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Insulators
Insulators for use in transmission lines can be categorized different ways. The main
function of insulator is undoubtedly to insulate the live conductor from the metallic
tower at ground potential but the important thing is that the insulator should be able to
carry the load/tension in the transmission line. At angle towers or at dead end the
insulators should be able to carry large tensional force. The insulators used
for transmission lines are mainly of porcelain or composite
polymer types. Traditionally porcelain insulators are used for both
transmission and distribution purposes.
In the coastal areas the climatic condition also influences the selection of
materials . In the coastal areas salt deposits on the insulator
surface, that results in increased leakage current on the insulator
surface. Similar situation arises where lots of suspended chemical
particles are present in the atmosphere. While designing the
transmission tower and selecting the conductor all these factors
are taken into account.
We will devote one article about insulators.
Damping devices
Due to wind and ice, the transmission lines swing under different
modes. The transmission lines may vibrate in three major ways.
Page 2 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Earthing System
Introduction
The purpose of the insulator or insulation is to insulate the electrically
charged part of any equipment or machine from another charged part or
uncharged metal part. At lower utilization voltage the insulation also
completely covers the live conductor and acts as a barrier and keeps the
live conductors unreachable from human being or animals. In case of
the high voltage overhead transmission and distribution the
transmission towers or poles support the lines, and insulators are used
to insulate the live conductor from the transmission towers.
The insulators used in transmission and distribution system are also
required to carry large tensional or compressive load.
The HV/EHV insulators are broadly divided into two types based on the
material used. One is ceramic and the other is polymer (composite)
insulator. In Fig-A is shown the sketch of a porcelain disc insulator unit
and in Fig-B is shown a glass disc insulator.
Below are few definitions in relation to insulator that one should know
which are required here to understand some concepts.
Flashover voltage - The voltage at which the air around insulator breaks
down and flashover takes place shorting the insulator.
Suspension Insulator
The suspension insulators are used to support conductors in high
voltage transmission lines. The suspension insulators string used in
transmission lines are obtained by joining several disc insulator units.
according to the type of hardware fittings, usually two varieties of disc
insulators are used in HV transmission line. These are cap and pin type
and ball and socket type. A porcelain cap and pin disc insulator is shown
in Fig-A. Also in Fig-B is shown a glass disc insulator. In the porcelain
insulator the somewhat umbrella like upper part called skirt is glazed
and smoothened so that when it rains the dust and salt deposited on it
are easily washed away. The contaminants cannot easily penetrate the
glazed surface. When it rains the lower corrugated part does not wet
and remains dry. This dry portion is the effective creepage length in wet
condition.
In the transmission line a string of disc insulators are formed by fitting
the pin of one disc to the cap of next disc. Simply by adding more
numbers of discs in the string the insulator string is used for higher
voltage. Moreover when one disc is damaged only that particular disc is
replaced not the whole string.
Post Insulator
The post type insulators are mostly used in high and extra high voltage
substations. In the substation Post type insulators are used for
supporting equipments and Bus conductors. See Figure-D for a post type
insulator.
Page 7 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
In the last article we discussed about the transmission line main accessories. Now we will discuss
about transmission tower or pylon types. The transmission tower is an important accessory and
the performance of the transmission line depends very much on the design of the transmission
tower. The electric transmission towers or pylons can be classified several ways. Here we will
try to classify it broadly. The most obvious and visible tower types are
Lattice structure
Tubular pole structure
Varieties of tower types are used in practice. Traditionally self supporting lattice structures are
used for electricity transmission line towers (see Fig-A). You will mostly find the use of self
supporting type lattice structures for transmission lines in most of the power companies .
The lattice structures can be erected easily in very inaccessible locations as
the tower members can be easily transported. Lattice structures are
light and cost effective. The main disadvantage of lattice structure is
that it requires more ROW (Right Of Way). Right Of Way is the stretch of
land acquired along the route length of line keeping the towers in the
middle of ROW width. See Fig-D where the width of ROW is shown by
double headed arrow. The ROW width is as per the standard set by Local
authority or government agency. Clearly ROW is more for higher voltage
Page 8 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
line.
In the sketch of a single circuit lattice tower (Fig-A), two numbers of
ground conductors are used. Theta is the shield angle. For reliably
protecting the conductors from lightening this angle θ should be less
than 30 degrees. In the Fig-A the phase conductors used are bundled
type (twin conductor).
In many cases due to public resentment the use of lattice structures has been restricted. So
alternative transmission structures are adopted by some power companies.
Steel tubular pole structures have been used quite successfully by some power companies for
high and extra high tension transmission lines. The installation of these structures are costly
but requires less time. See the sketch of a tubular steel pole structure (Fig-B). The tubular
structure can be a single tubular form or H-form. Like Lattice tower it can also be designed for
carrying two or more circuits. A lattice tower with double circuit is shown in Figure-D. More
transmission companies are considering the use of this type of tower especially in populated
areas.
Page 9 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
The lattice guyed-V transmission towers has also been used by the transmission companies in
cases where more space is available.. These are simple, easy and cheaper to install. The guyed
towers also require less time for installation. The main disadvantage is that these towers require
more space due to presence of guy wires. See the sketch of the tower (Fig-C). This tower uses
two string insulators per phase arranged in V form.
Page 10 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Another classification is from the point of view of materials used. The transmission towers are
usually made from steel and galvanized steels. Aluminium is also used as construction material
for transmission lines. In many countries wooden transmission towers are also
used for HV/EHV transmission, if plenty of wood of considerable length(or height)
is available at reasonable cost. The wooden towers are mainly single pole or H-
frame type.
