Samuel Kai Wah Chu

Social Media
Tools in
Experiential
Internship
Learning
Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship
Learning
Samuel Kai Wah Chu

Social Media Tools

in Experiential Internship
Learning

123
Samuel Kai Wah Chu
The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, Hong Kong

ISBN 978-981-15-1559-0 ISBN 978-981-15-1560-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6
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Foreword

The digital revolution dramatically has altered nearly all aspects of learning. Today,
many students experience their first foray into higher education via online learning
platforms while attending sixth form colleges or high schools. Potential students
visit a variety of universities using YouTube videos and virtual tours on websites.
They view departmental and research lab Facebook pages, and receive Tweets from
their prospective destinations. Tech-savvy students communicate with advisors,
instructors, and professors via text, email, and chat sessions before arrival, and may
engage in preparatory training from home in advance of their physical university
experience. Often, on-campus students utilize social media to engage with their
future roommates prior to setting foot in the dormitories, flats, or apartments where
they plan to spend their next year or years. The digital age has created an integrated
flow between disparate phases of student life compatible with what Russell Belk in
1988 termed, an “extended self”.
The impact of digital influences is readily visible on the fuzzy input side of
higher education. It is even more visible and widely discussed regarding pedagogy
and classroom tools in the transformative process component of education.
However, the output side remains largely discrete. Jobs, careers, and professions
traditionally exist after higher education concludes. The age-old model suggests a
student completes a degree program then, following a public ceremony, enters the
workforce—sometimes never to look back. Although continuing education, pro-
fessional seminars, and conference interactions abound, these examples exist in a
framework meant to enhance ongoing careers in a post hoc manner.
In his forward-thinking book, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship
Learning, Prof. Samuel Kai Wah Chu closely examines the interface between
education and career at a juncture still clearly within higher education, and suggests
remedies to modernize a missing digital link. He purposefully calls on academics
and researchers to revisit motivations for offering internships using the new lens of
our ongoing digital revolution. As described in this book, internships emerged as a
bridge between theoretical knowledge learned in the classroom and practical
application in real-world settings. The concept of internships is time-tested, but in
practice many antiquated perceptions and practices remain. Chu’s own research and

v
vi Foreword

background as a decade-long faculty internship supervisor for a Bachelor of

Science degree program in information management provide the authority,
knowledge, and practical groundwork for much needed enhancement in this area.
His book seeks to turn researchers’ eyes toward the situation to help truly under-
stand students’ and internship providers’ expectations in a dynamic and changing
environment. He provides the direction needed and research-grounded ideas for
moving forward.
This is not to suggest the need for integration between education and later
experiences is new. John Dewey suggested in My Pedagogic Creed (published
1897) that education is not preparation for life; it is life. Currently, life for students
has entered a new phase that involves ubiquitous information, easy access to
communication, and social networks that span the globe. It is not unreasonable for
them to expect their internship experiences to be connected in the same manner as
the remainder of their lives. And, as higher education professionals, we need to
move students forward in the world that has emerged with its opportunities, threats,
and potential.
Competing demands on modern institutes of higher education have slowed
development of digital facilities for internship support, but administrative will and
industry-driven needs can stimulate change. Chu takes a methodical, researcher-
centric approach to understanding the need for internships as an integral part of a
well-rounded higher education experience and then explains how experiences can
be enhanced in practical terms. After providing a lively introduction, the next three
chapters review social media in educational contexts, internship in higher educa-
tion, learning theories, and social media connections and suggest ways social media
can enhance learning outcomes and student experiences. He covers the basics of
social media with a focus on benefits relevant to those developing cutting-edge
educational experiences.
Against this backdrop, Chaps. 5 and 6 provide insights into internships in the
modern era and examine the benefits and challenges offered to students, educators,
and corporate partners. Chu seamlessly ties social media practices into genuine
insights developed during his years as an internship coordinator. His experiences
are formative in offering an authoritative and philosophic approach to effectively
manage experiential internship programs. Throughout the book, his focus remains
true to the nexus between theoretical classroom learning and workplace application
through a participatory design approach. Chu suggests students and stakeholders
including faculty supervisors, administrators, workplace supervisors, and alumni to
develop internship experiences to meet the needs of all involved. His central thesis
is informed by integration of social media tools meant to share learned experiences
and offer a venue for participants’ emotional support. Chu’s ideas move student
experiences from checklists and discrete journal entries toward continuous inter-
action, support, and evaluation. He envisions a process where stakeholders refine
program delivery to address students’ needs leading up to, throughout, and fol-
lowing internship experiences.
Foreword vii

His sound research approach is distilled into practical strategies to help for-
mulate, enhance, and deliver highly effective internships. Chu focuses on blogs,
Facebook, and Schoology as enabling tools, with some reference to LinkedIn.
However, all digital technologies illustrated in the book easily translate into
whatever platform-du-jour that may appear in the near future. While technologies
and tools continue to morph, the concepts provided in this book are formulated to
remain helpful in the long run.
Chu finishes his book with two very valuable chapters. First, in Chap. 8, he
offers insights on applications of social media to formative and summative
assessment methods for evaluating internship learning processes and outcomes.
With higher education’s current focus on accreditation, assessment, and meeting
learning objectives, the value of these insights cannot be overstated. Further,
capabilities offered by social media can enhance the reflective practices of students,
educators, and those providing internship opportunities. Finally, Chap. 9 summa-
rizes key takeaways and practical recommendations for faculty members, admin-
istrators, and internship supervisors. In short, Dr. Chu’s masterful treatment of this
subject should be playfully anointed Internship 2.0 because it clearly moves the
practice to a new level. His ideas will benefit a wide variety of constituents with
direct application to teaching practitioners, administrators, researchers, and those
offering internships. The book decisively indicates that Professor Chu deeply cares
about his students and wants to ensure they thrive in the digital age. His suggestions
for planning, deploying, guiding, evaluating, and enhancing internships clearly
shine through in this outstanding and necessary effort.

Roger McHaney, Ph.D.

Daniel D. Burke Chair for Exceptional Faculty
Professor and University Distinguished Teaching Scholar
Management Information Systems
Kansas State University, Manhattan, USA
Preface

An internship is one of the highlights of a student’s university life as it bridges their

theoretical knowledge learned in the classroom into real-world situations. This
experience may even shape a student’s professional successes after graduation. The
popularity of social media, alongside the change in education needs and interests of
tech-savvy students, calls for innovating pedagogical practices. Currently, there is a
great research interest in the use of social networking sites such as Facebook and
LinkedIn as facilitators of learning, and the author brings this interest firmly into the
context of internships. The primary purpose of this book is to respond to the need to
reorient the way internship programs are delivered by (a) enriching knowledge
on utilizing social media to aid learning, (b) discussing practical strategies on the
use of social media to help optimize internship learning, and (c) introducing a
research-driven, practical, and holistic approach to design, implement, review, and
enhance an internship program that involves collaboration with major stakeholders.
This book examines different aspects of social media and internship learning,
from theoretical discussions to practical recommendations. Part I, “Theoretical
Foundations”, provides an overview on social media, internships, and learning
theories. These concepts are brought together in Part II, “Using Social Media for
Experiential Internship in Higher Education Institutes”. Part III “Setting up Online
Platforms for Experiential Internship Learning” caps off with practical guides on
creating an online learning environment and assessment. This book is intended for
faculty internship supervisors, educators, university administrators and policy-
makers, workplace internship supervisors, and researchers.

Hong Kong, Hong Kong Samuel Kai Wah Chu

ix
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Content of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Organization of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Part I Theoretical Foundations

2 Review of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Establishment and Development of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Traditional Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Web 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.3 Web 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.4 Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.5 Web 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Comparison of Traditional Media, Web 1.0, and Social
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Major Claims Around Social Media Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 User-Generated Content (UGC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.3 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Social Media in the Education Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 Internship in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 31
3.1 What is Internship? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 31
3.2 Aims of Internships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 33
3.3 Benefits of Internships for Students, Faculty,
and Workplace Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 33
3.4 Using Technology in Managing Internship Programs ......... 36

xi
xii Contents

3.5 Challenges in Implementing Internship Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.6 Improving Internship Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4 Learning Theories and Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1 Seamless Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Theories of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.1 Social Constructivist Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.2 Social Cognitive Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.3 The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.4 Theories in Social Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2.5 Social Connectivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Part II Using Social Media for Experiential Internship in Higher

Education Institutes
5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential Internship
Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 61
5.1 Impact of Social Media Tools on Different Learning
Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.1.1 Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.1.2 Social Networking Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1.3 Interpersonal Applications and Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.1.4 Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2 How Social Media Promotes Learning in an Internship
Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 70
5.2.1 Learning Processes When Student Interns Engage
in Social Media Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 71
5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 74
5.4 Appendix: Sample of a BSCIM Student’s Log of Learning
Experience in a Blog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 75
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 76
6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social
Media and a Participatory Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 83
6.1 What is a Participatory Design Approach? . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 83
6.2 Applying a Participatory Design Approach with Social
Media in Internships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 85
6.2.1 What are the Benefits? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 88
6.2.2 What are the Challenges? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 91
Contents xiii

6.2.3 What are the Recommendations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Part III Setting Up Online Platforms for Experiential Internship

Learning
7 Setting Up Online Social Media Platforms to Help Manage
Internship Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1 Learning Environment Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1.1 Meaningful Learning Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.1.2 Collaboration and Mutual Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.1.3 Monitoring Learning Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2 Choosing a Social Media Tool to Manage Students’ Sharing
of Internship Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.1 Using Blogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.2 Using Social Networking Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.3 Ethical Considerations in Setting Up Online Social Media
Platforms for Internship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.3.1 Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.3.2 Citing Sources of Posted Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3.3 Referring to Professional Code of Ethics
and Organizational Policies Before Sharing
Information via Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness of Online
Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.1 What is Assessment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 Formative Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.3 Summative Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.4 Formative and Summative Assessment in the Context
of Internships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.5 Technology-Enhanced Assessments in Internships . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.5.1 Use of Facebook Groups for Learning Logs . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.5.2 Learning Logs Through Vlogs and e-Portfolio . . . . . . . . . 120
8.5.3 Assessment Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.6 Evaluating the Perceived Effectiveness of Social Media
Tools in Managing Sharing of Internship Learning . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.8 Appendix: Sample of a BSCIM Student’s Log of Learning
Experience Using Facebook in a University in Hong Kong . . . . . 124
xiv Contents

8.9 Appendix: Sample of a Workplace Supervisor’s Evaluation

on Student’s Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.10 Appendix: Sample of a Survey to Evaluate the Effectiveness
of SNS in Supporting Internship Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9 Summary and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.1 For Faculty Supervisors and Internship Coordinators . . . . . . . . . 135
9.2 For Policymakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.3 For Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.4 Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Chapter 1
Introduction

Internships offer students opportunities to apply what they learn from the classroom
into real-world situations (Fisher, 2017), and play a critical role in cultivating stu-
dents’ professional success. Based on the author’s experience as a faculty internship
supervisor for the Bachelor of Science in Information Management program in a
university for 11 years and the Master’s program for 6 years, it has become increas-
ingly clear that a successful internship program requires careful consideration of a
great variety of factors such as
• aligning internship learning outcomes with university aims;
• equipping students with necessary knowledge and skills as well as job-seeking
competencies;
• providing support to students in securing an internship as well as during their
internship; and
• performing suitable formative and summative assessments of students’ internship
from both faculty and workplace supervisors.
This book is an expansive discussion on managing internship courses with a holistic
approach that involves collaborative efforts among university policymakers, faculty
internship supervisors, workplace supervisors, alumni, and students, and how this
method contributes to the design of an internship program that maximizes students’
experiential learning.

