Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
( Basic Course )
Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
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Size Scale for Studying Fatigue
Atoms Dislocations Crystals Specimens Structures
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The Fatigue Process
Crack nucleation
Small crack growth in an elastic-plastic
stress field
Macroscopic crack growth in a nominally
elastic stress field
Final fracture
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Mechanisms Crack Nucleation
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1903 - Ewing and Humfrey
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Slip Band in Copper
Polak, J. Cyclic Plasticity and Low Cycle Fatigue Life of Metals, Elsevier, 1991
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Slip Band Formation
Extrusion
Undeformed
material
Intrusion
Loading Unloading
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Slip Bands
Ma, B-T and Laird C. “Overview of fatigue behavior in copper sinle crystals –II Population, size, distribution and growth
Kinetics of stage I cracks for tests at constant strain amplitude”, Acta Metallurgica, Vol 37, 1989, 337-348
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2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands
N = 60 N = 240 N = 300
N = 1200 N = 2000
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Crack at Particle
S. Pearson, “Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation
of Very Short Cracks,” RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
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2219-T851 Cracked Particle
10μ
m
James & Morris, ASTM STP 811 Fatigue Mechanisms: Advances in Quantitative Measurement of Physical
Damage, pp. 46-70, 1983.
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Crack at Bonded Particle
S. Pearson, “Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation
of Very Short Cracks,” RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
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7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion
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Crack Initiation at Inclusions
Langford and Kusenberger, “Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in 4340 Steel”, Metallurgical Transactions, Vol 4, 1977, 553-559
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Subsurface Crack Initiation
Y. Murakami, Metal Fatigue: Effects of Small Defects and Nonmetallic Inclusions, 2002
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Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation
1250 0.6
Fatigue Strength, MPa
1000 0.5
750 0.35
500
250
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Surface Damage
10 µm 100 µm
free
surface
Stage I Stage II
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Stage I Crack Growth
S
S
Stage I crack is strongly affected by slip
individual grain
characteristics, microstructure
near - tip plastic zone
dimensions, stress level, extent of near
tip plasticity
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Small Cracks at Notches
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Small Crack Growth
Inconel 718
Δε = 0.02
Nf = 936
1.0 mm
N = 900
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Crack Length Observations
2.5
F-495 H-491
G-304
1.5
0.5
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Cycles
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Crack - Microstructure Interactions
da/dN, mm/cycle F
10-6
E 10-7
D A B C
0.03 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Crack Length, mm
Akiniwa, Y., Tanaka, K., and Matsui, E.,”Statistical Characteristics of Propagation of Small Fatigue Cracks in Smooth
Specimens of Aluminum Alloy 2024-T3, Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. A104, 1988, 105-115
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Strain-Life Data
10μm 1mm
1 100 μm fracture Crack size
Δε
2
0.1
Strain Amplitude
0.01
10-3
10-4
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
Most of the life is spent in microcrack growth in the
plastic strain dominated region
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Stage II Crack Growth
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Long Crack Growth
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Crack Growth Rates of Metals
Material strength does not play a major role in fatigue crack growth
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Stresses Around a Crack
Maximum Load σ
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Stresses Around a Crack (continued)
Minimum Load σ
ε
σ
cyclic plastic zone
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Crack Closure
a b c
Opening load
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Mode I, Mode II, and Mode III
Mode I Mode II Mode III
opening in-plane shear out-of-plane shear
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Mode I Growth
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Mode II Growth
shear stress
slip bands
10 μm
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1045 Steel - Tension
1.0
Damage Fraction N/Nf
0.8
0.6 Tension
0.4
Shear
0.2 Nucleation
100 μm crack
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
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1045 Steel - Torsion
1.0
Tension
Damage Fraction N/Nf
0.8
f
0.6
0.4
0.2 Shear
Nucleation
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
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Things Worth Remembering
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Fatigue, How and Why
Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
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Characterization
