the location of the root loci on the real axis.
4) Determine the asymptotes of root loci. The root loci for very large values of s must be
asymptotic to straight lines whose angles are given by
6) Find breakaway and breakin points. The breakaway and breakin points either lie on the real
axis or occur in complex conjugate pairs. On real axis, breakaway points exist between two
adjacent poles and breakin points exist between two adjacent zeros. To calculate these
polynomial ds/dK =0 must be solved. The resulting roots are the breakaway / breakin points. The
characteristic equation given by Eqn.(7), can be rearranged as
Note that the breakaway points and breakin points must be the roots of Eqn.(15), but not all roots
of Eqn.(15) are breakaway or breakin points. If the root is not on the root locus portion of the
real axis, then this root neither corresponds to breakaway or breakin point. If the roots of
Eqn.(15) are complex conjugate pair, to ascertain that they lie on root loci, check the
corresponding K value. If K is positive, then root is a breakaway or breakin point.
7) Determine the angle of departure of the root locus from a complex pole
Angle of departure from a complex p =180o
- (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other zeros) (16)
10) The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using the
magnitude condition, or
Problem No 1
Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer function
Is G(s) = k/s
Solution:
1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.
2) There are no open loop zeros (m = 0). Open loop pole is at s = 0 (n = 1). One branch of root
locus starts from the open loop pole when K = 0 and goes to asymptotically when K .
3) Root locus lies on the entire negative real axis as there is one pole towards right of any point
on the negative real axis.
4) The asymptote angle is
Angle of asymptote is
6) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate the break points.
7) The root locus departs at an angle of -180 from the open loop pole at s = 0.
8) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis cross over.
The root locus plot is shown in Fig.3.14
Problem No 2
The open loop transfer function is given below. Sketch the root locus plot
Solution:
1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.
2) There is one open loop zero at s=-2.0(m=1). There are two open loop poles at
s=-1, -1(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop pole when
K= 0. One branch goes to open loop zero at s =-2.0 when K -> and other goes to (open loop
zero ) asymptotically when K .
3) Root locus lies on negative real axis for s -2.0 as the number of open loop poles plus
number of open loop zeros to the right of s=-0.2 are odd in number.
4) The asymptote angle is
Angle of asymptote is
The root loci brakesout at the open loop poles at s=-1, when K =0 and breaks in onto the real axis
at s=-3, when K=4. One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-2 and other goes to along the
asymptotically.
7) The branches of the root locus at s=-1, -1 break at K=0 and are tangential to a line s= - 1+j0
hence depart at 90.
8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at 180.
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no need to find the imaginary
axis cross over. The root locus plot is shown in Fig.3.15.
Problem No 3
The open loop transfer function is given below. Sketch the root locus.
Solution:
1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.
2) There are one open loop zero at s=-4(m=1). There are two open loop poles at s=0, -2(n=2).
Two branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0. One branch goes to open
loop zero when K and other goes to infinity asymptotically when
7) Angle of departure from open loop pole at s =0 is 180o. Angle of departure from pole at s=-2.0
is 0 .
8) The angle of arrival at open loop zero at s=-4 is 180o.
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary cross over.
The root locus plot is shown in fig.3.16
Comments on stability:
System is stable for all values of K.
Problem No 4
The open loop transfer function is given below. Sketch the root locus.
Solution:
1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.
2) There is one open loop zero at s = -0.2(m=1). There are three open loop poles at
s = 0, 0, -3.6(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles when K= 0
and one branch goes to open loop zero at s = -0.2 when and other two go to
asymptotically when .
3) Root locus lies on negative real axis between -3.6 to -0.2 as the number of open loop
poles plus open zeros to the right of any point on the real axis in this range is odd.
6) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0.
The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = 0, when K =0 and breakin onto the real axis
at s=-0.432, when K=2.55 One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-0.2 and other goes breaksout
with the another locus starting from open loop ploe at s= -3.6. The break point is at s=-1.67 with
K=3.66. The loci go to infinity in the complex plane with constant real part s= -1.67.
7) The branches of the root locus at s=0, 0 break at K=0 and are tangential to imaginary axis or
depart at 90. The locus departs from open loop pole at s=-3.6 at 0.