Page 11 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Angle Towers
Another main classification is from the point of view of functioning of tower. That means
whether the tower is suspension type, angle type or dead end type. Depending on the deviation
angle of the line the respective tower is chosen. The suspension type of towers only carry the
load of the conductor in normal situation. However suspension towers are usually designed to
work satisfactorily for very small angular deviationn of line. The standard code of practice of
different countries has specified the maximum deviation angle for use of suspension towers. The
angle towers are used when the line route deviates more than this specified maximum angle.
The angle towers can again be sub grouped for different ranges of angular deviation. So the
towers can be categorized as small angle, medium angle or large angle towers. The towers used
at the termination point of line are dead end towers and are designed to carry large unbalanced
load. The dead end towers are the strongest and heavy. In practice large angle towers are
designed so that they can be used as dead end towers. Doing so will eliminate the need for
designing one more tower type that is dead end. The angle towers use tension
insulator strings. See the picture below.
Page 12 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
The numbers of transmission towers required to be erected per kilometer depends on the
topography of the line route. So the span length of the line depends on the topography. For a
particular conductor, the span should be such so that under highest temperature the line
maintains minimum clearance (as per local standard) to ground or other nearby objects.
Obviously more towers are required to be erected per kilometer in hilly or other difficult
terrain. When the path of line deviates more often from the straight route then the line requires
more towers per kilometer. Angle towers are used whenever the line route such deviates so that
the suspension tower cannot be used.
From the above discussion it is clear that the choice of transmission tower types depends upon
several factors. Also you must have observed that when the tower carries only one circuit then
the phase conductors are usually arranged horizontally(or triangular form). In this
arrangement more Right Of Way is required but the tower height will be less, resulting in
saving in tower materials so tower cost is reduced. When the transmission tower carries two or
more circuits, then the phase conductors are usually arranged vertical (See above photograph
and Fig-D sketch). In this configuration the requirement of Right Of Way is less but tower
height is more. Usually this is the choice in double or multi-circuit case. Sometimes double
circuits are also arranged horizontally and single circuit vertically according to the availability
of Right Of Way and optimized total cost.
Tower Foundation
The type of tower foundation depends on the soil type where the tower is to be erected. Some
common foundation types are for dry soil, wet soil, rocky soil, sandy soil and submerged type.
In most cases existing standard design can be adopted to reduce the overall cost of tower
installation. In the earth quake prone areas, data pertaining to seismic
activity of the area is very important for consideration in foundation.
Page 13 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
The foundation cost on river bank or river bed is much more than on
plain land.
Capacitance
The last article was about line resistance and inductance. Now we will
discuss about line capacitance and conductance. We already said that
leakage current flows between transmission lines and ground and also
between phase conductors. Leakage current flows to ground through
the surface of insulator. This leakage current depends upon the
suspended particles in the air which deposit on the insulator surface. It
depends on the atmospheric condition. The other leakage current flows
between the phase conductors due to the occurrence of corona. This
leakage current also depends upon the atmospheric condition and the
extent of ionization of air between the conductors due to corona effect.
Both these two are quite unpredictable and no reliable formula exist to
tackle these leakage currents. Luckily these two types of leakage
currents are negligibly small and their ignorance has not proved to
influence much the power system analysis for line voltage and current
relationships. Here we will ignore the leakage currents so we will not
show the leakage resistance. Inverse of this leakage resistance is called
line conductance.
Here rest of the article is about line capacitance. Like previous article on
inductance here also I am not going to derive the formulas for
capacitance for different line configurations rather to develop some
concepts.
.k
C = -----------
ln(D/r)
One important thing is that here the actual radius r is used in the
formula. Compare with inductance
formula where we used the equivalent radius r' which is 0.7788
times the actual radius r.
In the last article, inductance was found for each line individually.
Here also capacitance between line to
neutral is desired for per phase analysis of power system.
Page 15 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Cn = 2k / ln (D/r)
Cn = 2k / ln (D/r)
Page 16 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Cn = 2k / ln
(GMD/GMR)
In actual practice in most of the cases you will find that the three
phase conductors are arranged
horizontally or nearly vertically as per the tower design. Only in
few situations you will find the
conductors are placed nearly equidistant from each other. Hence
calculation of GMD and GMR are
important.
Page 17 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Here in Fig-D the three phase conductors are arbitrarily placed. Let
the distance between the phase
conductors are D12, D23 and D31 . The distances are between the
centers of bundled twin conductors.
Similar to inductance, transposing the conductors
the capacitance between any two phases is made
equal. Or the capacitance between any phase and neutral point are
made same. The above
equation is actually derived considering transposed lines.
Note: In case of inductance r' is used. But here the actual radius r
is used in GMR calculation
Here,
GMD = ∛(D . D . 2D)
GMR = 1.09 ∜(r.d3)
As already said If ACSR stranded conductors are used (instead
of circular one as shown) so Ds as
per the manufacturer's data is used in place of r. Ds is the
equivalent radius of stranded conductor.
The values of GMD and GMR are put on the above equation to
find line to neutral capacitance.
Earth being at zero potential influences the electric field. Some electric
lines of force originating from conductors terminate on earth surface at
90 degrees. The presence of earth is tackled by considering imaginary
image conductors placed below the earth, just like image of real
conductors. However the influence of earth on the capacitance of line is
small in comparison to the line to line capacitance. So the influence of
earth is neglected in many cases. We discuss it here.