1.1 Content of This Book

Upcoming chapters provide researchers, faculty internship supervisors, workplace

supervisors, and university administrators with an overview of the key topics relat-
ing to social media in the context of internship as a form of experiential learning.
Some theoretical and practical advantages of integrating social media throughout an

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_1
2 1 Introduction

internship program are briefly described. Conceptual frameworks are also utilized
throughout the book to illustrate key considerations in designing internship programs
with an emphasis on social media use.
This book is beneficial for scholars and practitioners who are enthusiastic
about internship learning in educational contexts. While internship comes in many
forms and models such as work-integrated learning in Australia (Jackson, 2018) or
co-operative education (co-op) in Canada (Long, Xu, & Main, 2018), it is a core
experiential learning in a student’s university life. Strengthened with collaboration
between faculty internship supervisors and workplace supervisors, internships create
an opportunity for students to apply theories acquired in the classroom to real-life
situations (Fisher, 2017). Internships also give students brief but practical work
exposure in a particular specialization (Francis & Alagas, 2017; Zopiatis, 2007)
facilitating a smooth classroom–workplace transition (Callanan & Benzing, 2004;
Jackson, 2018; Tovey, 2001). Student interns are introduced to or taught to perform
duties typically performed by professionals in specific specialties, or given special
training on the development of technical skills applicable to various professional
sites (Boyce, Greer, Blair, & Davids, 2012; Cheng, Tang, & Cheng, 2012; Guile
& Griffiths, 2001). For instance, a teacher-in-training is commonly expected to
perform teaching and assessment duties in a designated school. In the same way, a
nurse-in-training assigned to training hospital wards would perform supervised basic
medical tasks such as cleaning wounds and changing dressings. Since internship
experience is related to a career-oriented job at graduation (Blau et al., 2017;
Callanan & Benzing, 2004), career success (Bishop, Justice, & Fernandez, 2015;
Gault, Redington, & Schlager, 2000; Rathbun-Grubb, 2016) and career adaptability
(Pan et al., 2018; Restubog, Ocampo, Lopez-Reyes, Chua-Garcia, & Guan, 2017),
the experience potentially catalyzes a wide range of optimal outcomes. Studies have
also indicated that internships influence positive student functioning and serve as a
strong foundation for university students’ future professional life (Maertz, Stoeberl,
& Marks, 2014). Thus, promotion of effective approaches in implementing internship
programs can be of great benefit to student learning and professional outcomes.
A potential challenge for supervisors of both the faculty and workplace is to
address the wide range of expectations held by student interns. In addition to their
desire to learn technical or other on-the-job skills, student interns also expect their
supervisors to provide assignments that are meaningful and applicable to real prac-
tice (see Vélez & Giner, 2015) in order to acquire experience relevant to future career
goals and work environments. To realize these student expectations, faculty intern-
ship supervisors and workplace supervisors need to explore alternative methods in
executing internship programs.
Existing research has explored the possibility of integrating the use of technology
when implementing internship courses. Usage of social media tools, such as blog-
ging, Facebook, and WhatsApp, has become part of university students’ daily lives
(Margaryan, Littlejohn, & Volt, 2011). In addition to social purposes, Chu (2015b)
found that students also use various social media platforms for learning. However,
despite the potential use of social media for academic purposes, non-academic use
1.1 Content of This Book 3

is more popular among students. Among different types of social media tools, Face-
book has become one of the most popular tools for informal learning among students
in higher education settings (Madge, Meek, Wellens, & Hooley, 2009). In addition,
some students also see blogging as a means for effective information management
(Chu, Kwan, & Warning, 2012b).
Clearly, social media offers great potential for facilitating learning and support
in university experiential internship learning. Previous literature suggests that social
media tools can enhance students’ learning experiences during internships (Chan,
Chu, Lee, Chan, & Leung, 2013; Chu, Chan, & Tiwari, 2012a; Chu, Kwan, &
Warning, 2012b; Shah & Topf, 2019) through boosting their social network (Chen
& Bryer, 2012), problem-solving, information sharing, and knowledge construction
(Chan et al., 2013; Chu et al., 2012a, b). Chau and colleagues (2013) further dis-
covered that students perceived Facebook as an effective tool for knowledge sharing
during internships. The authors identified that the factors affecting knowledge
sharing are Facebook’s capacity to facilitate social ties and peer support as well as
its relevant functions including, but not limited to, news feed, comment, creation
of private groups, and the “like” and “react” functions. This book describes how
a support structure can be built through an online learning platform to enhance
peer-to-peer (and also students-to-faculty internship supervisors) communication
and/or support. It also informs faculty internship supervisors on the effective use of
social media tools to facilitate students’ learning, communication, and support for
an internship program. The book also discusses various types of social media tools
identified as potentially useful for internships.
The two major contributions of this book to current literature on social media
are as follows. First, this book presents a detailed discussion on how social media
can be used as a theory-based pedagogical tool to facilitate an optimal internship
experience. Although previous studies have used social media (e.g., Facebook) to
assist different learning tasks (Lawson, Kleinholz, & Bodle, 2011; Park, Nahm, &
Rogers, 2016), limited research has been conducted to investigate the potential values
of social media in implementing internship programs. This book provides concrete
and practical recommendations on how to use social media to promote successful
internship practices. In this way, this book can serve as a tool to optimize innovative
pedagogical practices in managing internship courses across various disciplines.
Secondly, this book highlights the practical advantages of adopting an integral and a
collaborative participatory design approach among major stakeholders in designing
internship programs.
The participatory design approach introduced can assist with the development of
a pedagogy that cultivates social media tools in internship learning. This approach
emphasizes the active role of all key stakeholders in the design process (Davis
et al., 2017; Reich, Konda, Monarch, Levy, & Subrahmanian, 1996), allowing
participants (i.e., faculty internship supervisors, students, and alumni) to contribute
to decision-making with first-hand experiences and perceptions (Albouys-Perrois,
Laviole, Briant, & Brock, 2018; Clement & Van den Besselaar, 1993; Kensing &
Blomberg, 1998). It also focuses on particular educational targets (e.g., applying
knowledge to work) (Williamson & McGregor, 2011), and documentation of
4 1 Introduction

students’ progress over time (Lobato, 2003). Chu (2015a) demonstrated how a
participatory design approach was effective in developing an online environment that
facilitates learning in student group projects. The approach also provides sufficient
access to relevant information and autonomy in problem-solving, contributes to the
decision-making process, and provides students with the opportunity to select (or
change) the platform used. This approach would largely be useful in perfecting the
design and implementation of innovative internship programs.
The following chapters present a framework for experiential internship learning
through integrating key theoretical literature and effective educational practices such
as the participatory design approach and the use of social media. To strengthen
the foundation of the proposed framework, relevant theories of learning are briefly
discussed. Evidence of students’ positive internship learning processes and outcomes
are presented with data collected from questionnaires, interviews with students and
faculty internship supervisors, as well as their comments and reflections made on
social media sites. As education reform around the world repeatedly emphasizes
the importance of learning through real-life experience (Perlin, 2012), evidence-
based practical examples and cutting-edge research on the suggested pedagogy are
intertwined to generate scientifically driven and practically applicable insights on
the advantages of using social media in internship programs.
This book provides assistance for researchers seeking empirical studies that sup-
port the redesign of educational practices in experiential learning and is also beneficial
for educators and workplace supervisors from different disciplines as a reference of
practical methods in using social media to maximize students’ learning experience
during an internship. Higher education administrators and policymakers can also uti-
lize the potential of social media when establishing innovative education programs
that advocate learning through real-life experiences and relevant career exposure.

1.2 Organization of This Book

The book is clustered into three parts with eight chapters following this introductory
chapter. Part I “Theoretical Foundations” introduces three main concepts: social
media, internships in higher education settings, and learning theories. Chapter 2
describes the development of the concept of social media, including the difference
between Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and social media. The distinct features and advantages of
each social media platform are summarized. Afterward, the chapter further orients
readers to explore the five empirically confirmed factors that contribute to the use of
social media among university students—user-generated content (UGC), prosumer,
co-creation, sharing, and communities. Based on these factors, readers may find
empirical bases on the further development of social media tools for learning purposes
in academic contexts.
Chapter 3 is an introduction to “internship”, including discussion on its definition,
purposes, and beneficial consequences. The challenges in running an internship pro-
gram for higher education level students using traditional strategies are also reviewed.
Students’ internship learning processes are then unveiled alongside a review of the
challenges they faced.
1.2 Organization of This Book 5

Chapter 4 discusses how key learning theories optimize adaptive learning out-
comes in a wide range of academic activities, including internships. These theories
include social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), social constructivist theory (Vygot-
sky, 1978), situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991), cognitive theory of
multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005), social connectivism (Siemens, 2005; Siemens &
Downs, 2009), and computer-supported collaborative learning (Koschmann, 1996).
Part II “Using Social Media for Experiential Internship in Higher Education Insti-
tutes” is comprised of two chapters that highlight the interaction between social
media, internships, and learning theories. These three components come together
to provide solutions and opportunities to enhance internship learning. Solutions are
given based on the author’s and others’ research work about the role of blogs and
forums. Chapter 5 discusses empirical evidence from research studies that can be
used to deal with challenges mentioned in Chap. 3. It goes on to introduce how online
learning platforms such as blogger, Facebook, Schoology, and forums can be used
to facilitate internship learning through pedagogical scaffolding and collaborative
learning. Readers are then introduced to a model of internship learning processes
developed by the author based on his research in blogging to support internship
learning (Chu et al., 2012a, p. 993; Fig. 1.1). The model illustrates how students’
internship learning can be analyzed as cognitive, metacognitive-reflective, collabo-
rative/social, and affective processes facilitated by interactions on social media with
peers, faculty internship supervisor, and alumni.
Chapter 6 illustrates how an experiential internship program, with the use of
social media, can be perfected through the use of a participatory design approach in
several iterations. Readers are introduced to a model that guides faculty internship
supervisors and students to select the proper social media tools to enhance students’
experiential internship learning (Fig. 1.2). The model is grounded on the author’s
research findings, as well as other theoretical and empirical evidence.
Part III “Setting Up Online Platforms for Experiential Internship Learning”
comprises two chapters that cover essential topics for creating online learning plat-
forms that maximize internship learning benefits. Chapter 7 offers readers notable
resources and guidelines to set up online social media platforms, followed by a
discussion on the common considerations when using social media in an educational
context. Ethical guidelines in creating social media platforms for internship are also
elucidated. Chapter 8 suggests recommendations on assessing students’ internship
performance through an online social media platform. Suggestions on effective
methods to conduct formative and summative assessments of students’ learning

Fig. 1.1 Learning processes in blogging to support internship learning (Chu et al., 2012a, p. 993)
6 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.2 Model for using social media tools to maximize experiential internship learning

process and outcome in internships are provided, and strategies to measure the
effectiveness of the chosen online platform are suggested.
Lastly, Chap. 9 summarizes key topics discussed in this book. The contributions
of the chapters to the extant online learning literature are highlighted and linked to
concrete practical implications. Future directions regarding the efficacy of online
social media platforms in the context of internships are also raised.
Notes:
1. Review: Faculty internship supervisors and former internship course students
review the learning outcomes established for internship of the participating
faculties and identify areas of improvement, if any.
2. Align and choose: The internship learning outcomes are then aligned with spe-
cific university education aims. The students will be able to find and choose a
suitable internship position through their faculty program.
3. Assess: All key stakeholders (i.e., the project team, faculty internship supervi-
sors, and current internship course students) assess whether one or more social
media tools (e.g., Facebook, blogs, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, Twitter, etc.) would be
potentially useful for the internship.
4. Decide: Decide which social media tool(s) can best facilitate communication and
support among peers and faculty internship supervisors.
5. Apply: Apply the selected social media tool(s) in the internship programs.
6. Evaluate: Evaluate the students’ internship learning and the effectiveness of the
selected social media tool(s) in the internship programs.
References 7

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 Part I
Theoretical Foundations
Chapter 2
Review of Social Media

The trend of social networking platform usage (e.g., Wikis, Facebook, Instagram,
and Twitter) has been studied by researchers, educators, university administrators,
and policymakers to explore how these technological tools can influence a wide
range of student academic, work-related, personal, social, and well-being outcomes.
Findings from previous studies demonstrate that social media tools can facilitate
effective learning and adjustment through fostering collaboration and interaction
with peers (Asterhan & Bouton, 2017; Chu, 2008; Chu, Capio, van Alst, & Cheng,
2017; Manasijević, Źivcović, Arsić, & Milošević, 2016; Raacke & Bonds-Raacke,
2015). To maximize the full potential of social media in cultivating educational
outcomes, practitioners (e.g., faculty and workplace supervisors) need to understand
the definitions and characteristics of social media and familiarize themselves with
some of the most popular social media tools.
The current chapter provides a brief elucidation of the establishment and develop-
ment of social media. This provides a background in understanding social media and
its characteristics that allow for learning. Subsequent sections compare social media
to traditional media, Web 1.0 and Web 2.0. Major claims around social media tech-
nologies and their values and impacts on society, especially in the field of education,
are then discussed.