8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at s=-0.2 at 180 .
9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no imaginary axis cross over.
The root locus plot is shown in Fig.3.17.
Recommended Questions:
1. Give the general rules for constructing root locus.
2. Define Phase margin and Gain margin of root locus.
3. Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer
function is G(s) =K/s.
4. The open loop transfer function is given below. Sketch the root locus plot.
5. The open loop transfer function is given below. Sketch the root locus.
6. The open loop transfer function is given below. Sketch the root locus.
7. The open loop transfer function is given below. Sketch the root Locus
MODULE 4
The transfer function G(jω) can be written as G(jω) = G(jω)∟Ф( ω) Where Ф( ω) is the angle
G(jω) .
Since G(jω) consists of many multiplicative factors in the numerator and denominator it is
convenient to take logarithm of G(jω) to convert these factors into additions and subtractions,
which can be carried out easily.
(i) for angular frequencies below ωc it is a horizontal line at 0 dB since at low frequencies the
term ω / ωc is small and can be neglected, making the decibel gain equation above equal to
zero,
(ii) for angular frequencies above ωc it is a line with a slope of −20 dB per decade since at
high frequencies the term ω / ωc dominates and the decibel gain expression above simplifies to
-20 log (ω / ωc ) which is a straight line with a slope of −20 dB per decade.
These two lines meet at the corner frequency. From the Bode plot, it can be seen that for
frequencies well below the corner frequency, the circuit has an attenuation of 0 dB,
corresponding to a unity pass band gain, i.e. the amplitude of the filter output equals the
amplitude of the input. Frequencies above the corner frequency are attenuated – the higher the
frequency, the higher the attenuation.
The main advantage of using the Bode plots is that multiplication of magnitudes can be
converted into addition. Also a simple method of plotting an approximate log-magnitude curve is
obtained. It is based on asymptotic approximations. Such approximation by straight line
asymptotes is sufficient if only rough information on the frequency response characteristics is
needed. The phase angle curves can be drawn easily if a template for the phase angle curve of
1+jω is available. Expanding the low frequency range ,by use of a logarithmic scale for the
frequency is very advantageous ,since characteristics at low frequencies are most important in
practical systems. The only limitation is ,it is not possible to draw the curve ,right down to zero
frequency because of the logarithmic frequency (log 0 = ∞) .But this do not give any serious
problem.
polar sheet +ve phase angle is measured in ACW from 00 and -ve phase angle is measured in
CW from 00 .
To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to infinity, there
are four key points that usually need to be known:
Procedure: The following steps are involved in the plotting of Polar graphs
If the gain is high, the GM is low and the system’s step response shows high overshoots
and long settling time.
On the contrary, very low gains give high GM and PM, but also causes higher ess(Error),
higher values of rise time and settling time and in general give sluggish response.
Thus we should keep the gain as high as possible to reduce ess and obtain acceptable
response speed and yet maintain adequate GM and PM.
If the gain of the system is increased by a factor 1/β, then the G(j)H(j) at ω=ωpc becomes
β(1/β) = 1 and hence the │G(j)H(j)│ locus pass through -1+j0 point driving the system to
the verge of instability
Let ‘A’ be the point of intersection of │G(j)H(j)│ plot and a unit circle centered at the
origin.
Draw a line connecting the points ‘O’ & ‘A’ and measure the phase angle between the
line OA and +ve real axis. This angle is the phase angle of the system at the gain cross
over frequency. ﮮG(jωgc)H(jgc) = Фgc
If an additional phase lag of PM is introduced at this frequency, then the phase angle
G(jωgc)H(jωgc) will become 180 and the point ‘A‘ coincides with (-1+j0) driving the
system to the verge of instability.
This additional phase lag is known as the Phase Margin.
A polar plot may be constructed from experimental data or from a system transfer
function
If values of ω are marked along the contour, a polar plot gives the same information as a
Bode plot
Usually, the shape of a polar plot is very important as it gives much information about the
system.
A system is considered marginally stable if only certain bounded inputs will result in a bounded
output. In practical systems, it is not sufficient to know that the system is stable but a stable
system must meet the specifications of relative stability which is a quantitative measure of how
fast the transients die out in the system.