When the line parameters for all the three phase conductors are nearly
equal, then the line voltages at the other end of the line are more or less
Page 19 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
For short and medium length lines the parameters are lumped. This
simplifies the model and gives quite accurate result. In case of the long
transmission lines the line parameters are considered as distributed
along the length of the line. The aim of the transmission line model is
that it should be simple and the analysis of the model should bear
desired accuracy. Of course you can apply the long line theory for power
lines of length below 80 km. Doing so one can achieve somewhat more
accurate result (which may not be desired) while making the model or
Page 20 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Here in this article we will discuss short and medium length lines only
and long line is the topic of the next article.
so, y = j ωC S / meter
If, Z is the total lumped line impedance and Y is the total admittance
between the line and neutral, then we get Z and Y by multiplying per
meter values with the total length of the line. Then
Z = z .l Ω
Y = y .l S
Short Lines
As already said the lines of below 80 km length can be modeled as short
lines. The transmission line is a three phase system and here assumed
as balanced due to transposition and balanced load at receiving end. The
analysis adopted here can be applied to unbalanced non-transposed
systems for obtaining result with reasonable accuracy. For the balanced
three phase line we are only required to analyze one phase. The return
path is imaginary neutral.
In Fig-A is shown a short transmission line. The resistance and
inductance are lumped together which is the transmission line serie
impedance Z. Further for short line here the capacitance of the line is
ignored so the admittance is ignored.
Page 21 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
As shown the sending end and receiving end voltages are Vs and Vr
respectively and the sending end and receiving end currents are Is and
Ir respectively.
From the diagram it is clear that both sending and receiving end current
are the same
Is = Ir
According to Kirchhoff's voltage law,
Vs = Vr + Z Ir
Z = R + j XL
R is the total line resistance and XL is the total line inductance, both are
lumped.
Those who are familiar with two port network analysis, the above can
be represented in terms of ABCD parameters. In this form the supply
side voltage and current is represented in terms of receving side voltage
and current as below
Vs = A Vr + B Ir
Is = C Vr + D Ir
In the above formulas A and D are dimension less. Dimension of B is
Ohm and that of C is Siemens.
Voltage Regulation
The performance of a transmission line is determined by a term called
voltage regulation. Voltage regulation is defined as the percentage
Page 22 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
change in voltage at the receiving end from No load to Full load with
sending end voltage held constant.
In both the diagrams Vr and Z Ir are added as per the rule of phasor
addition. Z is the line impedance as discussed above.
Z Ir = (R+j XL ) Ir = R Ir +j XL Ir
The main difference between the above two is that in case of lagging
load the receiving end voltage is less than the sending end voltage. But
Page 23 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
in case of leading load the receiving end voltage can even become more
than the sending end voltage depending on the lead phase angle φ .
Which is due to the fact that the load is capacitive. In our case Fig-B (ii),
for the chosen phase angle the receiving end voltage is more than the
sending end voltage. Actually the industrial loads are mostly inductive.
The inductive loads consume reactive power. Capacitors which generate
reactive power are connected at the load end or at substations to supply
reactive power. At sub-transmission and distribution levels where
voltage drop is a problem, capacitors can improve the voltage profile
and power factor at the receiving end. The capacitive load helps in
improving the receiving end voltage regulation and power factor. For
only voltage regulation purpose usually tap changer of transformer is
utilized. By tap changing the transformer turns ratio is changed, so
adjusting the secondary voltage.
cos φ is the power factor at the receiving end, or power factor of load
but cos φs is the power factor at the sending end (due to both load and
transmission line).
Using the above formula it is easy to find the transmission efficiency of
short and medium lines. For short line the angle φs is clearly visible
from the phasor diagram (angle between Vs and Is (or Ir)). But in case
of medium line little more effort is required.
Medium Lines
The medium length lines are categorized as transmission lines of more
than 80 km and less than 250 km length. The medium length lines can
be modeled two ways. These are nominal π and nomial T (Fig-C), so
named due to the arrangement of elements. Due to the length of the
line admittance Y is no more neglected. Of course in both the π and
nomial T representations lumped elements are used. In the nominal π
representation the total admittance due to line capacitance is equally
divided into two halves and each half connected at both sending and
receiving ends. In the nominal T representation the admittance is
connected at the center of line and line impedance is divided into two
equal parts and each part is connected on both sides in series (Fig-C).
Page 24 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
It can be shown that for the π representation the sending end voltage
and current can be written in terms of receiving end voltage and current
as shown below.
For T representation also applying KCL and KVL we can obtain the
similar expression for Vs and Is.
Let us consider Fig-B where there are two very long line conductors of
charge +q and -q coulmb per meter length of the conductor. From the
basics it can be shown that the potential at a point P is vp
Then,
Page 27 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
The above equation can be imagined as the potential ( vp) at the point '
p ' is composed of two components one due to positive charge +q and
other due to negative charge -q. These two are respectively first and
second terms in the above equation.
Here next we will consider our favorite and practical case of the three
phase line. Let us assume that the three phase conductors are placed in
a general arbitrary form as shown in Fig -C. Now imagining the ground
level as mirror we get the image charges which are -ve of actual charges
on conductors as shown. Now the ground line can be removed. In the
figure all the distances between the conductors and/or image are
illustrated.
Page 28 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Hence we get
Simplifying we get
or,
So,
by rearranging the terms (see the properties of logarithm below at the end) we finally get
Page 31 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
So finally we get
From the above derived formula of capacitance Can we observe that due
to the consideration of influence of earth the denominator second term
comes into picture and the capacitance Can is more than what we would
have got if earth influence was ignored.