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Bending Fatigue
stress amplitude
stress
time
F
stress range
Bending stress:
Mc
σ=
I
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SN Curve
500
Monel Alloy
400
Stress Amplitude, MPa
300
200
0 1x108 2x108 3x108 4x108 5x108
500 Cycles to Failure
400
300
200
105 106 107 108 109
Cycles to Failure
Testing time
@ 30 Hz 1 hour 1 day 1 month 1 year
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Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Life
Alloy 105 106 107 108 109
2014-T4 290 235 186 152 138
2024-T4 297 214 166 145 138
6061-T6 186 152 117 104 90
7075-T6 276 200 166 152 145
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6061-T6 Aluminum Test Data
Sharpe et. al. Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures , 1996
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SN Curve for Steel
104
ΔS
Stress Amplitude, MPa
= S'f (Nf )
b
2
1000
fatigue limit
100
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Cycles
The fatigue limit is usually only found in steel laboratory specimens
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Very High Cycle Fatigue of Steel
104
1000
100
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Cycles
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Fatigue Damage
10000
ΔS
Stress Amplitude, MPa = S'f (Nf )
b
2
1000 1
10
100
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Cycles
1
⎛ ΔS ⎞ b
Nf = ⎜⎜ ' ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 Sf ⎠
Damage ∝ ΔS10
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Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation
1250 0.6
Fatigue Strength, MPa
1000 0.5
750 0.35
500
250
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SN Materials Data
10000 93 steels
17 aluminums
Stress Amplitude, MPa
1000
100
10
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Fatigue Life, Reversals
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Strain Controlled Testing
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Cyclic Hardening / Softening
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Stable Hysteresis Loop
Hysteresis loop
Δσ
Δεp Δεe
Δε
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Strain-Life Data σ−ε
Δσ 600
2
500
Stress Amplitude
400
Δε Δσ ⎛ Δσ ⎞
1/ n'
300 = +⎜ ⎟
2 2E ⎝ 2 K'⎠
200
100
0
0 0.004 0.008 0.012
Δε
Strain Amplitude
2
During cyclic deformation, the material deforms on a path
described by the cyclic stress strain curve
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Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
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Strain-Life Data Δε - 2Nf
1
Δε
2
0.1
Strain Amplitude
0.01
0.001
10-4
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
2 Reversals, 2Nf = 1 Cycle, Nf
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Elastic and Plastic Strain-Life Data
1
Δε
2
Plastic
0.1
Strain Amplitude
0.01
0.001 Elastic
10-4
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
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Strain-Life Curve
ε'f
1 Δε σ'f
= (2Nf )b + ε'f (2Nf )c
Δε
2
2 E
0.1 c
Strain Amplitude
0.01
b
0.001
σ'f
10-4
E
2Nt
10-5
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
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Transition Fatigue Life
1 17 aluminums
Strain Amplitude
0.1
10-2
10-3
10-4
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
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Stress Concentration of a Crack
ρ
a
K T = 1+ 2
2a ρ
KT ~ 2000
for a crack
σlocal = 2000 σapplied
a ~ 10-3
ρ ~ 10-9
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Stress Intensity Factor
σ K = σ πa
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Crack Growth Measurements
σ
σ2 σ1
Crack size
a2 da
dN
2a a1
σ
Cycles
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Crack Growth Data
10-6
da
10-9 = C ΔK m
dN
10-10 m~3
10-11
10-12
1 10 100
ΔKTH ΔK,MPa m
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Threshold Region
⎛a⎞
ΔK TH > Δσ πa f ⎜ ⎟
⎝w⎠
threshold stress intensity
flaw shape
flaw size
operating stresses
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Threshold Stress Intensity
2
ΔK TH > Δσ 1.12 πa
π
2
⎛ ΔK TH ⎞
ac = 0.63 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Δσ ⎠
σu
Smooth specimen fatigue limit ≈
2
2
⎛ ΔK TH ⎞
ac = 2.52 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ σu ⎠
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Non-propagating Crack Sizes
1
ΔK TH = 5 MPa m
Crack Size, mm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Ultimate Strength, MPa
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Stable Crack Growth
10-6
da
10-9 = C ΔK m
dN
10-10
10-12
1 10 100
ΔKTH ΔK,MPa m
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Crack Growth Data
σyield
252
Ferritic-Pearlitic Steel:
10-6
( )
273
392 da 3.0
= 6.9 × 10 −12 ΔK MPa m
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
415
dN
Martensitic Steel:
10-7 da
dN
= 1.4 × 10 −10 ΔK MPa m ( ) 2.25
10-8
da
dN
= 5.6 × 10 −12 ΔK MPa m ( ) 3.25
5 10 100
ΔK, MPa√m
Sharp, Nordmark and Menzemer, Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures, 1996
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Crack Growth Data
50
Crack Length, mm
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Cycles x103
Virkler, Hillberry and Goel, “The Statistical Nature of Fatigue Crack Propagation”, Journal of Engineering Materials
and Technology, Vol. 101, 1979, 148-153
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Things Worth Remembering
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Fatigue, How and Why
Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
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Fatigue Analysis
Material
Data
Component Fatigue
Analysis
Geometry Life Estimate
?