Relative stability of a system is usually defined in terms of two design parameters-phase margin
and gain margin.The relative stability of a system can be defined as the property that is measured
by the relative real part of each root or pair of roots. The relative stability of a system can also be
defined in terms of the relative damping coefficients of each complex root pair and, therefore, in
terms of the speed of response and overshoot instead of settling time.
Variable frequency, sinusoidal signal generators are readily available and precision
measuring instruments are available for measurement of magnitude and phase angle. The
time response for a step input is more difficult to measure with accuracy.
It is easier to obtain the transfer function of a system by a simple frequency domain
test.Obtaining transfer function from the step response is more tedious.
If the system has large time constants, it makes more time to reach steady state at each
frequency of the sinusoidal input. Hence time domain method is preferred over frequency
domain method in such systems.
In order to do a frequency response test on a system, the system has to be isolated and the
sinusoidal signal has to be applied to the system. This may not be possible in systems
which can not be interrupted. In such cases, a step signal or an impulse signal may be
given to the system to find its transfer function. Hence for systems which cannot be
interrupted, time domain method is more suitable.
The design of a controller is easily done in the frequency domain method than in time
domain method. For a given set of performance measures in frequency domain , the
parameters of the open loop transfer function can be adjusted easily.
The effect of noise signals can be assessed easily in frequency domain rather than time
domain.
The most important advantage of frequency domain analysis is the ability to obtain the
relative stability of feedback control systems. The Routh Hurwitz criterion is essentially
a time do main method which determines the absolute stability of a system.
Since the time response and frequency response of a system are related through Fourier
transform , the time response can be easily obtained from the frequency response. The
correlation between time and frequency response can be easily established so that the
time domain performance measures can be obtained from the frequency domain
specifications and vice versa.
To study the frequency response of a control system let us consider second order system with the
transfer function,
The steady state sinusoidal response is obtained by substituting s = j ω in the above equation
Normalizing the frequency ω, with respect to the natural frequency ωn by defining a variable
We have,
From the above equation the magnitude and angle of the frequency response is obtained as,
and
The time response for a unit sinusoidal input with frequency OJ is given by,
The magnitude and phase of steadystate sinusoidal response for variable frequency can be
plotted and are shown in the Fig. (a) and (b).
A stability test for time invariant linear systems can also be derived in the frequency domain. It is
known as Nyquist stability criterion. It is based on the complex analysis result known as
Cauchy’s principle of argument.
The Nyquist stability criterion relates the location of the roots of the characteristic equation to
the open-loop frequency response of the system. In this, the computation of closed-loop poles is
not necessary to determine the stability of the system and the stability study can be carried out
graphically from the open-loop frequency response. Therefore experimentally determined open-
loop frequency response can be used directly for the study of stability. When the feedback path is
closed. The Nyquist criterion provides the information on absolute and relative stability of the
system.
Let us suppose that the system transfer function is a complex function. By applying Cauchy’s
principle of argument to the open-loop system transfer function, we will get information about
stability of the closed-loop system transfer function and arrive at the Nyquist stability criterion
The importance of Nyquist stability lies in the fact that it can also be used to determine the
relative degree of system stability by producing the so-called phase and gain stability margins.
These stability margins are needed for frequency domain controller design techniques
The Nyquist criterion states that the number of unstable closed-loop poles is equal to the
number of unstable open-loop poles plus the number of encirclements of the origin of the
Nyquist plot of the complex function D(s).
There are three important types of compensators.(i) Lead Compensator (ii) Lag compensator and
(iii) Lag-Lead compensator.
In a network ,when a sinusoidal input signal ei is applied at its input and if the steady state
output eo has a phase lead then the network is called a lead network. Similarly In the network for
a sinusoidal input ei ,if the steady state output has a phase lag ,then the network is called a lag
network.
Similarly in a network for a sinusoidal input .if the steady state out put has both phase lag and
lead ,but different frequency regions ,then the network is called lag-lead network. Generally the
phase lag occurs at low frequency regions and the phase lead occurs at higher frequency region.