Introduction
In last two articles we developed some useful concepts on transmission
line inductance and capacitance. There we discussed the formulas used
for calculation of inductance and capacitance of transmission lines for
different arrangement of conductors. I advise you to go through those
two topics in archive (above links) before proceeding further. In those
Page 32 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
two articles our discussion was restricted to single phase or one three
phase line (single circuit line). Here we will calculate the inductance
and capacitance of double circuit line which you can extend to multi-
circuits.
Although the two circuits are in parallel, the inductance of double circuit
can not be found by imagining two inductances(for two circuits) in
parallel. Actually this is true only when the magnetic field of one circuit
does not link with other circuit conductors. Hence that is the case when
each circuit runs on separate tower and the separation between them is
such so that there is negligible or no magnetic field interaction between
the circuits.
Due to the closeness of the circuits being on the same tower, the
magnetic and electric field interaction of one circuit on the other
requires modified calculation of GMD and GMR.
In the figure one circuit phase conductors are a-b-c and other circuit
phase conductors are a'-b'-c'. As shown here the phase conductors are
single rounded conductors.
GMD = (Dab . Dab' . Dbc . Dbc' . Dca . Dca' . Da'b . Da'b' . Db'c . Db'c' .
Dc'a . Dc'a') 1/12
Clearly there are 12 distances and so 12th root of the product of twelve
distances are taken.
In our example
GMD = (6 . 10 . 6 . 10 . 12 . 8 . 10 . 6 .
10 . 6 . 8 . 12)1/12 meter
= 8.37 meter.
L = 2 * 10 -7
ln ( GMD/GMRL )
we obtain inductance per meter per phase
GMRa = √(Daa' . r)
GMRb = √(Dbb' . r)
GMRc = √(Dcc' . r)
Now you can put the numerical values to get a feel of the Cn so obtained.
Page 36 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
In the last article we discussed short and medium length lines. Now is
the time for long transmission lines. For long transmission lines if we
apply the formula for medium length line we will get large error. The
error becomes larger with longer transmission lines and the method is
useless. So for long lines it becomes important to represent accurately.
Hence the long transmission lines are represented by distributed
parameters.
What is the voltage and current at a distance x from the receiving end.
See Fig-B Let the voltage and current at a distance x from receiving end
are V(x) and I(x) respectively. It should be noted that V(x) and I(x) are
phasors.
Let Zc = √(Z/Y)
and γ =√(ZY)
To find the voltage Vs and current Is at the sending end, we just have to
put l (length of line) in place of x in the above formulas. So at the
sending end
If you compare the above equations relating sending and receiving end
voltage and current with the corresponding equations discussed in last
article for medium length lines then we can easily find ABCD
parameters. These are
You can argue that the long transmission line can also be represented
by a nominal ∏ circuit. Yes a long line can be represented by an
equivalent ∏ circuit. It should be remembered that in case of medium
length line it is called Nominal ∏. Here it is called equivalent ∏. This
equivalent ∏ is only a convient representation of the actual long line
analysis. But Nominal ∏ is an approximation for medium lines. For load
flow study and other system studies this equivalent representation is
very helpful without sacrificing any accuracy. In Fig-C is shown the
equivalent ∏ representation of any line of length l according to long line
theory.
Page 39 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
It is left as an exercise for you to find Z' and Y' by comparing with
Medium length line.
Let us consider a case when the load impedance is just equal to the
characteristics impedance Zc then, the receiving end voltage Vr =Ir Zc
and
let, γ = α+j β
The other term is the phasor and only provides phase shift
between the voltages at receiving end and at a point x distance from the
receiving end. Similar argument can be made for equation of current
I(x).
Observe that for loss less line, Zc becomes a pure resistance. We also
know that γ = α+j β, for this loss less situation we get
Page 41 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Now our previous voltage and current equations for surge impedance
loading reduces to
As in case of lossy line here also at any distance x from receiving end
the ratio of voltage and current is always same that is Zc, the surge
impedance of the line. Using the complex algebra you are sure that the
magnitude of V(x) is Vr and I(x) is Ir. Which means that for loss less
line the voltage and current at any distance x from the receiving end is
same. It also implies voltage at sending end is same as voltage at
receiving end which is same as voltage at any intermediate point. So Vs
= V(x) = Vr. At Surge Impedance Loading the reactive power generated
by the line capacitance is equal to the reactive power absorbed by the
line inductance for every unit length of line. In Power industry it is said
that the voltage profile is flat. So we conclude that for a lossless line the
voltage magnitude is same throughout the length of line. As in case of
lossy line the term is the phasor responsible for phase shift. It is
simply giving phase shift to the voltage wave along the length of line.
The phase angle between sending and receiving end voltage is . It is
clear that if the distance between the sending and receiving end is more
then the phase difference between the voltage phasors at both the ends
of the line will be more.
Where
Vr and Vl are the receiving end phase and line voltage respectively.
Page 42 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
132/138 kV - 50 MW
230 kV - 150 MW
345 kV - 400 MW
400 kV - 500 MW
500 kV - 900 MW
765 kV - 2090 MW
Line Loadability
System planners usually use line loadabilty curve for deciding loading
capability of the line. See Fig-D. The relationship between SIL and
length in km shown in Fig-D is almost same for all voltage levels.