2.1 Establishment and Development of Social Media

2.1.1 Traditional Media

Traditional media were based on the idea of one-way “broadcasting”, emphasizing

the dissemination of a unified content to a targeted mass audience (Mayfield, 2008).
Audiences do not have the ability to influence media outlets (Jeffres & Atkin, 2009).
A few examples of traditional media include radio, television, and printed newspaper
in which the contents are specially designed and edited to ensure that the information

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 13

S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_2
14 2 Review of Social Media

is understood by the general public. In order to maximize audience share, traditional

media focused on standardized mass appeal content which are mostly impersonal,
anonymous, and commoditized (Flew, 2009). Broadcast media have high barriers for
new entrants regarding the distribution of content to target audiences and require a
large team and complex division of labor (Mayfield, 2008).

2.1.2 Web 1.0

The development of Web 1.0 or “the Web” has enabled mass information transfer to a
higher level. In 1999, computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the Web interface
based on his vision of a common information space wherein shared information is
accessible to anyone with a computer, irrespective of their location (Berners-Lee,
1999). The vision was made possible through creation of hyperlinks that lead users to
information published on the Web (Berners-Lee, 1999). Web 1.0 was characterized
by rapid one-way transfer of mass information within the Internet network. The
metaphor of the Web as an “information superhighway” was popularized by former
U.S. vice president, Al Gore, to emphasize the high speeds of communication under
little restraint (Miller, 1996). The ease and popularity of the Web have challenged
and transformed traditional broadcast media’s mode of information dissemination
(Stanyer, 2001).

2.1.3 Web 2.0

The term “Web 2.0” refers to the Read/Write Web that allows site-user communica-
tion in both directions (Hew & Cheung, 2013). It is a “Web-as-participation-platform”
(Song, 2010) wherein content is continuously created and shared among end-users
(Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Users can also efficiently and simultaneously co-create
information, for example, on Wikipedia (O’Reilly & Battelle, 2004). The instanta-
neous nature of Web 2.0 allows timely publication and information reception (Hew
& Cheung, 2013; Lee & Markey, 2014). Some of the most important concepts of
Web 2.0 are “the Web as platform”, “the architecture of participation”, and “the
power of the tail” (O’Reilly & Battelle, 2004). These concepts shape the affordances
and characteristics of social media to be discussed later in the chapter.
“The Web as platform” means software services could be run on a web browser
through a network and remote server instead of a user’s computer managed by a
desktop operating system such as Windows. This is made possible with the use
of cloud computing technology (Campanella, 2017; Darwish & Lakhtaria, 2011).
Consequently, software applications (licensed and distributed packages) became
less important and more emphasis is placed on service-providing applications
(Anderson, 2007). Many of these services remain in a status of “perpetual beta”,
implying continuous changes and service upgrades (Anderson, 2007). Millions
2.1 Establishment and Development of Social Media 15

of people are engaged daily in various Web-related activities through “the Web
as platform”; examples include social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook,
blogs (e.g., Blogger), Wikis (e.g., MediaWiki), photo websites (e.g., Flickr), and
video-sharing tools (e.g., YouTube).
Web 2.0 creates an “architecture of participation” by allowing users of various
Web systems to participate and even become software developers (O’Reilly, 2004).
Wiki is an example as it is fluid, open, and designed for users to contribute in content
publishing and editing (Hew & Cheung, 2013; Wheeler, Yeomans, & Wheeler, 2008)
with ease, regardless of their HTML knowledge levels (Lee & Markey, 2014). Content
on a Wiki is group-created knowledge, often described as “the wisdom of the crowd”
(Wheeler et al. 2008). Nonetheless, the accuracy and veracity of the content on a Wiki
or other SNSs may be questionable, as users may publish poorly formulated ideas
or false content. Therefore, with observable doubts raised regarding information
quality created on Web 2.0, gatekeeping by users is essential to uphold information
credibility (Westerman, Spence, & Heide, 2014).
Chris Anderson dubbed the Web 2.0 phenomenon “the long tail” with his obser-
vation that many customers were buying obscure items that a physical store would
not usually stock (Brynjolfsson, Hu, & Smith, 2006). For example, according to
Brynjolfsson et al. (2006), 30–40% of Amazon book sales were titles not usually
found in physical bookstores, but were sourced from Amazon’s extremely large
database of niche products. This meant that the force of many, or, the collective
power of many small sites, could comprise bulky powerful web content as in the
case of Wikipedia (O’Reilly, 2007). In addition to being consumers of products
and information available via the Web, it has been argued that many of Web 2.0
users are also producers of uploaded content due to low production and distribution
costs (Crook, Fisher, Graber, Harrison, & Lewin, 2008). For example, YouTube,
considered by some as “a king in the field of video sharing” (Khan, Khan, & Khan,
2016, p. 57), has become the largest video-sharing site. Videos are uploaded by
creators with the choice of public or selected audience and viewers may “like” or
comment on the video; video links can also be easily be shared by viewers to other
social media platforms such as Facebook.

2.1.4 Social Media

Social media could simply be defined as “the media we use to be social” (Safko
& Brake, 2010, p. 3). In addition to this, more detailed and complex definitions
have been offered by other scholars. Westerman et al. (2014) view social media as
“a general category of channels and applications that highlight collaboration and
working together to create and distribute content” (p. 172). Kaplan and Haenlein
(2010) define social media as Internet-based applications created on the basis of
Web 2.0 ideology, and this technology enables and facilitates the creation and
sharing of user-generated content (UGC). Mao (2014) further extends the above
ideas to include “communicating, sharing, collaborating, publishing, managing, and
16 2 Review of Social Media

interacting” (p. 213). In contrast to traditional media and Web 1.0 technology, social
media provide low barriers for users to collaborate on the creation and editing of
works (Leadbeater, 2009; Shirky, 2008), to articulate and maintain relationships, and
to form communities of similar interest at ease (Boyd, 2008b; Choudhury, Sundaram,
John, & Seligmann, 2010; Mayfield, 2008). In this way, social media users may
achieve wide reach regardless of their status (Etter, Ravasi, & Colleoni, 2019).
Boyd (2008b) considered that almost every online communication tool should
qualify as social media including “messaging, blogging, microblogging, forums,
email, virtual worlds, texting or SNS” (p. 92). Thus, social media includes systems
that handle one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many communications; some of
them, in particular, can be used to establish networked spaces for interactions. SNSs,
in particular, primarily mirrors the social networks people have made in real life.
Boyd and Ellison (2008) described this form of social media as “web-based services
that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bound
system, articulate other users, view and traverse their connections and those made
by others within the system” (p. 211).
Researchers have proposed multiple ways to categorize social media tools. They
could be classified according to their nature, functions, and types of information
shared (Bozarth, 2010; Berthon, Pitt, Plangger, & Shapiro, 2012; Kaplan & Haen-
lein, 2010; Mao, 2014; Xiang & Gretzel, 2009). Bozarth (2010) categorized social
media based on the purposes and functions of their content, namely, (1) communica-
tion (e.g., blogs); (2) collaboration (e.g., Wikis); (3) communities (e.g., Facebook);
(4) reviews (e.g., Amazon reader reviews); and (5) multimedia (e.g., YouTube).
The classification to be used for the rest of the book will be that of Safko (2012)
which comprehensively categorizes the different social media tools according to
function. The categories are (1) social networking, (2) Wiki, (3) forums, (4) blogs,
(5) photo sharing, (6) audio, (7) video, (8) microblogging, (9) livecasting, (10) virtual
worlds, (11) gaming, (12) RSS and aggregators, (13) search, (14) mobile, and (15)
interpersonal.
Communication has become convenient and effortless through the technology
of Web 2.0 and the aforementioned characteristics and functions of social media.
Consequently, learning with and/or from fellow users across different contexts is
also made easier. This will be explored in more detail in later chapters.

2.1.5 Web 3.0

The Web is constantly evolving and developing. It is worth mentioning the emerging
Web 3.0 which will shape future use of social media and the web in general. The
concept of Web 3.0 is commonly associated with the concept of the “Semantic
Web”. Coined in 1999 by Tim Berners-Lee, “Sematic Web” refers to the ability
of “machines to ‘talk to one another’ and to understand and create meaning from
semantic data” (Barassi & Trere, 2012, p. 1272). Lassila and Hendler (2007) further
2.1 Establishment and Development of Social Media 17

describe the Semantic Web as “the symbiosis of Web technologies and knowl-
edge representation … concerned with constructing and maintaining (potentially
complex) models of the world that enable reasoning about themselves and their
associated information” (p. 90). The foundation of Web 3.0 lies in resource descrip-
tion framework (RDF), which links data from multiple websites, and afterward,
facilitates “multisite mashups”. Since this process occurs at the data level, Web 3.0
technology is commonly seen as integrated into, or powering, large-scale Web 2.0
applications (Hendler, 2009). Simply put, Web 3.0 can be understood as “the web of
open-ness. A web that breaks the old silos, links everyone, everything, everywhere
and makes the whole thing potentially smarter” (Boutin, 2009).
An example of an online service using Web 3.0 technology is DataPatrol; it allows
users to learn about and manage what is known about them online and take mea-
sures to protect themselves against identity theft. Another example is Sales Force,
a database that integrates different data such as customer profiles and latest statis-
tics for the purpose of creating marketing strategies for companies. With Web 3.0,
human cooperation could be supported by digital technology and information that
is linked and re-constructed through systems designed and controlled by humans
(Fuchs et al., 2010). This may shape the future directions on the use of social media,
including its educational affordances. Since Web 3.0 technology is currently used for
easier cooperation and efficient data management, it has potential to revolutionize
education and pedagogy in the future.

2.2 Comparison of Traditional Media, Web 1.0,

and Social Media

This section summarizes the core ideas that differentiate social media from Web 1.0
and also traditional media through five aspects (Table 2.1): (1) media distribution, (2)
media production, (3) media power, (4) media content, and (5) the producer/consumer
relationship.

2.3 Major Claims Around Social Media Technologies

With social media’s popularity, it is unquestionably important to understand the issues

and ideologies related to its use. A review of existing literature suggests that social
media tools and activities can be classified into three major themes: user-generated
content (UGC), sharing, and community (Table 2.2).

Table 2.1 From traditional media to social media
Traditional media
Examples Radio, television, newspaper
Media distribution Large-scale distribution; high
barriers to entry for new entrants
Media production Complex division of labor: critical
role of media content gatekeepers
and professionals
Media power Asymmetrical power
relationship—one-way
communication flow
Media content Tendency toward standardized mass
appeal content to maximize
audience share—limited scope for
market segmentation based on
product differentiation
Producer/consumer relationship Mostly impersonal, anonymous and
commoditized (audiences as target
audiences)
Adapted from Cormode & Krishnamurthy (2008), Flew (2009), Gillmor (2004)
Web 1.0
Official websites (e.g., BBC
website)
Large-scale distribution; relatively
lower barriers to entry, but very few
can be distributors
Very few can be producers
One-way communication flow, but
less asymmetrical power
relationship as a few more users can
share and spread information
Only standardized transmission of
content to the mass; possibly few
categories
May still be impersonal and
asymmetrical; very few producers
but many passive consumers
18
Social media
Social media tools (e.g., YouTube)
Social media technologies
dramatically reduce barriers to entry
based on distribution
Easy-to-use social media
technologies give scope for
individuals and small teams to be
producers, editors of media content
Greater empowerment of
users/audiences enabled through
interactivity and greater choice of
media outlets
“Long tail” economics make much
wider range of media content
potentially profitable;
demassification and segmentation of
media content markets
Potential to be more personalized
and driven by user communities and
user-created content
2 Review of Social Media
2.3 Major Claims Around Social Media Technologies 19

Table 2.2 Major characteristics of social media and major activities and tools involved
Major practice/Activities Tools/Applications
involved
User-generated content (1) Creating and producing • SNS (e.g., Facebook, Twitter,
• Creation media content for public Instagram, LinkedIn)
• Prosumer (2) Uploading content owned by • Social file-sharing tools (e.g.,
• Co-creation others YouTube, Flickr)
(3) Contributing to the creation • Wikis (e.g., Wikipedia,
of content, while at the same PbWorks)
time consuming it • Blogs
(4) Co-producing a piece of • Microsoft Teams
work in small group or mass • Second Life
• RSS
• Forums
Sharing (1) Publishing, editing, and • Social file-sharing tools (e.g.,
sharing YouTube, Flickr)
(2) Commenting, blogging, • Wikis (e.g., Wikipedia)
instant, and messaging • Blogs
(3) Social tagging • Microsoft Teams
(4) Uploading and downloading • Peer-to-Peer applications (e.g.,
BitTorrent, KaZaa)
• SNS (e.g., Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, LinkedIn)
Community (1) Socializing • SNS (e.g., Facebook, Twitter,
(2) Discussing LinkedIn, Yammer)
(3) Mobilizing • Forums
crowds/communities for social • Wikis (e.g., Wikipedia,
movements PbWorks)
(4) Mass collaboration • Microsoft Teams