A compensator having the characteristics of a lead network , lag network or lead-lag network is
called a lead compensator ,lag compensator or lag-lead compensator.
The lead compensators, lag compensators and lag-lead compensators are be designed either
using electronic components like operational amplifiers or using Root Locus methods. The first
type are called electronic lag compensators .The second type are Root locus compensators. The
Root locus compensators are have many advantages over electronic type.
Lead compensation basically speeds up the response of the control system and increase the
stability of the system. Lag compensation improves the steady –state accuracy of the system but
reduces the speed of the response. If improvements in both transient response and steady state
response is required ,both lead compensator and lag compensator are used simultaneously .In
general using a single lag-lead compensator is always economical.
Lag-lead compensation combines the advantage of lag and lead compensation. Since, the lag –
lead compensator possesses two poles and two zeros ,such a compensation increases the order of
the system by 2 ,unless the cancellation of the poles and zeros occurs in the compensated system.
Subsisting
Transfer function s
Then
MODULE 5
STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS
Analysis and the design of feedback control systems by the classical design methods (root locus
and frequency domain methods) based on the transfer function approach are inadequate and not
convenient. So, the development of the state-variable approach, took place .This methos has
the following advantages over the classical approach.
1. It is a direct time-domain approach. Thus, this approach is suitable for digital computer
computations
2. It is a very powerful technique for the design and analysis of linear or nonlinear, time-variant
or time-invariant, and SISO or MIMO systems.
3. In this technique, the nth order differential equations can be expressed as ‘n’ equations of first
order. Thus, making the solutions easier.
4. Using this approach, the system can be designed for optimal conditions with respect to given
performance indices.
5.1 Definitions:
State : The state of a dynamical system is a minimal set of variables x1(t), x2(t)x3(t) …xn(t)
such that the knowledge of these variables at t = t0 (initial condition), together with the
Knowledge of inputs u1(t), u2(t), u3(t)… um (t) for t ≥0, completely determines the behavior of
the system for t < t0.
State-Variables :
The variables x1(t),x2(t),x3(t)… xm(t) such that the knowledge of these variables at t = t0 (initial
condition), together with the knowledge of inputs u1(t), u2(t), u3(t)… um(t) for t ≥ t0, completely
determines the behavior of the system for t < t0 ; are called state-variables. In other words, the
variables that determine the state of a dynamical system, are called state-variables.
State-Vector :
If n state variables x1(t), x2(t), x3(t)… xn(t) are necessary to determine the behavior of a
dynamical system, then these n state-variables can be considered as n components of a vector
x(t), called state-vector.
State-Space : The n dimensional space, whose elements are the n state-variables, is called state-
space. Any state can be represented by a point in the state-space.
……(5.1)
Integrating equation 5.1 , we get
Where I = 1,2,3……..n
Thus, the n state-variables and, the state of the system can uniquely be determined at any t < tn,
provided each state-variable is known at t = tn and all the m control forces are known throughout
the interval t 0 to t.
The n differential equations of 1 may be written in vector form as
………… (5.2)
Equation 5. 2 is the state equation for time-invariant systems. However, for time-varying
systems, the function vector f(.) is dependent on time as well, and the vector equation may be
given as ……………….(5.3)
Equation (5.3) is the state equation for time-varying systems.
The output y(t) can, in general, be expressed in terms of the state vector x(t) and input vector u(t)
as ,
For time-invariant systems :
------------------------ -----(5.4)
(5.6)
(5.7)
Where
So , we have ………..(5.8)
Take the Laplace Transform on both sides
…………… (5.9)
This equation (3) gives the solution of the LTI homogeneous state Equation. It can be observed
that the initial state x(0) at t = 0, is driven to a state x(t) at time t. This transition in state is carried
out by the matrix exponential eAt. Because of this property, eAt is termed as the State Transition
Matrix and is denoted by ø(t).
We want to solve for the ratio of Y(s) to U(s), which gives the transfer function.So, we need to
remove Q(s) from the output equation. We solve the state equation for Q(s)
The matrix Φ(s) is called the state transition matrix. Now , put this into the output equation
This is the method of determining the transfer function from state variable analysis (SVA).