What is the capacity of the transmission line or how much power it can
carry. The power that a transmission line can carry are based on three
factors. These are
Thermal Limit
Voltage Drop Limit
Stability Limit
Page 43 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Due to the current flow heat is generated in the line and the line length
changes which gives rise to more sag. Sometimes heating of the line is
enough that, later cooling of the line due to less load or environment
factors does not make the line regain its actual length. The sagging
become permanent. Due to this the minimum clearance of the line to
ground decreases which may violates the standard set by the local
authority. Also if the load is very high the conductor may be damaged
due to excessive heat. All transmission lines has thermal limits. But the
thing is that only short lines can approach this limit. Voltage drop and
stability limits situation usually do not arise here due to short length.
Lines less than 80 km length falls in this category.
For long line(above 250 km) we have shown that effort is made to
operate the line with surge impedance loading. So for long lines the
voltage profile may be made more or less flat with SIL loading. If the
loading of line exceeds above SIL then the voltage at receiving end is
less than sending end. If the loading of the line is less than SIL then the
voltage at receiving end is more than sending end. This phenomenon is
called Ferranti effect. For very lightly loaded or open long lines the
voltage at receiving end may become very high. To avoid this situation
Reactors are used at receiving end.
In both lossy and lossless lines it is clear that phase difference between
sending and receiving end voltage arises. This angle is called power
angle. The power that flows from sending to receiving end depends
upon this angle and the magnitude of Vs and Vr. (The magnitude of a
phasor V is represented as |V| )
Introduction
It should be remembered that real power is the average value and the
reactive power is maximum value.
Complex Power
In power system analysis the concept of Complex Power is frequently
used to calculate the real and reactive power.
S = V . I*
V is the phasor representation of voltage and I* is the conjugate of
current phasor.
I*= | I | ∠φ
So,
S = |V| | I | ∠(0+φ) = |V| | I | ∠φ
So, S=P+jQ
Returning to our main point, from the above formula it is sure that P is
always more than zero. Q is positive when φ is positive or current lags
voltage by φ degrees. This is the case of inductive load. We previously
said that inductance and capacitance do not consume power. The power
system engineers often say about reactive power consumption and
generation. It is said that inductive loads consume reactive power and
capacitors produce reactive power. This incorrect terminology creates
confusion.
The fact is that most of the loads are inductive and they unnecessarily
draw more current from source. Although in each cycle both inductance
and capacitance draw power from the source and return same amount
of power to the source but the behavior of inductance and capacitance
are opposing to each other. When capacitors are connected in parallel to
inductive load the power requirement of inductive load is supplied by
capacitor in half cycle and in next half cycle the reverse happens.
Depending upon the values of capacitor this power requirement of
inductance in the load may be fully or partially satisfied. If partially
satisfied the rest will be drawn from the distant source. By properly
selecting the capacitance the maximum value of reactive power (Q)
drawn from the distant source (or returned to the distant source) is
reduced. This reduction in reactive power results in reduction of line
current so the reduction of losses in transmission line and improvement
in voltage at load end.
Power Triangle
Returning to the complex power formula, P, Q and S are represented in
a power triangle as shown in figure below.
Page 47 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
or |S| = |V|| I |
It is measured in VoltAmp or VA.
The ratio of real power and apparent power is the power factor of the
load.
The reactive power Q and apparent power S are also important in power
system analysis. As just shown above the control of reactive power is
important to maintain the voltage within the allowed limits. Apparent
power is important for rating the electrical equipment or machines.
First we have to draw the individual power triangles for each branch.
Next the power triangles are arranged back to back keeping real power
in positive x direction as shown. The total power consumed is obtained
by connecting starting point O to the tip of last triangle. This is actually
the result of addition of complex numbers.
If S1 = P1 +j Q1
S2 = P2 +j Q2
Then, S = S1+ S2
or S = (P1+ P2 ) + j (Q1+ Q2 )
P = P1+ P2
Q = Q1+ Q2
Page 49 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Forward
Electric Power has same meaning as mechanical power but here the
power or energy that we are concerned is in Electrical form. We often
encounter terms like instantaneous, average, total, real, reactive,
apparent and complex power or simply power. What they mean? how
are they related ? That we will discuss here and in next article.
DC Circuit
As long as our analysis is restricted to Direct Current(DC) circuit the
power consumed by the resistance load is the product of voltage across
the resistance and current flowing through the resistance. It is really
simple.
P=V.I
The power consumed by the load is the product of voltage across the
load and current drawn by the load (Fig-A). Or the Power supplied by
Page 50 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
the DC source (battery/cell) is the product of voltage across the cell and
current supplied by the cell. Both are equal in our example
figure(considering ideal battery of zero internal resistance). The law of
energy conservation implies power supplied by the source must be same
as power consumed by the circuit. In DC circuit case instantaneous
power is same as average power.
AC Circuit
In AC circuit analysis, what is this power that we talk about. The main
problem is that the AC voltage and current varies sinusoidally with time.
Moreover the presence of circuit reactive elements like Inductor and
capacitor shift the current wave with respect to voltage wave (angle of
phase difference).
v = Vm sin ωt
i = Im sin (ωt-φ)
It can be written as
Then what is the average power within a given time, say one Time
Period of the wave?
Just observe that the instantaneous power is negative for a small time.
For any time interval you just find the total +ve area A+ (above
horizontal-axis (blue line) and below p curve) and total -ve area A-
(below horizontal axis and above p curve). The net area is obtained by
subtracting A- from A+. By dividing this net area ( by the time interval
Ti we get the average power(P). You can do this using calculus. What
you will ultimately get is only the first term in the above formula for
instantaneous power p.