2.3.1 User-Generated Content (UGC)

UGC refers to publicly available media content produced by end-users (Sensarkar,

2009). In general, users exercise amateur creativity in creating the shared content
driven by senses of self-expression and of self-actualization (Shao, 2009). Östman
(2012) further elaborates on this form of creativity as “amateur or petty production
of original content, or the alteration and editing of existing content” (p. 1006). UGC
has been so popular that its volume has overtaken professionally created content
by traditional media to become the main social media phenomena. This has been
supported by user-friendly websites, cheap and efficient content-sharing software,
and widespread broadband connection worldwide (Sensarkar, 2009). The majority of
video clips on YouTube are largely contributed by end-users (Shao, 2009). As UGC
relies on general users to sustain information flow, it is important that the website
design is comprehensive and provides users with sufficient control of the system
(Shao, 2009).
Despite the importance of UGC to social media, the production of materials by
amateurs has created issues of information accuracy (Cha, Kwak, Rodriguez, Ahn,
20 2 Review of Social Media

& Moon, 2009) and credibility (Ayeh, Au, & Law, 2013). The “publish-then-filter”
mode of UGC increased the demand of a more powerful and efficient filtering tool
or procedure comparable to traditional media. UGC-initiated viewing patterns and
social interactions has also revamped the traditional landscape of communication and
broadcasting (Cha et al., 2009), urging traditional media to reform their relationship
to consumers (Jenkins, 2006). Problems such as copyright infringement and unpre-
dictability of site consumption and development are also common in UGC. Being
highly reliant on the user community for website materials and maintenance, UGC
is vulnerable to the high unpredictability of site development; an example raised by
Shirky (2008) was the hypothetical end to Wikipedia development if people who
love it all simultaneously lost interest. This leads us to the ideas of (1) prosumer and
(2) co-creation (i.e., the process of people creating things in groups); both are core
to UGC and will be discussed below.
Prosumer
With UGC, consumers are also producers (Fuchs, 2008) and are labeled, “pro-
sumers”. Coined by Toffler (1980), the term “prosumer” refers to people who produce
products and also consume them simultaneously; this new label also depicts users’
ability to take control over the creation and distribution of content that they produce
(Quan-Haase & Young, 2010). Some social media tools which support prosumption
include blogosphere (Weblogs) and microblogging (Twitter) (Ritzer & Jurgenson,
2010). Most prosumers seem to enjoy their role as they enjoy the experience; in
some cases, prosumers may even receive recognition and goodwill which could help
advance a career (e.g., as a photographer, journalist) (Ritzer & Jurgenson, 2010).
Although a considerable portion of UGC may be worthless and of low value (Las-
towka, 2008), the production process allows users the chance to express themselves
(Shao, 2009) and is already valuable in this sense. There is no doubt that social media
have revolutionized the way knowledge and information are disseminated. Compared
with traditional media, social media has created a power equilibrium between the
producer and consumer.
Co-creation
Co-creation, in the context of social media technologies, refers to the process of a
group of people who co-create a piece of work online, whether they belong to a small
group or large. Mass collaboration through social media transcends restrictions
of disciplines, cultures, and geographical boundaries (Tapscott & Williams, 2008)
and allows communities to build ideas and progress toward creating complex and
valuable products of high quality (Leadbeater, 2009). In fact, goods and services
co-created through social media have higher value and receive heightened trust
and purchasing intention from consumers (See-to & Ho, 2014). Social media,
such as Wikis and SNS, have been found to transform and facilitate better ways to
co-produce a piece of work (Chu, 2008; Chu & Kennedy, 2011). In an educational
context, the co-creation characteristic of social media allows for students’ online
coordinating and cooperating on shared projects and courses. For instance, because
of social media, undergraduate and postgraduate students in India report an increased
2.3 Major Claims Around Social Media Technologies 21

rate and quality of collaborative learning which teaches them communication skills
and how to work in groups (Bharucha, 2018). Cloud computing makes this possible
by having a virtual workspace on a remote server for creating, sharing, and storing
files which users can access through any device that can connect to the network
(Campanella, 2017). Co-creation also becomes important for internship courses
with student interns who are in different locations while still needing monitoring,
supervision, and collaborative learning support.
Co-creation requires four conditions: (1) group sharing of great interest in a sup-
posedly exciting project, (2) easy access to tools, (3) low-cost testing and speedy
feedback so that peer review can be extensive to refine the project, and (4) ownership
of project must be public to a certain extent (Leadbeater, 2009). Wikipedia is a good
example of co-creation; constructed on Wiki technology, Wikipedia permits user
editing and tracks edition history. Wiki users can move back-and-forth between the
roles of reader and writer and updates the Wiki. Identified as a potentially large trove
of knowledge since its launch (Nastase & Strube, 2013), Wikipedia has continued
to grow as many participants coordinate writing and editing, cementing Wikipedia’s
place as a useful and convenient reference tool (Shirky, 2008; Staub & Hodel, 2016).

2.3.2 Sharing

Simpler, fast, and cheap production and transmission with social media tools
encourage the creation and sharing of UGC (Dhar & Chang, 2009; Fuchs, 2011;
Lastowka, 2008) to a large audience. The concept of mass sharing may be traced
Tim Berners-Lee’s Web 1.0 which was created solely for sharing, since the tools
during this period were not as accessible to the public (Weiss, 2005) compared to
the Web 2.0 era, when users can finally participate in communities of knowledge
sharing (Crook, 2008) through social media tools. Mass sharing was so widespread
that exchange of ideas and collective knowledge construction is made convenient;
it was identified as a part of “the next Telecommunications Revolution” (Irvine &
Schwarzbach, 2011, p. 209). Leadbeater depicted a vivid picture of mass sharing,
which was brought to the world because of the Web:
The biggest change the web will bring about is in allowing us to share with one another in
new ways and particularly to share ideas. That matters because the more ideas are shared
the more they breed, mutate and multiply and that process is ultimately the source of our
creativity, innovation and well-being. (Leadbeater, 2009, p. 6)

Social media tools that facilitate content sharing have been thriving partly because
they are more “intuitive to use” (García-Martín & García-Sánchez, 2013, p. 105)
when compared to earlier tools such as blogs and Wikis. Table 2.3 summarizes the
sharing functions of some different social media tools. This list is non-exhaustive.
Mass sharing, however, might not always be a positive concept; UGC was revised
by Petersen (2008) to “loser-generated content” as he considers that companies own-
ing social media tools reap all financial benefits, but the users—the losers, get nothing.
While ownership of UGC posted on social media sites is retained by the users, the
22 2 Review of Social Media

Table 2.3 Sharing functions of different social media tools

Social media tool Sharing functions
Blogs Permit users to publish and share thoughts with ease (Weiss, 2005)
and facilitate discussion through commenting (Gillmor, 2004)
Wiki Fluid in allowing users to edit, view edit history, communicate
asynchronously, and share new and existing content (Li & Zhu, 2017;
Weiss, 2005; Wheeler et al., 2008)
Flickr Photo sharing and archiving site featuring a social tagging system
(Kazienko, Musial, & Kajdanowicz, 2008), sharing of tags, and
commenting on photos to foster user connections
Instagram Photos or videos shared are often categorized by hashtags and
locations identified by the creator (Jaakonmäki, Müller, & Vom
Brocke, 2017)
YouTube Permits video sharing by uploading and sending links directly to
others or by embedding them in websites and blogs; its video rating
and commenting functions infuse a social element, helping to identify
popular or “viral” videos (Cheng, Dale, & Liu, 2007)
Bit Torrent and KaZaa Allow users to upload and download free media content (Weiss,
2005), sometimes in the form of entire theater movies, usually without
authorization from copyright owners
Twitter Users can share different kinds of information through tweeting and
re-tweeting, and quickly disseminate information among mass
populations (Ifrim, Shi, & Brigadir, 2014; Kwak, Lee, Park, & Moon,
2010)
Facebook Users share information through comments, publishing a post, instant
messaging, and embedding videos and photos (Boyd & Ellison, 2008)
and organizations may also enhance communication with users by
sharing information in their pages (Chen, Maxwell, Chu, Li, & Tang,
2011)
LinkedIn Allows for professional networking, creating a professional profile
similar to a resume, as well as sending and receiving recommendations
and endorsements from their connections (Cooper & Naatus, 2014)
Microsoft Teams Users can communicate through chat and video conferences, share
various file types, and co-create documents (Martin & Tapp, 2019)

terms of use also indicate that the company is granted license to distribute, use, mod-
ify, copy, and display the content (Facebook, 2018; YouTube, 2019). Site popularity
and income as boosted by users would increase sites’ market value and eventually,
high-priced business acquisitions would take place; it was viewed that users were
being exploited this way (Petersen, 2008). Furthermore, the ease of content sharing
has resulted in a mass flow of inaccurate and potentially misleading information
and would affect the public’s perception of important issues; examples include spam
tweets on Twitter (Kwak et al., 2010) and “fake news” on multiple platforms. “Fake
news” refers to “news articles that are intentionally and verifiably false, and could
mislead readers,” which also includes satirical articles that might be misunderstood
as true when seen on newsfeeds in isolation (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017, p. 213).
2.3 Major Claims Around Social Media Technologies 23

2.3.3 Community

Often, users form communities on social media based on similar interests, concern,
or passion and sustain continuous or regular interactions (Bucholtz & Hall, 2005;
Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002). These communities do not require any phys-
ical togetherness and the Web is similar to a common place where all members are
equal (Rheingold, 1993). Millions of members have formed various kinds of virtual
communities through SNS; in general, these sites focus on enabling members to main-
tain their pre-existing social networks, but some help strangers to connect based on
their shared interests or political views (Boyd & Ellison, 2008). Boyd (2008a) views
SNSs as “networked publics” that support communal activities, similar to the ways
physical public spaces do. On Instagram, for example, terms such as “influencer”
and “content creator” have been widely applied to users with a large follower base
(Jaakonmäki, Müller, & Vom Brocke, 2017); these influencers often call out to their
own “Instagram community” for support or ideas as trust and familiarity have arisen
among members (Yan, Davison, & Mo, 2013). In an educational context, students’
sense of community and social presence through Facebook motivated high engage-
ment from chitchatting to academic discussions and solving problems together during
their internship (Deng & Tavares, 2013). On LinkedIn, users are able to connect with
and build professional career networks, join relevant professional groups, and even
follow “influencers” who are high-profile business leaders (Cooper & Naatus, 2014).
With SNS, virtual communities are more personal than topical compared to before
Web 2.0 (Boyd & Ellison, 2008), but this also leads to privacy concerns.
Because of the ease of community formation in social media, handling data and
personal information as well as socialization have become problematic. For instance,
publicized personal information on SNS might allow hackers and criminals to recon-
struct users’ social security numbers (Boyd & Ellison, 2008) and commit identity
theft. In 2018, Facebook and Cambridge Analytica, a London-based data analytics
firm, were involved in a scandal over illegally obtaining around 50 million users’
data, with the majority in the US, which were allegedly used for Donald Trump’s
Presidential election campaign (BBC, 2018). Facebook has since then updated the
site’s terms and data policies and made it easier for users to take control of their
privacy settings (Egan, 2018). Furthermore, the well-being of social media users
is also of great concern as cyberbullying may be performed through social media,
and bullied adolescents may experience impairment of development of their social
functioning, attitudes, and values (Berson, Berson, & Berson, 2002; Patton et al.,
2014).

