High-performance concrete
durability affected by many factors
How structure, concrete properties, and performance are linked
By P. Kumar Mehta
hat are the desirable properties
W for concrete? Robert Philleo be-
lieved that most people would say, “I
want strength and durability with a
minimum of volume change” (Ref. 1).
Those are the same properties required
of high-performance concrete (HPC).
We also might add impermeability, the
first line of defense against deteriora-
tion due to numerous physical and
chemical attacks.
Each property is affected by the
structure and properties of concrete
components and their relation-
ship to each other. Three com-
ponents of concrete
structure— hydrated cement
paste, aggregate, and the tran-
sition zone between them—
are involved. All are impor-
tant, but the transition zone is
particularly significant with re-
spect to high performance.
Transition zone effects
The transition zone is a thin
shell of hydrated cement paste
that surrounds large aggregate
particles. Typically no more
than 10 to 50 micrometers
thick, the transition zone is gen-
erally weaker than either the
hydrated cement paste or ag-
gregate. Because of this it has a
far greater influence on the me-
chanical behavior of concrete
than its size would indicate.
Although composed of the
same elements as the hydrated
cement paste, the transition
zone has different properties Figure 1. Influence of water-cement ratio and degree of
because of the way it devel- hydration on strength and permeability.
ops. In freshly compacted concrete,
water films form around the large ag-
gregate particles. Because of the high
water-cement ratio in this region,
crystalline hydration products (espe-
cially calcium hydroxide and ettrin-
gite) consist of relatively larger crys-
tals. The larger crystals form a more
porous framework than in the bulk
cement paste or mortar matrix. As
hydration proceeds, poorly crystalline
calcium silicate hydrate and a second
generation of smaller crystals of et-
tringite and calcium hydroxide start
filling empty spaces in the porous
framework. This helps increase den-
sity and strength (Ref. 2).
The transition zone is usually the
weakest link in the concrete structure.
It’s the strength-limiting phase and
greatly influences stiffness. It also
greatly influences durability. Microc-
racks and a higher water-cement ratio
in the transition zone increase perme-
ability. That’s why the permeability of
concrete containing even a very dense
aggregate is much higher than
the permeability of the corre-
sponding cement paste (Ref.
3).
Causes of durability
problems
A material with a long ser-
vice life is considered highly
durable. But a material per-
forming well under one set of
conditions may not last long
under another set of condi-
tions. Because of this, durabil-
ity has to be defined with ref-
erence to the loading and
environmental conditions.
Obviously, overloading, sus-
tained or repeated cycles of
loading beyond the elastic
limit, exposure to aggressive
chemicals, exposure to tem-
perature extremes, or repeated
cycles of heating and cooling,
or of freezing and thawing,
can shorten the service life of
a concrete structure.
Experience shows that, in
order of decreasing impor-
tance, the primary causes of deteriora-
tion are:
• Corrosion of steel in concrete
• Freezing and thawing cycles
• Chemical attack (for example, sul-
fate attack, acid attack, and alkali at-
tack on aggregate)
All these causes of deterioration are
related to the presence of water inside
concrete. Cement paste porosity and
micro-cracking in service determine
the ease with which water penetrates
concrete. This in turn affects the de-
gree of saturation. The fundamental
underlying principle in designing for
concrete durability is that water either
directly or indirectly contributes to
distress. Based on this principle, mate-
rials, mix proportions, and construc-
tion practices for HPC must be chosen
to minimize the amount of water in the
concrete.
Materials for durable HPC
To be practical, it’s essential to
make HPC with relatively low-cost
materials and with methods commonly
used in construction practice today.
Cement. Any commercial cement
meeting ASTM Standard Specification
C 150 for Type I portland cement
should be satisfactory if its stiffening,
setting, and hardening characteristics
are normal when used with a variety
of admixtures. When a faster curing
rate is desired, ASTM Type III port-
land cement may be considered.
Some combinations of high-tricalci-
um-aluminate portland cements and
superplasticizers lose slump rapidly.
This rapid slump loss is aggravated by
the presence of high alkali and high
sulfate contents in the cement paste.
ASTM Type II portland cement,
ground to a fineness higher than nor-
mal, is well suited for making HPC
and may help avoid slump loss.
Portland-pozzolan and portland-slag
cements also should be considered for
HPC. They have a lower heat of hy-
dration and other benefits produced by
using a pozzolan. The same effects are
achievable by using a high-quality
pozzolan or slag as a mineral admix-
ture.
Aggregates. Aggregate selection
is very important in producing HPC.
Use only a well-graded combination
of fine and coarse aggregates. Ag-
gregate grading affects the packing
density of concrete, and experiments
show that the packing density has a
major effect on workability of fresh
concrete and porosity, permeability,
and strength of hardened concrete.
The size, shape, texture, and miner-
alogy of aggregate also significantly
affect the microstructure and proper-
ties of hydrated cement paste in the
transition zone. Equi-dimensional par-
ticles are desirable and can be ob-
tained by crushing either dense lime-
stones or igneous rocks of plutonic
type. Gravel from glacial deposits also
is a suitable coarse aggregate. A
nominal maximum size of 1⁄ 2 or 3⁄4 inch
is most commonly used.
Natural quartzitic sands of relative-
ly coarse size (fineness modulus of
about 3.0), free from silt and clay,
should be used as fine aggregate.
When selecting aggregate, consider
compatibility between the cement
paste and aggregate, especially with
regard to the coefficients of thermal
expansion and the elastic modulus.