Or,
here,
This above formula is your favorite formula for useful power that we are
most concerned about. This average power formula is used to find the
power consumed by the load. The monthly electric energy bill at home is
based on this power. The engineers and technicians in power or
electrical industry simply use the term power instead of average power.
So whenever we simply call power it means average power.
From the above figure for some time the power becomes negative that
means the load supply energy to source for this period. This is due to
the presence of reactive element in load.
The second term |V| | I | sin φ sin2ωt which is also oscillatory but with
zero average value. The maximum value of this term is |V| | I | sin φ.
This is the so called Reactive power. So Reactive power is the maximum
value of a oscillatory power that is repeatedly drawn from the source
and again returned to the source within each cycle. So the average of
this reactive power is zero.
Many times students and practicing engineers are confused about the
average power (often simply called power). They think that what they
Page 55 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
get by multiplying RMS voltage and RMS current is RMS power. No that
is wrong. There is no RMS power. RMS power has no meaning or not
defined. (Also see definition of RMS value, below at the end). It is
average power or real power or true power.
Pt = 3 |V| | I | cos φ
It should be remembered that |V| and | I | are the per phase values.
and φ is the phase angle of load in per phase analysis.
The above formula for balanced three phase system can be written as
Pt = √3 |Vl| | Il | cos φ
In the above formula Vl and Il are line voltage and current (Fig-D). This
equation is independent of type of three phase load connection i.e delta
or star connected load. You have to know the line voltage, line current
and phase angle φ as above. This form is very convenient and used
often in power calculation.
There is one main difference between the single phase and total three
phase power. The instantaneous single phase power is pulsating. In the
balanced three phase case, each phase instantaneous power is pulsating
but the three pulsating power waves are 120 degrees displaced from
Page 56 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
each other. At any instant of time the total of these three instantaneous
power waves is a constant which is 3 |V| | I | cos φ. So the total power
consumed in three phase balanced system is not pulsating. Non-
pulsating power also imply the desired non-pulsating torque in case of
three phase rotating machines. In large 3-phase motors this is really
desired.
The value of AC voltage or current that produces the same heating (or
same energy) that is produced if DC voltage or current numerically
equal to RMS value of AC is applied instead of AC. This concept helps
make the formula for power similar for both DC and AC circuits.
Autotransformer
Introduction
Let the primary side and secondary side voltage ratings are respectively
V1, I1 and V2, I2 respectively. Number of turns in primary and secondary
side are N1 and N2 respectively. Now let us connect the transformers as
shown in Fig-A(ii) with additive polarity. For the analysis purpose for
better visibility we rearrange the windings in Fig-A(ii) as shown in Fig-
B. Of course here we have shown a load connected across secondary
Page 57 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
V1 / N1= V2 / N2
I1 . N1= I2 . N2
Vp = V1+V2
Ip = I1
Vs = V2
Is = I1+I2.
Using the voltage ratio and mmf balance formula it is quite easy to show
that the autotransformer capacity formula can be simplified as
Hence Vp / Vs = (N1 / N2 ) +1 =
(N1 / N2 ) +1
From this formula it is clear that if N2 /N1 is made large to increase the
capacity then the voltage ratio between primary and secondary of
autotransformer approaches 1. For this reason auto transformers are
advantageous for use in power network when the voltage ratio between
both sides is near unity. It is used in grid substations as interconnecting
transformers (ICT). The autotransformers are used to interconnect two
different voltage levels. For example interconnection of 400kV and
220kV, 735kV and 345kV and 765kV and 400kV etc.. The voltage ratio
should be less than 3:1 for more advantageous use.
Just looking at the sketch you may think that instead of connecting two
windings in additive ways. Why should not it be made of single winding
and one terminal brought out from the middle as per requirement. Yes
this is true and the autotransformer can be thought of made of a single
winding having a part of winding common to primary and secondary .
Moreover the above analysis is for step down case. You can easily
analyze for step up case by interchanging the position of source and
load. In this case the direction of I1+I2 is reversed so also the directions
of I1 and I2. It should be recalled again that the change of direction of
current in series winding is associated with change of direction of
current in common winding to satisfy mmf balance.
There are several factors that need to be considered for deciding for a
substation. Some of these requirements are actually the purpose of the
substation while the others are the requirements to fulfill the purpose.
The site should be near the load center keeping in view the future load
growth.
Page 63 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
The substation has 400 kV, 220 kV and 33 kV switchyards. Here some of
the equipments/parts are identified. There are two 400/220 kV, 315
MVA Inter Connecting Transformers (ICT). One 220/33 kV, 100 MVA
step down transformer is used for feeding the distribution network. The
double arrow-head lines represent control and data channels between
switchyard equipments and control room.
Introduction:
Page 66 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
Single Bus
Main Bus and Transfer Bus
Double Bus Double Breaker
Double Bus Single Breaker
Ring Bus
Breaker and Half
heavy fault current. Both breaker and isolator carry load current in
normal state.
Single Bus
As the name indicate the substation with this configuration has a single
bus (Fig-B). All the circuits are connected to this bus. A fault on the bus
or between the bus and a breaker results in the outage of the entire bus
or substation. Failure of any breaker also results in outage of the entire
bus. Maintenance of any circuit breaker requires shutdown of the
corresponding circuit/line and maintenance of bus requires complete
shutdown of the bus. A bypass switch across the breaker should be used
for maintenance of the corresponding breaker. This case the protection
system is disabled.