2.4 Social Media in the Education Context

In the educational context, co-creation has proven to be immensely valuable in col-

laborative learning. Various studies have sought to explicate the relationship between
student learning and social media. For example, Crook (2008) suggested that Web 2.0
24 2 Review of Social Media

technologies enable students to engage in collaborative learning, paving the way to

co-creation of projects and knowledge. With SNS, blogs, Wikis, and online forums,
students can participate more in knowledge sharing and peer-to-peer comment and
assessment for assignments such as group projects (Chu, Kwan, & Warning, 2012;
Ellison & Wu, 2008; Rice, 2009).
For group research projects, students could organize their research according to
topics on an open-access, stand-alone Wiki, allowing them to collect information
without narrowing down their research scope (Rice, 2009). After information gath-
ering, they could create an RSS document to detail changes of the target issue on
online forums and podcasting sites (Rice, 2009). With new, non-traditional infor-
mation gathered through this approach, they can focus on the research of the infor-
mation patterns, which leads them to create Wiki links and browser feeds to sites
that discuss the issue frequently. These technologies can save time on task delega-
tion and discussion on specific writing strategies, as students can post their work
and leave the Wiki public for the Internet audience to provide feedback on hon-
ing their writing (Rice, 2009); all these can form the basis of a successful research
project. More recently, cloud-based apps like Microsoft Teams have been created
to make collaboration easier through integrating different services—from chatting
to file sharing, and co-creation, in one app (Martin & Tapp, 2019). Social media
can be a useful tool for collaborative creation in education through building a better
information pool, saving coordination time, and facilitating group co-construction of
work and commenting. Social media platforms have been found to be helpful in facil-
itating knowledge creation, capturing, and sharing despite some differences among
varied platforms (Crook, 2008). It also creates a sense of belonging among the stu-
dents collaborating (Bharucha, 2018). Furthermore, the use of Web 2.0 technologies
was found to have contributed a generally positive impact on student achievements
(Hew & Cheung, 2013). Given that lifestyles of millennial students have been
highly efficient and personalized as brought about by the use of social media tools
(McHaney, 2011), educators are urged to incorporate social media tools in education
to adapt to the new trend and maximize learning outcomes.
Although practitioners are exploring innovative teaching approaches that make
use of social media tools (McHaney, 2011; Zhang, Flammer & Yang, 2010), findings
on the impact of these tools require expansion (Hew & Cheung, 2013). Around 40%
of faculty teaching staff in the United States use social media tools in their lessons
(Seaman & Tinti-Kane, 2013), but educators from primary to tertiary institutions
in Hong Kong have encountered barriers and issues in integrating social media in
education (Au, Lam, & Chan, 2015).

2.5 Summary

From traditional media represented by televisions and radios to the Web 1.0 era
dominated by websites designed for one-way information transmission, the media
landscape has moved from the material world to digital space. Social media have
2.5 Summary 25

brought the transformation to another level—information transmission has been

redefined and the roles of information producers and consumers were merged. This
chapter has reviewed the development, concepts, characteristics, and status of social
media and web-based technologies. The potentials and limitations of social media
are also introduced. The key ideas of prosumer, co-creation, sharing culture, and the
formation of online community have been revisited and critically embraced.
Social media has offered much benefit to users including co-creation with a small
team or through mass collaboration through wisdom of a larger crowd. The power
of highly engaging online communities formed around these technologies for users
to demand better products and even better governments has also been noted. These
technologies have been said to enable users to access almost anything any time,
making the accessibility of information far more convenient and complete when
compared to the past.

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Chapter 3
Internship in Higher Education

Although graduates from universities and other higher education institutions (HEI)
guarantee a certain degree of academic prowess, many lack workplace skills and
thus fail to secure employment at graduation (Gorman, 2016; Levy, 2013). Studies
of some HEI internships reveal that during their internships, students’ unsatisfactory
work performance was sometimes pointed out by internship workplace supervisors
(Chowdhury, 2011; Maertz, Stoeberl, & Marks, 2014). Given the current insuffi-
ciencies of graduates and student interns alike, there is a pressing need to develop
sound and rigorous internship programs or other forms of equivalent experiential pro-
grams such as work-integrated learning in Australia (Jackson, 2018) and co-operative
education in Canada (Long, Xu, & Main, 2018). Therefore, to produce highly capa-
ble graduates and competent employees, effective conceptualization, planning, and
implementation of internship programs in higher educational contexts play a critical
role (Maertz et al., 2014).
The current chapter provides an overview of the role of internship in HEI.
Definitions of internships are first presented, followed by an elaboration of the
objectives or aims of an internship program. A discussion on how and why intern-
ships are an effective experiential learning experience follows. Potential caveats and
challenges in running internship programs, along with the difficulties that students
typically encounter during their internship, are also discussed.

3.1 What is Internship?

In internships, students can perform a wide range of professional duties and

responsibilities (Novotorov, 2001; Wan, Yang, Cheng, & Chiakai, 2012). HEIs, as
the administrating body of tertiary courses, can arrange suitable internship oppor-
tunities with companies and other organizations to cultivate students’ capability in
integrating domain-specific conceptual knowledge in actual work scenarios. Various
definitions of “internship” include, but are not limited to

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 31

S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_3
32 3 Internship in Higher Education

(a) an “opportunity for students to apply concepts from coursework in actual orga-
nizations” and “an immersive experience in the messiness of the real world,
where a student will observe situations that highlight the inevitable distinctions
between theory and practice” (Fisher, 2017, p. 1);
(b) “short-term practical work experience in which students receive training and
gain experience in a specific field or career area of their interest” (Zopiatis,
2007, p. 65).
An “intern” is
someone who is involved in part-time or full-time work experience that is related to the
student’s career goal or major, who may be paid or unpaid, may or may not be receiving
academic credit for the internship, but who is a temporary employee. (Tovey, 2001, p. 226)

As a form of experiential learning, internships provide opportunities for students to

perform work-related tasks in an organization (George, Lim, Lucas, & Meadows,
2015). Chen, Hu, Wang, and Chen (2011) have noted that internships can enhance stu-
dents’ pragmatic work competencies, sense of independence, and interpersonal rela-
tions. Pleasant feelings and memories from the internship, learning experiences, and
recognized efforts have also been associated with higher satisfaction with internships.
Given the significant role of internships in cultivating students’ professional skills,
the choice of internship structure or program has been an important concern for HEIs.
The extant literature reveals various types of internship programs, including
(a) combination of clinical and non-clinical observations for medical placements;
(b) engagement in a clinical rehabilitation project and frequent discussion especially
among clinical psychologists (Wagner & Stewart, 2001);
(c) emphasis on cultural training strategies (Canady et al., 2011); and
(d) computer-mediated internships such as virtual or e-internship (Bayerlein
& Jeske, 2018; Jeske & Axtell, 2014; van Dorp, 2008), including virtual
international internship (Marr, 2019).
These internship formats may also take place overseas in the form of interna-
tional internships where interns work at overseas organizations in another country
(Zanchetta, Schwind, Aksenchuk, Gorospe, & Santiago, 2013).
In virtual internships, interns acquire work-related exposure through a remote
organizational context without necessarily requiring physical interactions with work-
place supervisors. Virtual internships may also be in a blended format in class settings
for further practice, for instance, nursing students and pre-service teachers (Theelen,
Willems, van den Beemt, Conijn, & den Brok, 2019; Ward & Killian, 2011). Jeske
and Axtell (2014) note that “the emergence of virtual internships may in part be
traced back to a number of variables, including technological developments, virtual
mobility and economic factors” (p. 458).
3.2 Aims of Internships 33

3.2 Aims of Internships

There are several reasons why internships serve as an integral component of higher
education. Maertz et al. (2014) concluded that internships provide an avenue for
students to shift from dealing with university life to real-life work experience.
Internships enable individuals to see connections between key theoretical knowl-
edge and practices (Maertz et al., 2014; Ross & Elechi, 2002). To some extent, this
is because interns are commonly given opportunities to learn both pertinent job
competencies and workplace abilities (Baker, Romero, Geannette, & Patel, 2009;
George et al., 2015; Seyitoğlu & Yirik, 2015), especially for students who have no
previous working experience exposure to workplace and organizational cultures.
Internships can serve as an essential medium for achieving the aims of a specific
academic program. For example, the professional experience or internship syllabus
(which serves as the internship experiential subject of the Bachelor of Science in
Information Management program in a university in Hong Kong) for the school year
2015–2016 states that the internship course “aims to provide practice experience that
will prepare students to perform effectively in professional positions. It will serve
as a bridge between theories, knowledge and skills learned in coursework and the
professional world where students will work after graduation” (Chu, 2015, p. 2).
It is therefore anticipated that this 1–3-month-long supervised field experience in a
professional domain (i.e., information management) would optimize achievement of
program learning outcomes. An essential portion of the syllabus that involves the
alignment of course learning outcomes with relevant program learning outcomes is
shown in Fig. 3.1. This table suggests that learning outcomes in an internship course
can function as a potentially capable pathway to realize most or even all the expected
indicators of learning in a specific program.

3.3 Benefits of Internships for Students, Faculty,

and Workplace Supervisors

Internships’ benefits for students have been well documented in many studies;
internship experiences have robust long-term benefits on desirable academic
and career-related outcomes across different fields of specialization. Regardless
of academic discipline and demographic characteristics (i.e., gender and ethnic
background), Binder, Baguley, Cook, and Miller (2015) have demonstrated that
internships have substantial and positive impacts on academic outcomes even after
controlling for relevant demographic variables and prior academic achievement.
Generally, internships are valuable for future employment (Blau et al., 2017) because
they provide concrete insights into students’ work-related expectations (Brooks,
Cornelius, Greenfield, & Joseph, 1995), as well as opportunities for students to
acquire knowledge on possible job prospects after their studies (Kim & Park, 2013;
Lee & Chao, 2013; Richardson, 2012; Zopiatis & Theocharous, 2013).
34 3 Internship in Higher Education

Fig. 3.1 Example of aligning program learning outcomes (PLO) and course learning outcomes
(CLO). Note This table is adopted from the Course Outline of the Professional Experience (Intern-
ship) course for Bachelor of Science in Information Management students at a university in Hong
Kong (School Year 2015–2016) demonstrating the alignment between program learning outcomes
and course learning outcomes

Internship learning and experience has also been linked to career success (Bishop,
Justice, & Fernandez, 2015; Gault, Redington, & Schlager, 2000; Rathbun-Grubb,
2016) as well as career adaptability (Pan et al., 2018; Restubog, Ocampo, Lopez-
Reyes, Chua-Garcia, & Guan, 2017). In business contexts, internships boost students’
academic performance and chances of postgraduation employment (Knouse, Tanner,
& Harris, 1999); their salaries (Seow, Pan, & Goh, 2018) and work satisfaction are
also pushed to higher levels (for a review, see Knouse & Fontenot, 2008). For pre-
service teachers, experiencing long-term internship training significantly enhances
learning conceptions, learning strategies, and emotion regulation (Donche, Endedijk,
& van Daal, 2015). Satisfaction with internships among tourism undergraduate
interns is linked to higher perceptions of professional development (Seyitoğlu &
Yirik, 2015). Internship programs also result in development of competencies and
professional practices for science students (i.e., life, health, and environmental
sciences) (Scholz, Steiner, & Hansmann, 2004), veterinary medicine interns
(Matthew, Taylor, & Ellis, 2012), and radiation oncology medical specialists (Baker,
Romero, Geannette, & Patel, 2009; Gilbert, Banks, Houser, Rhodes, & Lees, 2014).
Indeed, efficacious implementation of effective internship programs has resulted in
3.3 Benefits of Internships for Students, Faculty, and Workplace … 35

Table 3.1 Benefits of internships to students

Nature of benefits Concrete outcomes and sources
Academic – Academic achievement (Binder et al., 2015; Knouse et al., 1999)
Career – Employment prospects and knowledge of work expectations (Brooks
et al., 1995; Kim & Park, 2013; Knouse & Fontenot, 2008; Lee & Chao,
2013; Richardson, 2012; Zopiatis & Theocharous, 2013)
– Job marketability (Inceoglu et al., 2018; Maskooki et al., 1998;
Raymond et al., 1993)
– Positive learning outcomes for student interns from various fields such
as business (Knouse, Tanner, & Harris, 1999), education (Donche et al.,
2015), tourism (Seyitoğlu & Yirik, 2015), veterinary medicine
(Matthew, Taylor, & Ellis, 2012), science (Scholz et al., 2004), and
radiation oncology (Gilbert et al., 2014)
Non-academic – Effective verbal and written communication
– Organizational and problem-solving skills
– Capability to work autonomously (Scholz et al., 2004)
– Good time management (Wesley & Bickle, 2005)
– Socio-emotional skills (Alpert, Heaney, & Kuhn, 2009; García-Aracil &
Van der Velden, 2008)

students’ higher competitiveness and marketability when searching and applying

for jobs (Aggett & Busby, 2011; Divine, Linrud, Miller, & Wilson, 2007, Inceoglu,
Selenko, McDowall, & Schlachter, 2018; Liu, Xu, & Weitz, 2011; Maskooki, Rama,
& Raghunandan, 1998; Raymond, McNabb, & Matthaei, 1993; Swift & Kent, 1999).
Internships are highly valuable because of their ability to promote positive career
and work-related outcomes and subsequent academic performance. Table 3.1 sum-
marizes the identified impact of internships on the aspects of academic, career, and
non-academic outcomes based on the results of the existing literature.
Certain aspects of internships may account for these desirable outcomes. For
instance, Stansbie, Nash, and Chang (2016) have shown that student beliefs about
internships’ significance may be associated with perceptions that the internship
experiences cultivate new competencies that are not gained through classroom
activities.
Furthermore, different forms of internships were found to be effective in pro-
moting important non-academic outcomes. Studies have shown that internships can
improve students’ abilities to solve concrete problems (Teichler, 2009). Students’
time management (Wesley & Bickle, 2005) and socio-emotional skills (Alpert et al.,
2009; García-Aracil & Van der Velden, 2008) were also largely enhanced. Like-
wise, other evidences of personal growth and identity construction in the workplace
are seen in students’ changes in perception of their knowledge, efficacy, skills, and
attitudes after the internship (Inceoglu et al., 2018). Through integrative internships,
physical and rehabilitation medicine students were capable of being more sensitive to
people with disabilities (Wagner & Stewart, 2001). Experience in leading an interna-
tional internship program could also empower students to cultivate changes in local
communities (Zanchetta et al., 2013), and satisfaction with internship experiences
aids students’ professional development (Seyitoğlu & Yirik, 2015).
36 3 Internship in Higher Education