Ideally, the aggregate and hydrated ce-
ment paste coefficients of thermal ex-
pansion and elastic moduli should be
the same. A mismatch is probably a
primary cause of microcracking,
which increases the permeability and
reduces the durability of concrete.
Admixtures. Reducing water con-
tent while maintaining high workability
is of foremost importance. A superplas-
ticizer can produce highly workable
concrete with a 25% to 30% water re-
duction and without excessive retarda-
tion or segregation.
Adding mineral admixtures, such
as fly ash, condensed silica fume,
and finely ground blast furnace slag,
improves the cohesiveness and sta-
bility of fresh concrete, thus reducing
bleeding and segregation. Bleeding
and segregation are the primary caus-
es of microstructural defects such as
l a rge voids and large crystals of cal-
cium hydroxide and ettringite in the
transition zone. These are potential
sites for microcracking under stress.
Air-entraining admixtures are rec-
ommended for use when concrete will
be exposed to freezing and thawing
cycles. When several admixture types
are to be used in HPC, conduct labora-
tory tests to ensure their compatibility
with each other as well as with the ce-
ment. Superplasticizers, for instance,
generally tend to reduce air content
and increase bubble spacing in the ce-
ment paste. However, experimental
data show that low water-cement-ratio
pastes with superplasticizers don’t re-
quire air contents or void spacings
normally needed for protection against
freeze-thaw cycles.
Effect of mix proportions
Concrete mix proportions also
greatly influence durability. At a given
degree of cement hydration, a higher
water-cement-ratio paste has a higher
capillary porosity and thus a higher
permeability. For instance, Figure 1b
shows that with a water-cement ratio
of about 0.35, assuming 50% cement
hydration (typical for normal curing),
the volume fraction of capillary pores
in the cement paste is 0.3. This corre-
sponds to a limiting value of 0.7 for
the solid-space ratio, above which ce-
ment paste coefficient of permeability
increases very markedly.
Decreasing the water-cement ratio
below 0.3 produces a dramatic in-
crease in strength and reduction in
the coefficient of permeability of
concrete. This is due to major
changes in the characteristics of the
transition zone.
Durability improves when less water
is used in the concrete. But workability
may be a problem. For most concretes,
especially those containing finely
ground cements and fine mineral ad-
mixtures such as silica fume, it isn’t
possible to achieve high workability at
water-cement ratios lower than 0.35 un-
less a superplasticizer is used.
Concrete durability also requires di-
mensional stability. Dimensional sta-
bility requires a minimum aggregate
content of 65% by volume of the con-
crete (Ref. 4). Using this assumption,
the authors developed a step-by-step
proportioning procedure similar to the
American Concrete Institute (ACI)
recommended procedure for concrete
mix proportioning. The procedure can
be used to calculate the proportion of
materials for the first trial batch when
more than 9000 psi compressive
strength, high slump (8 to 10 inches),
very low coefficient of permeability
(less than 10 to 14 meters per second),
and adequate dimensional stability are
desired. The procedure provides for a
partial cement replacement (25% by
volume) by mineral admixtures; either
a high quality fly ash or ground blast
furnace slag or a mixture of 10% silica
fume and 15% fly ash may be used.
Production and construction
Durability of HPC greatly depends
on the degree of microcracking caused
by a combination of loading and
weathering conditions (for example,
cycles of heating-cooling, wetting-
drying, and freezing-thawing). Thus,
microstructural defects in a concrete
must be reduced as much as possible.
Because these defects may originate
during mixing, placing, or curing, con-
crete production and construction
practices determine the performance
of the product as much as the selection
of proper materials and mix propor-
tioning. Factors such as the sequence
of batching, the thoroughness of mix-
ing, the transport and placement with-
out segregation, the degree of consoli-
dation, and adequate curing all play a
part. The ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice contains detailed recommen-
dations for making high quality con-
crete for normal applications. When
producing and placing HPC, it is even
more important to follow the standard
recommended practices.
Proper finishing and curing prac-
tices are essential to obtaining an im-
permeable surface skin, the first line
of defense against corrosive environ-
ments. With low water-cement-ratio
concretes, external moist curing is the
best way to seal in enough mixing wa-
ter for cement hydration. If moist
cured for 7 days, concrete with a high
cement content and a low water con-
tent generally becomes watertight
enough to prevent a significant rate of
water loss by evaporation.
No longer unique
The durability problems of existing
concrete infrastructures (Ref. 5) and
the increasing use of concrete in hos-
tile environments—such as seawater
and industrial effluent exposure—are
making new demands on the material.
PUBLICATION #C920367
Copyright © 1992, The Aberdeen Group
All rights reserved
Because of this, HPC is likely to be
the construction industry workhorse in
the 21st century.
References
1. R. E. Philleo, “Concrete Science
and Reality,” Materials Science of
Concrete II, eds.: J. Skalny and S.
Mindess, American Ceramic Society,
1991, pp. 1-8.
2. F. Maso, Proceedings of the Sev-
enth International Conference on the
Chemistry of Cements, Paris, 1980,
Vol. 1, Edition Septima.
3. P. K. Mehta, Concrete: Structure,
Properties, and Materials, Prentice
Hall, 1986, pp. 36-40.
4. P. K. Mehta and P. C. Aitcin, “Princi-
ples Underlying the Production of
High-Performance Concrete,” ASTM
Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates,
1990, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 70-78.
5. Concrete Durability: A Multibillion-
Dollar Opportunity, Committee on
Concrete Durability, National Research
Council, 1987.
P. Kumar Mehta is a professor of civil
engineering at University of Califor-
nia, Berkeley. He has spent more than
35 years teaching and doing research
on cement and concrete.