When the tie CB is not present, for maintenance of a circuit breaker, the
transfer bus is energized by closing the isolator switches to transfer
bus. Then the breaker to undergo maintenance is opened and isolated
(opening isolators on both sides of CB) for maintenance. In this
arrangement there is no protection for the circuits. The circuits can be
protected from outside the substation.
transfer bus is energised by closing the tie breaker. Then the isolator
near the transfer bus of the breaker of circuit to be maintained is closed.
Now the breaker to be maintained is opened. Then corresponding
isolators on both sides of breaker are opened. The breaker is removed
for maintenance. The circuit is transferred to transfer bus. Remember
that the isolator to the transfer bus corresponding to the breaker not to
be maintained remain open. Here the tie breaker protects the circuit in
place of removed breaker. In this scheme the relay setting is quite
complex due to the requirement of the tie breaker to handle each
situation for maintenance of any of the other breakers. This scheme is
somewhat more costly than the single bus scheme but is more reliable.
The scheme can be easily expanded. The switching procedure is
complicated for maintenance of any circuit breaker. Failure of a breaker
or fault on the bus results in outage of complete substation.
From the figure you can guess that the configuration has some
improvement over the single bus system. This arrangement has more
flexibility in operation than the single bus scheme. This scheme is
costlier and requires more space than the single bus scheme. Many EHV
transmission substations use this scheme with an additional transfer
bus.
Ring Bus
The Ring Bus configuration is shown in Fig-F. The breakers are so
connected and forms a ring. There are isolators on both sides of each
breaker. Circuits terminate between the breakers. The number of
breakers is same as the numbers of circuits. Each of the circuits in ring
bus system is fed from both sides. Any of the breaker can be opened and
isolated for maintenance without interrupting any of the circuits. A fault
on any of the circuit is isolated by tripping of two breakers on both sides
of the circuit. By tripping the two breakers only the faulted circuit is
isolated and all other circuits continue to operate in open ring state.
This scheme has good operational flexibility and high reliability. The
main disadvantage is that when a fault happens and the ring is split and
may result into two isolated sections. Each of these two sections may
not have the proper combination of source and load circuits. To avoid
this as far as possible the source and load circuits should be connected
side by side (see figure). The ring bus scheme can be expanded to
accommodate more circuits. The ring bus scheme is not suitable for
more than 6 circuits (although possible). When expansion of the
substation is required to accommodate more circuits, the ring bus
Page 71 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
scheme can be easily expanded to One and Half Breaker(See below and
compare) scheme. The scheme is required to be planned properly to
avoid difficulties in future expansion.
The Breaker and Half scheme has two main buses (Fig G). Both the
buses are normally energised. Three breakers are connected between
the buses. The circuits are terminated between the breakers as shown.
In this bus configuration for two circuits three numbers of breakers are
required. Hence it is called one and half scheme. It is something like,
for controlling one circuit we require one full and a half breakers. The
middle breaker is shared by both the circuits. Like the ring bus scheme
here also each circuit is fed from both the buses.
This configuration is very flexible and highly reliable. The relaying of the
scheme is complicated as the middle breaker is associated with both the
circuits. This scheme is economical in comparison to Double Bus Double
Breaker scheme. This scheme also require more space in comparison to
other schemes to accommodate more equipments.
Circuit Breaker
The main function of the circuit breaker is to break and make the circuit.
So theoretically a circuit breaker is a switch. The breaker is rated so that
is should be capable to make, carry and break load current during
normal operation and interrupt large fault current in abnormal
conditions.
Circuit breaker is the main equipment for controlling power flow and
safety of other equipments and personnel. The different associated
Page 73 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
When fault in the line takes place the large fault current is associated
with the increase of secondary current in current transformer (CT). This
will actuate the relay and relay contact closes. Now as the tripping
circuit of the breaker is complete the trip coil is energised. The
energised trip coil initiates breaker mechanism for moving the circuit
breaker moving contact away from fixed contact. The Arc formed
between the moving contact and fixed contact is extinguished by
breaker arc extinguishing mechanism. The breaker is open. From the
figure it is clear that the breaker trip circuit can be closed by closing of
either of the contacts C1 or C2. While C1 is for manual closing by
pressing the button at the control panel, the C2 is closed automatically
by breaker relay for abnormal over current condition sensed by CT.
These two contacts in parallel fulfil the logic OR function. Applying same
reasoning it is easy to think that the breaker can be logically
conditioned for tripping on other abnormal conditions.
For low and medium voltage use, air is mainly used as the medium for
arc extinction (In past, oil was also used for 430/220 volt system). In
HV, EHV and UHV substations oil and gas is used as arc quenching
medium (In the past Air Blast breakers were also often used for
HV/EHV/UHV application). Like low voltage system, Oil Circuit breakers
are also becoming obsolete for higher voltage use. Vacuum is also used
for arc quenching. Vacuum circuit breakers are usually used for
breakers in the range of 3 kV to 38 kV. In modern EHV and UHV
substations SF6 gas breakers have replaced the Oil circuit breakers
and Air Blast circuit breakers. But one can still find Oil Breakers and Air
Blast Breakers in many old substations.
SF6 is a superior gas having good dielectric strength and arc quenching
ability which has proved to be a better medium for arc quenching in the
breaker. An UHV SF6 Circuit Breaker is displayed below.
Page 75 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
The circuit breakers are also available as single tank type or separate
tank type. In case of separate tank type, each phase has a separate
tank. For EHV application separate tank type breakers are preferred.
The circuit breakers can also be classified from the point of view of
operating mechanism. The operating mechanism of the circuit breaker
may be hydraulic, pneumatic or motor operated types.