Internships can also potentially expand university students’ career exploration

repertoire (Maertz et al., 2014; Matthew et al., 2012; Mercader-Trejo, López,
Granada, Hernández, & Basurto, 2016). Students who undertake internships gain
familiarity about domain-specific careers (Francis & Alagas, 2017) or possible job
opportunities, identify preferred working conditions, and cultivate interests toward
a specific line of specialization (Maertz et al., 2014; Mercader-Trejo et al., 2016).
Although previous investigations placed much importance on identifying conse-
quences of internships for students, some studies have shown that internships also
offer apparent benefits for employers or workplace supervisors. For instance, instead
of the normative approaches including screening resumes and conducting interviews
for a new opening, internships provide employers with the opportunity to know
more about the actual job competencies of individual interns (Gault, Leach, & Duey,
2010). Zhao and Liden (2011) demonstrated that during internships, organizations
would keep a look out for talented individuals, and interns would try to secure future
employment at their internship organization. Good matches are often made, and
Zhao and Liden (2011) further concluded that “internship provides organizations
and prospective applicants with ample opportunities to get to know and to impress
each other in a more natural setting” (p. 226). This benefit may translate to reduced
costs in recruiting new employees (Callanan & Benzing, 2004) and even a diminished
workload among current employees (Craig & Wikle, 2016).

3.4 Using Technology in Managing Internship Programs

Previous research has highlighted the benefits of integrating technological plat-

forms in the implementation of internship programs (Bayerlein, 2015; Bayerlein
& Jeske, 2018; Chu, Chan, & Tiwari, 2012; Franks & Oliver, 2011; Heafner, Petty,
& Hartshorne, 2012; Ward & Killian, 2011; Yeh et al., 2014). Franks and Oliver
(2011) have pointed out that, in general, internship programs are “place-based”, that
is, students and workplace supervisors are required to reside in close proximity to
internship sites. This arrangement may be inconvenient and costly to both parties.
However, these problems could be solved by virtual internships, in which “all work
will be performed at a distance through web-based technology provided either by
the School, by the internship site, or both,” allowing more flexibility for students
(Franks & Oliver, 2011). Confirming this claim, Ward and Killian (2011) found that,
in the case of a nursing internship program, mixing virtual internship facilitated by
a team of instructors with modified problem-based learning significantly improved
students’ appreciation of the course. In a similar way, Yeh et al. (2014) concluded
that using an e-learning system for a pharmacy internship enhanced the theoretical
and practical knowledge of pharmacy interns. Virtual internship in a blended learning
environment was also beneficial for pre-service teachers in decreasing their anxiety
and easing their transition to educational practice (Theelen et al., 2019).
Other researchers have also explored the benefits of technology-mediated plat-
forms in supervising and observing interns (Cameron, Ray, & Sabesan, 2015;
3.4 Using Technology in Managing Internship Programs 37

Hartshorne, Heafner, & Petty, 2011; Heafner, Petty, & Hartshorne, 2011; Heafner
et al., 2012). For example, Hartshorne and his colleagues (2011) found that one of
the perceived advantages of using technologically supported remote observations
may include “elimination of the geographical issues” (p. 405) for both the observers
and the interns, and greater comfort in the remote observation approach compared
to the traditional observatory strategies. Similarly, Chu et al. (2012) have demon-
strated that undergraduate students who were required to use blogging in the course
of nursing and information management internships espoused positive views toward
blogging and engaged in a wide range of complex thinking processes that are of
paramount importance in the effective application of theories and concepts acquired
in classrooms. These findings generally suggest that technology-mediated learning
platforms (e.g., using social media for facilitating internship learning) can potentially
promote key learning processes and outcomes during the course of the internship.
However, some challenges are also noted in designing and implementing internship
programs in general.

3.5 Challenges in Implementing Internship Programs

Faculty and workplace supervisors may encounter a number of issues in managing

cross-disciplinary internship programs. First, Sauder and colleagues (2019) reported
that different stakeholders in an internship program may have diverse expectations
which can affect the program’s success if they are not met. For example, the tendency
of HEIs to focus on enhancing the acquisition of discipline-based technical knowl-
edge or expertise (Bayerlein, 2015) may pose a challenge against the advocation
of examining the effectiveness of alternative approaches in implementing internship
programs (e.g., introduction of more innovative elements in curricula, such as the use
of virtual internship). Other examples include students having higher expectations
than workplace supervisors in terms of “supervision, exposure to multiple aspects
of the organization, issues related to pay, reimbursement for expenses related to the
internship, and the development of a full-time position within the organization after
the internship” (Sauder et al., 2019, p. 11).
Another important concern is the identification of the required competencies to
establish professional practice. Contexts of professional fields evolve continuously
over time, especially in specializations that entail clinical skills (D’Angelo, 2014).
For example, professional services that are traditionally delivered in person (e.g.,
counseling and education) have recently answered the call for online delivery instead.
This would affect the nature and methods of training for interns. Furthermore, some
scholars have emphasized the importance of competency-based assessment that can
be potentially standardized in various contexts (D’Angelo, 2014; Reeves, Fox &
Hodges, 2009; Riccio, Cook, Penning, & Harris, 2015). Others have pointed out the
importance of carrying out need assessments in the target community to equip interns
with adequate knowledge on what forms of services (e.g., psychological) they can
offer (Spruill & Pruitt, 2000). Parent and Oliver (2015) have also noted that it is
important to increase students’ awareness or consciousness about the competitive
nature of internship applications.
38 3 Internship in Higher Education

In addition, although students are expected to secure an internship position in a

reputable company, university, or workplace, some students struggle to secure a suit-
able internship experience (King, 2003; Narayanan, Olk, & Fukami, 2010). Factors
contributing to students’ struggles include their inability to create professional CVs or
resumes and write appealing cover letters to grab the attention of potential employers.
Other students were inexperienced in job interviews and failed to perform well.
Inadequate resources from university and HEIs also serve as major impediments
in the successful implementation of an internship program. For instance, some fac-
ulty supervisors may not be able to provide adequate support to internship-seeking
students; this is understandable as such help is beyond supervisors’ basic academic
responsibilities. The effective management of internship courses is thwarted when not
all students are offered adequate resources, including services that target preparing
students for job seeking and interviews.
Furthermore, it is challenging to curate innovative approaches to conduct
formative and summative assessments of internships. Internship courses rarely
require face-to-face interactions with classmates and faculty supervisors, and it is
impossible to assess student performance and learning outcomes through traditional
methods such as pen-and-paper tests. Therefore, faculty supervisors need to deploy
alternative approaches to effectively assess student performance that may include
requesting insight and comments from workplace supervisors about student interns’
performance.
Recent literature has explored the potential value of conducting a virtual
internship; however, it appears that there are outstanding concerns regarding the
incremental contributions of this new internship format. For instance, Jeske and
Axtell (2014) found that the extent to which interns were previously exposed to
computer-mediated interactions was linked to lower perceptions of social support
in virtual internship. Similarly, a lower degree of face-to-face interaction was
associated with lower expected opportunities for career development. Likewise,
in the context of using computer-mediated remote observation platform among
graduate interns, participants felt that the physical presence of supervisors could
have enhanced the learning experience (Hartshorne et al., 2011). No doubt, more
investigations are needed to understand the impact of technologically supported
forms of internships among university students.

3.6 Improving Internship Practices

Existing literature provides ample evidence to support positive impacts of internships

on different academic, career, and work-related outcomes. Nevertheless, stronger
and more widespread initiatives are needed to ensure that internships can effectively
equip interns with necessary skills to secure employment and to integrate theories
learned in university with professional practices. This section identifies some of the
evidence-based recommended strategies to improve internship practices in academic
contexts.
3.6 Improving Internship Practices 39

Knouse and Fontenot (2008) enumerated specific approaches to improve the

internship implementation and facilitate achievement of target outcomes:
(1) active student participation in establishing the internship project;
(2) active employer participation in the project;
(3) existence of clear expectations (e.g., well-defined and specified internship
tasks);
(4) changing employment prerequisites from traditional focuses (e.g., academic
scores) to characteristics more closely related to intern success (e.g., emo-
tional intelligence, work values, and other indicators of socio-emotional
competencies);
(5) building of mentoring mechanisms (e.g., hire mentors) to provide assistance
within the program; and
(6) journal keeping by interns (i.e., emphasizing the importance of documenting
meaningful experiences).
This appears to be a comprehensive approach in optimizing internship experien-
tial learning as it concentrates on improving the spectrum of internships via the
internship curriculum, assessment practices, and mentoring strategies. Integration of
technological platforms is aligned with and may be beneficial in implementing the
aforementioned strategies. Active student, employer, and faculty supervisor partici-
pation can be made more convenient with the aid of technology-mediated platforms.
Made possible by web and mobile technologies, remote observation (Cameron, Ray,
& Sabesan, 2015) and formation of an online learning community for the student
interns (Petit & Ntebutse, 2017) may be used as mentoring mechanisms.
Furthermore, Arter, Wallace, and Shaffer (2016), using Bloom’s taxonomy, have
used reflective journaling among criminal justice interns. Results of their study
demonstrated that a weekly based journaling approach during internships yielded
a desirable impact on the interns’ critical thinking skills. In particular, students who
were exposed to the journaling intervention improved on the “recall” and “inter-
pretation” domains of thinking competencies. Similarly, use of social media tools
that facilitate sharing of reflections such as blogs has also been found beneficial for
student interns’ learning (Chu et al., 2012; Petit & Ntebutse, 2017). Supervisors can
easily provide feedback and monitor student interns through their blogs.
Setting up efficient internship preparation programs is another strategy to address
the problems related to students’ inability to find suitable internships. Faculty
supervisors, program leaders, and career counseling specialists can construct a col-
laborative program that will improve the students’ job-seeking competencies. They
may organize program-specific workshops that provide opportunities for students to
learn how to write cover letters, prepare CVs, and excel in job interviews. Consistent
with this approach, Scicluna, Grimm, Jones, Pilotto, and McNeil (2014) have created
the Preparation for Internship (PRINT) course, aimed to promote a smooth transi-
tion from the medical school to internship for students in an Australian university.
Findings showed significant improvement in various competencies expected from
the participants (i.e., operational management, procedural skills, and administrative
tasks). In other words, strengthening the students’ internship preparation may serve
40 3 Internship in Higher Education

as an effective strategy to cope with the competitive nature of internship application

in different settings. At the same time, faculty supervisors and career counselors may
need to provide guidance to students to avoid falling victim to fraudulent internship
ads and/or agencies found online that require them to pay (Stringer, 2012).
Managing internship courses usually involves a considerable degree of effort and
time. University and HEIs administrators and policymakers are encouraged to offer
adequate resources so that faculty supervisors can provide optimal internship experi-
ential learning among students. For example, university administrators may consider
reducing the workload of academics or professors (e.g., deloading faculty members
from specific teaching and administrative duties) who are handling internship courses
because, unlike the traditional courses offered in a specific program, internships entail
additional administrative duties. Faculty supervisors’ basic duties include interacting
with student interns, providing feedback on their work-related outputs, and providing
support and encouragement for students who struggle to achieve a desirable expe-
rience or the expected learning outcomes. Additionally, faculty supervisors require
a large amount of time to assist students who could not find an internship, and also
to request timely evaluations from workplace supervisors regarding student interns’
performance. If faculty supervisors are given enough support to manage internship
courses, there is no doubt that they can provide an optimal learning experience for
all students of the internship program.
Aside from relieving faculty supervisors from excessive teaching duties, univer-
sity administrators are encouraged to hire administrative staff to manage internship
programs. For example, some universities hire full-time administrative staff to deal
with the major duties and responsibilities associated with running internship courses.
These responsibilities include liaising with potential internship supervisors, mon-
itoring student progress, providing cognitive and emotional support to students,
and requesting timely evaluations about each student’s performance from internship
workplace supervisors.
With an increasing demand for using technological platforms in various edu-
cational and organizational settings, Jeske and Axtell (2016a) noted that virtual
internships may serve as a potential approach to carry out internship programs
in small-to-medium-sized enterprises and non-governmental organizations. The
authors have summarized the specific benefits that are linked to the use of virtual
internships, including
(a) the ease for students to integrate virtual internships with their studies;
(b) high cost-efficiency of virtual internships;
(c) stronger base of foreign student talent for organizations to recruit and select;
and
(d) applicability to intern-seekers of non-student populations, especially if no local
training platform is available.
As implementation of virtual internships has been linked to advantageous out-
comes, recent literature has highlighted a number of considerations to implement a
successful internship program. Jeske and Axtell (2016b) have proposed to emphasize
creating a meaningful experience for interns’ skill development and enriching student
3.6 Improving Internship Practices 41

portfolios to help them in future applications. Organizations providing virtual intern-

ships should be committed and devote a large amount of time, human and financial
recourses into the program, coupled with serious recruitment efforts. Lastly, work-
place supervisors need to possess polished skills in technical, interpersonal, and time
aspects and support interns by providing clear instructions and frequent, constructive
feedback.