Service
Loading
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The Similitude Concept
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What is the Similitude Concept
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Fatigue Analysis Techniques
Stress - Life
BS 7608, Eurocode 3
Strain - Life
Crack Growth
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Life Estimation
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Stress-Life Fatigue Modeling
Fixed
End
P
10000
Stress Amplitude, MPa
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Fatigue Analysis: Stress-Life
Material SN curve
Data Ka, Ks, …
Component Fatigue
Kf Analysis
Geometry Life Estimate
Service
Loading ΔS , Sm
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Stress-Life
Major Assumptions:
Most of the life is consumed nucleating cracks
Elastic deformation
Nominal stresses and material strength control
fatigue life
Accurate determination of Kf for each geometry
and material
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Stress-Life
Advantages:
Changes in material and geometry can easily be
evaluated
Large empirical database for steel with standard
notch shapes
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Stress-Life
Limitations:
Does not account for notch root plasticity
Mean stress effects are often in error
Requires empirical Kf for good results
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BS 7608 Fatigue Modeling
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Weld Classifications
D E
F2 G
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Fatigue Analysis: BS 7608
Material
Weld SN curve
Data
Component Fatigue
Class Analysis
Geometry Life Estimate
Service
Loading ΔS
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BS 7608
Major Assumptions:
Crack growth dominates fatigue life
Complex weld geometries can be described by a
standard classification
Results independent of material and mean stress
for structural steels
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BS 7608
Advantages:
Manufacturing effects are directly included
Large empirical database exists
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BS 7608
Limitations:
Difficult to determine weld class for complex
shapes
No benefit for improving manufacturing process
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Strain-Life Fatigue Modeling
1
The Similitude Concept states that if the
instantaneous strains applied to the ‘test’
0.1
structure (vehicle suspension, say) and the
Strain Amplitude
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Fatigue Analysis: Strain-Life
Material εN curve
Data σε curve
Component Fatigue
Kf Analysis
Geometry Life Estimate
Service
Loading ΔS , Sm
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Strain-Life
Major Assumptions:
Local stresses and strains control fatigue
behavior
Plasticity around stress concentrations
Accurate determination of Kf
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Strain-Life
Advantages:
Plasticity effects
Mean stress effects
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Strain-Life
Limitations:
Requires empirical Kf
Long life situations where surface finish and
processing variables are important
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Crack Growth Fatigue Modeling
10-7
also be the same and can be
10-8
described by the Paris
10-9 relationship. Account can
10-10 also be made for local
chemical environment, if
10-11
necessary.
10-12
1 10 100
ΔK,MPa m
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Fatigue Analysis: Crack Growth
Material
da/dN curve
Data
Component Fatigue
K Analysis
Geometry Life Estimate
Service
Loading ΔS , Sm
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Crack Growth
Major Assumptions:
Nominal stress and crack size control fatigue life
Accurate determination of initial crack size
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Crack Growth
Advantage:
Only method to directly deal with cracks
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Crack Growth
Limitations:
Complex sequence effects
Accurate determination of initial crack size
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Choose the Right Model
Similitude
Failure mechanism
Size scale
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Design Philosophy
Safe Life
Damage Tolerant
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Safe Life
500
300
200
99 90 50 10 1
Percent Survival
100
0
104 105 106 107 108 109
Fatigue Life
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Damage Tolerant
Inspection
Crack size
a2
a1
Safe Operating Life
Cycles
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Inspection
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Things Worth Remembering
Questions to ask
Will a crack nucleate ?
Will a crack grow ?
How fast will it grow ?
Similitude
Failure mechanism
Size Scale
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Fatigue, How and Why
Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Similitude
Fatigue Calculator
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www.FatigueCalculator.com
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Constant Amplitude Calculators
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Finders
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Deterministic Analysis
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Deterministic Analysis (continued)
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Deterministic Analysis (continued)
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Deterministic Analysis Results
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Probabilistic Analysis
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Probabilistic Analysis (continued)
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Probabilistic Analysis (continued)
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Probabilistic Analysis Results
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Fatigue and Fracture
( Basic Course )