The circuit breakers are also classified as live tank type or dead tank
type. In case of live tank type breaker the enclosure of the breaker is at
line potential. In the dead tank type breaker the enclosure of the
breaker is at ground potential. The dead tank type breaker requires
additional oil/gas for insulation from the grounded enclosure. Live tank
type breaker requires less oil or gas.
Electric Arc
For interrupting power supply to a part of a network or circuit, or to
clear a fault, circuit breakers are employed. On receipt of trip signal the
circuit breaker operating mechanism operates to separate moving
contact from the fixed contact (Fig-A). As the moving contact starts
moving away from the fixed contact, the contact area of the tips of both
moving contact and fixed contact reduces. But the same current now
Page 76 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
passes through this reduced contact area. The current density of the
contact area increases very much. This situation makes the areas of the
tips in contact very hot, may be several thousand degrees celsius. Now
as the contacts just separate these hot spots becomes source of
electron emission. High energy electrons are emitted from the separated
contact tips. This is called thermionic emission.
Electric Field = V / d
So from the above formula it is clear that just after separation when the
movable contact has not moved much away, then d is small so the
electric field strength is very high (order of several kV per millimetre).
High electric field gives rise to emission of high energy electrons from
the contact surface. The high speed electrons emitted bombard the
molecule or atoms of the medium and dislodge electrons from the
atoms. This is secondary emission.
The high energy electrons so emitted ionise the gas or oil used as
medium. Arc plasma is formed between the fixed and moving
contacts. The current continues to flow through the arc plasma between
the contacts (see Fig-A).
It is clear that just separating the contacts does not automatically break
the circuit and flow of current does not stop. The arc is required to be
extinguished. More importantly the dielectric strength of the medium
between the fixed and moving contacts should be restored quickly,
otherwise arc may re-strike between the contacts. This is the job of the
arc interruption chamber of the circuit breaker.
Several techniques are employed for the arc extinction. The arc can be
extinguished by increasing the resistance of the arc path. This is
achieved by lengthening the arc or splitting the arc using one of the
techniques and by reducing the diameter of the arc by cooling. By
increasing the resistance the voltage drop across the arc increases. It
achieves such a value that the supply voltage cannot sustain the voltage
drop across the arc and the arc is extinguished.
Also in AC circuit the current varies sinusoidally so the arc is
extinguished at next current zero. Although the arc is extinguished but
the medium is having enough ionised particles. Hence to stop the re-
striking of arc due to Transient Restriking Voltage the space between
the separated contacts should rapidly regain dielectric strength. This
can be done by blowing gas or air at high speed to the region between
the contacts in Gas or Air Blast breaker. In case of oil circuit breaker
rapid flow of oil to the contact region helps regain high dielectric
strength. Regaining dielectric strength is the result of recombination of
ions and electrons.
are not going to derive the formulas rather to develop some concepts
about the transmission line parameters. It will help us understand the
transmission line modelling and in analyzing the power system. In this
article we will discuss about the line resistance and inductance. In the
next article we will discuss about line capacitance and conductance.
Resistance
The conductors of the transmission lines have small resistance. For
short lines, resistance plays an important role. As the line current
increases so do the ohmic loss (I2R loss). When the current exceed a
certain value the heat generated due to ohmic loss starts to melt the
conductor and the conductor becomes longer that results in more sag.
The current at which this condition of conductor is irreversible is called
thermal limit of conductor. Short overhead lines should be operated well
within this limit.
l
R = ρ ----
a
Inductance
For medium and long distance lines the line inductance (reactance) is
more dominant than resistance. The value of current that flows in a
conductor is associated with another parameter, inductance. We know
that a magnetic field is associated with a current carrying conductor. In
AC transmission line this current varies sinusoidally, so the associated
Page 79 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
For a single phase line see the fig-A. The conductor inductance is
L = 2 * 10-7 ln ( D/r1' )
For a single phase line the return path also has inductance say L'. If the
return conductor is of radius r2, then
Lt = 4 * 10 -7
ln [D / √ (r1'. r2')]
Page 80 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
For three phase circuit whose three circular conductors are at the
corners of equilateral triangle(Fig-B(i)) then the above formula for
single phase case is applied here. In this case inductance per
phase L is as below:
L = 2 * 10-7 ln ( D / Ds )
Here Ds = r'
L = 2 * 10-7 ln [ ∛(D1 .
D2 . D3) / Ds ]
Beginning from the single phase line, it is observed that all the three
equations for inductance of a phase conductor are similar.
Remember that this formula for three phase line is not valid for non-
transposed lines.
Observing the formula for single phase and three phase lines we can
generalize the formula for inductance of a phase line as in the form
L = 2 * 10-7 ln ( D / Ds )
Where
D = Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Ds= Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)
In single phase case GMD is simply the distance between the centers of
two conductors.
Page 82 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
In three phase case for conductors equidistant from each other GMD is
the distance between any two phase conductors.
In the three phase case, for line conductors arbitrarily placed GMD
= ∛(D1D2D3 )
GMR =
[(r1'.D12.D13)(r2'.D23.D21)(r3'.D31.D32)]1/9
It should be noted that D12 = D21, D13 = D31 and D23 =
D32
Page 83 of 84 Transmission Lines Prof. Nazar M. Karyar Tuesday, September 16, 2014
How to calculate GMD of three phase line with bundled conductors? For
an example see Fig-E where three phase bundles (triple conductror) are
placed horizontally on transmission towers. In this case the distance
between the conductors (D) is taken as distance between the centers of
bundled conductors.