3.7 Summary

Through internships, students are given concrete opportunities to integrate domain-

specific concepts and theories with practices in a specific discipline. Sound internship
exposures have also been linked not only to objective measures of success (i.e.,
academic achievement and acquisition of work competencies) but also to the
effective management of emotions and the gaining of insights about practical issues
in society. Different forms of internships (i.e., traditional and technology-mediated
internships) have also been associated with a distinct set of educational outcomes.
Virtual internships may offer educational benefits given their cost-efficient and
accessible approach; however, there seems to be a dearth of literature regarding
elucidation of learning processes within virtual internships and the promotion of
effective acquisition of job-related knowledge and competencies.
More research is needed to examine not only the immediate but also the longitudi-
nal impact of scientifically supported, innovative, and relevant internship platforms
on an intern’s trajectory to academic and work success. This research direction should
involve scientific assessment of the cognitive, metacognitive, social, and emotional
benefits that interns may gain from carrying out internship-related responsibilities.

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Chapter 4
Learning Theories and Social Media

This chapter discusses the relevance of various learning theories in the context
of social media use. Before drawing concrete implications on the significance of
learning frameworks, concepts of seamless learning are defined and discussed along
with implications for social media. Findings from previous investigations on the
associations of social media with key learning processes are also summarized. Some
discussion points are elucidated regarding the potential applicability of learning
theories in the context of social media.

4.1 Seamless Learning

For most university students, the Internet has become an indispensable part of their
lives; according to 2018 statistics, adults aged 18 and above generally spend 45 min
per day on social media (Nielsen, 2018). Although mainly used for leisure, the
Internet and social media may also be used for learning. The ubiquity of mobile and
web technologies allows learners to learn the right thing at the right time according
to their needs (Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai, 2009), creating seamless learning spaces
that enable continued learning experiences across different scenarios or contexts
(Kukulska-Hulme & Viberg, 2018; Wong & Looi, 2011).
Traditionally, informal learning occurs in daily life activities for work, family, or
leisure contexts (Halliday-Wynes & Beddie, 2009). Some examples include visit-
ing museums or exhibits, listening to or watching educational programs, attending
conferences, and playing didactic games (Mahajan, 2017). Formal learning, on the
other hand, refers to a structured and sequenced mode of learning to achieve certain
learning objectives such as in schools (Chu, 2014). Seamless learning is character-
ized as a “seamless flow of learning across contexts” (Wong & Looi, 2011, p. 5);
it transcends traditional learning styles and individuals can learn at any time in a
variety of scenarios and contexts through empowerment by personal mobile devices

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 47

S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_4
48 4 Learning Theories and Social Media

(Chan et al., 2006). Kukulska-Hulme and Viberg (2018) add that seamless learning
is a learning culture and experience focused on cultivating learners’ habit and skills
in carrying out self-directed learning.
Previous studies have highlighted the potential use of specific forms of software
and applications (i.e., Google Docs, TWiki, Twitter, Wiki, and social networking
sites) to enhance student learning in the form of boosting their sense of collabo-
ration in groups, engagement, and academic performance (Chu & Kennedy, 2011;
Chu, Cheung, Ma, & Leung, 2008; Hung & Yuen, 2010; Junco, Heiberger, & Loken,
2011; Woo, Chu, Ho, & Li, 2009). Some studies also indicate that blogging facilitates
enhanced perceptions of efficacious learning, mutual support, and knowledge man-
agement (Chu, Chan, & Tiwari, 2012; Chu, Kwan, & Warning, 2012). Newer tools
in the form of mobile learning platforms (e.g., Scholar Messaging or SCHOM) have
also been widely applied to facilitate effective teaching and learning in universities
(Berjón, Beato, Mateos, & Fermoso, 2015; Kim, Lee, & Kim, 2014).
Given the considerable amount of evidence on the role of technology-based
learning facilities, proponents of different scholarly disciplines have emphasized
the relevance of blending these innovative learning platforms with traditional
curricula to boost students’ academic performance. For instance, the promising
utility of e-learning facilities and social media has been recognized and advocated
in professional contexts such as dentistry (Khatoon, Hill, & Walmsley, 2015), social
work (Phelan, 2015), marketing (Bal, Grewal, Mills, & Ottley, 2015; Brocato, White,
Bartkus, & Brocato, 2015), nursing education (Sinclair, McLoughlin, & Warne,
2015), and medical education (Park, Kulkarni, & McLean, 2018). As seamless learn-
ing concerns the bridging of different learning contexts or scenarios with the use of
mobile and web technology, it is important to understand the key learning processes
in place within learners’ engagement with technology. The next section offers the-
oretical perspectives to explain why and how the process of integrating technology
such as social media in educational practices can lead to effective learning.

4.2 Theories of Learning

This section introduces some prevalent theories of learning. Each perspective is

described in line with its fundamental assumptions, followed by elucidation of how
and why technology-based facilities can optimize different indicators of effective
and seamless learning.

4.2.1 Social Constructivist Theory

One of the earliest learning theories is the social constructivist theory (Vygotsky,
1978) which assumes that knowledge is generated from purposeful social interaction
in a specific sociocultural context. With the use of language, individuals extract
meaning from such interactions with others; effective learning processes occur when
one acquires experience (Vygotsky & Kozulin, 1989).
4.2 Theories of Learning 49

There are two components of development that are highlighted in the social con-
structivist theory. First, the zone of actual development pertains to existing knowledge
that was acquired by an individual. Second, the zone of proximal development refers to
the aspect of individual’s cognitive development that is malleable to change—the area
of intellectual function that serves as the seat of an individual’s potential to acquire
specific knowledge or competencies at a particular developmental period. This per-
spective postulates that learning successfully would entail bridging the gap between
the zone of proximal development and the zone of actual development through the
process of scaffolding. “More knowledgeable others” (e.g., teachers, parents, peers,
and technological platforms) play a crucial role in allowing learners to maximize
their ability to reach higher levels of academic accomplishments; they also provide
cognitive and emotional support that is needed by learners for academic success.
From this theoretical position, adopting technology-based online platforms can be
regarded as an effective approach for individuals with diverse educational and devel-
opmental backgrounds, irrespective of their physical locations. This way, meaning-
ful professional interaction could be initiated with peers and supervisors, and better
learning outcomes (e.g., higher levels of work-related engagement and performance)
could be achieved. For instance, Shih (2011) utilized blended learning to improve
university students’ English writing through combining face-to-face instruction and
Facebook groups. In these private groups, students submitted weekly assignments and
conducted online peer assessment using Facebook “comment” and “like” functions.
After 8 weeks, students improved their English writing skills and had more confidence
in expressing their ideas. They also reported being able to learn from their peers’
feedback. Similarly, Churcher, Downs, and Tewksbury (2014) conceptualized social
constructivism within an online learning community and used a Facebook group
to extend and support discussions of university students in a media literacy course.
Results showed increased learning through collaboration and increased participation.
Researchers and practitioners have recognized the valuable role of social media in
optimizing educational success. Existing literature has demonstrated positive effects
of the use of technological platforms for a number of essential educational outcomes
such as self-regulated learning (e.g., cognitive and metacognitive strategies) and
problem-solving skills (Ak, 2016; Azevedo, 2005, 2008; Greene & Azevedo, 2010;
Jumaat & Tasir, 2016; Siadaty, Gasević, & Hatala, 2016; Taub, Azevedo, Bouchet,
& Khosravifar, 2014).

4.2.2 Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) is another influential learning theory that has
yielded substantial impact in the field of psychological sciences and other relevant
disciplines (including education and organizational management). This framework
posits that effective learning can take place through modeling or observations. While
observation of the environment or contexts contributes largely to learning, social
cognitive theory postulates that individuals ultimately serve as agents of successful
50 4 Learning Theories and Social Media

acquisition of behaviors. Observing others perform various activities influences

individuals’ cognitions, emotions, and actions, which are tantamount not only in
performing similar behaviors but also for personality development. Furthermore,
Bandura (1999) proposes that optimal learning is highly contingent upon the mutual
association of three factors: person, environment, and behavior. He termed this
complex interplay among the three factors as triadic reciprocal causation. As each
component dynamically exerts influence on the other, it is likely that some human
factors (e.g., intelligence and relevant cognitive processes) may influence behaviors
(e.g., academic engagement). It is also possible that environmental factors (e.g.,
learning ambience) can create impact regarding a number of educational outcomes.
Understanding the complex interplay among different personal, environmental, and
behavioral factors can give possible clues on a person’s learning processes.
Within Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory it is possible that technology-
based learning platforms can facilitate key learning outcomes because they operate as
environmental factors that can potentially cultivate effective learning processes (i.e.,
both personal and behavioral factors). This may be associated with the characteristic
of social media on community formation. Theoretically, students who engage in
academic activities through social media are likely to participate actively in the
academic tasks (i.e., behavior) and to enhance significantly their belief that they can
successfully accomplish the assigned academic activity (i.e., academic self-efficacy).
This is because students may find technologically driven learning tasks more relevant
and meaningful. Previous literature has indicated that the use of Facebook to achieve
learning outcomes can result in better academic performance (Ainin, Naqshbandi,
Moghavvemi, & Jaafar, 2015), self-efficacy in English writing (Kabilan, Ahmad, &
Abidin, 2010), and career development self-efficacy (Argyris & Xu, 2016). Moreover,
the use of Facebook to provide information on school and non-school events has been
associated with high levels of civic and political participation in college students
(Park, Kee, & Valenzuela, 2009).
Consequently, it is also likely that students’ learning experience and satisfaction
may influence the use of technology-based learning facilities. For instance, as stu-
dents achieve high levels of academic performance and other desirable academic
behaviors such as demonstrating high levels of autonomous motivation and actively
participating in classroom activities, students may also exhibit greater interests
and initiate technology-mediated learning behaviors such as joining online discus-
sion forums on a specific academic topic and blogging about positive educational
experiences. Therefore, with positive learning experiences, students can realize the
educational affordances of learning technologies and influence further self-directed
use.

4.2.3 The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Features of online learning platforms form the backbone to why technology-based

instructional facilities matter for effective learning. Consistent with the cognitive
theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005), individuals are prone to learn more
4.2 Theories of Learning 51

efficiently when they are presented with learning materials of diverse design and
content. In particular, whereas some teaching approaches place much emphasis
either on using words-based or picture-based educational resources, this framework
argues that people learn best when they are given learning materials that include
multimedia elements (e.g., pictures and words). Learning then results from the
successful construction of schemas that integrate images or pictures that represent a
particular concept. From this theoretical perspective, words and numbers, along with
multimedia elements, function as concrete catalysts of knowledge retrieval, storage,
processing, and construction. These processes are contingent on three memory
categories: sensory, working, and long term (Mayer, 2005). Sensory memory allows
individuals to acquire new information; a visual sensory memory system operates
as the seat of sensory details such as words in the text (i.e., visual images) and heard
or spoken words (i.e., auditory images). Once these sensory details are registered,
they are processed by working memory, while long-term memory primarily serves
as prolonged knowledge storage.
Based on the major tenets of cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer,
2005), social media can potentially boost key learning processes because its physical
infrastructure comprises words, images, emoticons, and other dynamic elements,
such as sound and video, that might attract users to engage in different learning tasks.
This may be associated with the social media characteristics of user-generated con-
tent and content sharing. The combination of textual and graphical elements of social
media, therefore, enables individuals to effectively relate new information to previ-
ously learned concepts, and eventually lead to the construction of new knowledge.
Consistent with these postulates, existing literature has demonstrated that incorpo-
rating multimedia in teaching various courses resulted in better learning processes
and outcomes (Fiorella, & Mayer, 2016; Issa et al., 2011; Johnson & Mayer, 2012).

4.2.4 Theories in Social Interactions

Social interactions play a crucial role in the way social media shape essential learning
outcomes (Turney, Robinson, & Soutar, 2009; Vuopala, Hyvönen, & Järvelä, 2016).
The following paragraphs cite three theoretical models to substantiate the role of
social interactions in the context of social media. These include social information
processing theory (Walther, 1992, 1996; Walther & Burgoon, 1992), situated learn-
ing theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and computer-supported collaborative learning
(Koschmann, 1996).
The relational features of technologically mediated platforms may explain why
using social media can promote effective interaction with others in academic-related
tasks. In particular, social information processing theory (“SIP”) (Walther, 1992,
1996; Walther & Burgoon, 1992) proposes that when individuals are confronted
with textual and linguistic materials lacking concrete communicative features (e.g.,
voices and facial expressions), they tend to rely on the available communicative
prompts to establish and maintain interpersonal processes. For instance, in cases
52 4 Learning Theories and Social Media

where a student needs to use the social components of various learning technolo-
gies (e.g., chat and discussion forum), the existence of emoticons and stickers can
convey specific emotional and relational cues to message recipients. For example,
Facebook’s functions such as the “like” or “react” buttons as well as stickers and
animated GIFs in comments and chats can convey these cues. One can most likely
tell if other students are agreeing or disagreeing with the ideas/viewpoints that were
shared in a particular forum based on non-textual features of ideas conveyed.
SIP proposes that a number of factors can influence the extent to which meaningful
social interactions may emerge in a technologically mediated platform. These factors
include a priori relational motives, time, translation of textual contents into concrete
relational messages, and creating impressions out of the relational messages. Walther
and Burgoon (1992) have noted that as individuals gain high levels of exposure to
these communicative factors, it is likely that the following indicators of relational
progress would be observed: (a) lower extent of formality, (b) increased chances of
information exchanges, and (c) heightened receptivity and trust.
The situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991) posits that individuals’
quality of shared interactions with members of a specific community facilitates
the acquisition of knowledge or competencies. Meaningful interactions with other
community members who espouse similar goals in life form a “community of
practice” in which members collaboratively work on learning new information and
practices. From interaction with community members and actual involvement in
tasks that practically expose individuals to their respective specializations, they tend
to connect the learning experience with prior knowledge and construct new concepts.
Within the situated learning perspective, the use of social media is considered
a highly promising vehicle for successful learning processes. Social media use
provides students with important theories and concepts about a particular domain
of expertise, and offers them opportunities to interact with others in a particular
learning context. Interaction occurs in several ways, such as through the co-creation
of user-generated content, content sharing, and socializing in virtual communities.
As having a good sense of interpersonal relations with significant others is linked
to higher student achievement and engagement (King, 2015), it is very likely that
social media can potentially promote positive educational outcomes. For instance,
within the situated learning theory, Mills (2011) examined the manifestation of the
three elements that constitute a community of practice—joint enterprise, mutual
engagement, and a shared repertoire—in a Facebook community of an intermediate
French language course. The participating students utilized the platform’s functions
such as status updates, comments, wall posting, notes, event page, photo albums,
and video sharing. Many students shared that it was a valuable French learning
experience because it made the class culturally relevant, fun, and applicable while
also enhancing connections between classmates.
Computer-supported collaborative learning (“CSCL”) (Koschmann, 1996) pri-
marily rests on the tenet that individuals can effectively learn together through the use
of computers. CSCL facilitates and supports group cooperation and collaboration as
it views learning as socially mediated and to a large extent is shaped by collaboration
4.2 Theories of Learning 53

with others (Lin & Lin, 2019). To highlight the social aspect of the computer-
facilitated process of knowledge building, Stahl (2004) refers to collaboration
theory, a subdomain of this viewpoint which points to learning as a dynamic process
of developing and refining knowledge through engaging in complex discourse with
others. Supporting this postulate, Vuopala, Hyönen, and Järvelä (2016) showed that
when working on collaborative tasks, students tend to concentrate on group-related
tasks instead of task-related activities. In such scenarios, learning theories could be
associated with social media’s characteristic of co-creation of user-generated content.
Practical application of this learning paradigm is usually illustrated through
conceptualizing, planning, and implementing online academic tasks or activities
that entail individuals to work jointly with classmates or schoolmates, as well as
teachers. To acquire academic knowledge and skills or competencies, a student
or learner reflects on significant insights acquired from interacting with other
students/learners and uses these realizations in others’ learning progress. As an
example, Wang (2009) designed a CSCL environment for teachers-in-training to
complete a course final project. DriveHQ, a file-sharing tool, was used to facilitate
collaboration while scaffolding strategies such as completing progress reports and
developing product versions were used for monitoring. Yet, Martens, Bastiaens, and
Kirschner (2007) have proposed that the capability of students to construct meaning
in this socially mediated learning platform is highly dependent on the capacity of
the facilitators (e.g., teachers and supervisors) to cultivate a collaborative learning
climate. Hence, the use of social media in managing an internship course enables
faculty supervisors to support students’ experiential learning via providing valuable
information, feedback, and insights throughout the course of internship.

4.2.5 Social Connectivism

Clearly, the aforementioned theoretical perspectives emphasize the importance of

personal, social, and contextual antecedents of learning; they also suggest that
successful knowledge acquisition is a relatively predictable process that requires syn-
ergistic interplay between personal, relational, and environmental factors. However,
the continuous evolution in the production of information or knowledge, rapid tech-
nological developments, and ever-changing demands of organizational environments
pose notable implications to how learning is viewed. The unpredictable, evolving,
and complex nature of building knowledge, especially in organizational settings, has
prompted some scholars to formulate an approach known as social connectivism
(Siemens, 2005; Siemens & Downs, 2009).
Social connectivism (Siemens, 2005) is predicated on the following basic
assumptions:
(a) learning requires different opinions;
(b) learning involves seeing the relationships of specialized information;
(c) learning may come from non-human infrastructure (i.e., computers);
54 4 Learning Theories and Social Media

(d) consistent cultivation of the observed connections is tantamount for effective

learning;
(e) awareness of the current trends, information, and knowledge is the objective of
all connectivist endeavors; and
(f) decision-making is an important learning task in its own right.
Siemens (2005) noted that an organization’s information flow is essential to its
effectiveness. Thus, organization knowledge construction should be seen as a key
collective pursuit that entails interdependence among the personal knowledge of
each organizational member. Current trends in domain-specific knowledge are also
disseminated from sharing personal knowledge to form organizational or institutional
information.
Drawing from the connectivist perspective, it seems that social media matters
for effective learning because it operates as a strong mechanism through which
individuals’ diverse personal knowledge and up-to-date details are orchestrated to
form updated domain-specific class knowledge. The importance of user-generated
content, content sharing, and formation of communities could then be associated
with the connectivist perspective. For instance, in a blended education internship
course (i.e., requires actual teaching exposure for Bachelor of Science in Education
students), each intern may share a wide range of evidence-based approaches in
dealing with school students’ lack of class engagement. Upon such knowledge, they
would select appropriate learning tasks for disengaged students. Supervisors may
also provide theoretical and practical insight into a specific social media platform
to assist interns in solving these problems. Aksal, Gazi, and Bahcelerli (2013) used
Facebook as a connectivist learning environment for tourism and hospitality student
interns by involving a course tutor to facilitate communication. Results showed that
dialogue and interaction developed for almost all students, enabling them to learn
from others and their experiences and to enhance self-leadership, decision-making,
and reflection skills. Going through the convergence, and even divergences, on the
identified approaches could potentially result not only in the successful implemen-
tation of teaching duties but also to the construction of a shared understanding of
the effective ways to motivate disengaged students in the internship class.

4.3 Summary

This chapter has reviewed early and contemporary learning theories and indicates
that there are relatively diverse and complex mechanisms through which social
media use can impact various learning outcomes in educational contexts. While
key differences have been observed on the assumptions of each learning theory,
the theoretical models described in this chapter may provide interesting and
useful perspectives on how and why social media can optimize effective learning
outcomes. However, without conducting empirical investigations to test and apply
the aforementioned theoretical assumptions in social media, the theory-supported
4.3 Summary 55

explanations on the benefits of social media will remain speculative rather than
scientifically conclusive. Therefore, more research is warranted to generate a
stronger evidence base regarding the theoretical generalizability of key learning
theories in the context of online learning platforms.

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 Part II
Using Social Media for Experiential
Internship in Higher Education Institutes
Chapter 5
Social Media as Tools to Facilitate
Experiential Internship Learning

Internships provide a concrete opportunity for students to apply theories that they
have learned in the classroom in workplace contexts (Baker, Romero, Geannette,
& Patel, 2009; Seyitoğlu & Yirik, 2015). Internships have an important role in
optimizing student career advancement, and therefore, there is a strong need to
implement relevant, innovative, and learner-centered pedagogical approaches to
maximize students’ learning experience. Whereas faculty supervisors typically
rely on face-to-face meetings with students/interns to monitor their work-related
performance and provide feedback on their learning experience, some supervisors
also recognize the benefits of using technologically supported platforms (e.g., social
media) to achieve internship learning outcomes. Within the internship context,
seamless learning involves bridging in-class and out-of-class experiences, as well
as academic and non-academic experiences. With the use of web or mobile tech-
nologies, students can utilize their internship experiences to make sense of theories
learned in class and also, apply the learned concepts in contexts of their placement.
This chapter will discuss how social media can be used to innovate internship
practices. First, findings from previous studies regarding the potential impact of
social media tools (i.e., blogs, social networking sites, interpersonal applications and
sites, and forums) on different learning outcomes are summarized. The relationship
between the concepts of internship, social media, and learning theories are then
summarized in a theoretical framework. Finally, guided by the results from prior
research and these authors’ research programs on the effects of blogging on students’
academic functioning, a theoretical model will be proposed. The model emphasizes
how these learning technologies can promote effective learning processes in HEI
internship contexts.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 61

S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_5
62 5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …

5.1 Impact of Social Media Tools on Different

Learning Outcomes

Building on the previous chapter’s discussion, this section covers a more in-depth
elucidation of the nature, activities, and characteristics of selected social media tools
and how these contribute to learning outcomes. The selected categories, as introduced
in Chap. 2, are blogs, social networking sites, interpersonal sites, and forums. It is
important to keep in mind which specific features of each social media tool makes
them more or less suited for different purposes (Junco, 2014).

5.1.1 Blogs

A “blog”, also known as a “weblog”, refers to a journal organized in chronological

order that comprises individuals’ viewpoints posted on the web to attract audiences
(Flatley, 2005); it is developed by a group of people who espouse a common set
of interests (Godwin-Jones, 2003). Some examples of blogging platforms include
Blogger, WordPress, and Tumblr. Through blogging, people with limited technical
skills can share their feelings, perspectives, and opinions. While online learning
platforms have been in existence since the early 1990s, it seems that it was only in
the early 2000s that educators expressed interest in applying blogging in academic
contexts. Notwithstanding its beneficial role in the promotion of effective learning in
the classroom (see Sim & Hew, 2010), previous research suggests that blogging may
be applicable in non-traditional classrooms and professional educational settings
(Chu, Kwan, & Warning, 2012b; Levy, 2009).
Previous research has also called for the need to provide further evidence on
the role of blogging in education (Alqudsi-ghabra & Al-Bahrani, 2012; Williams &
Jacobs, 2004). Blogging has been found to be efficacious in cultivating students’ inter-
active and reflective thinking (Alqudsi-ghabra & Al-Bahrani, 2012; Luehmann, 2008;
Osman & Koh, 2013), deep learning strategies (Mohamad, Tasir, Harun, & Shukor,
2013), perceptions of support from peers (Chang & Chang, 2014; Deng & Yuen,
2011), collaborative learning (Kang, Bonk, & Kim, 2011), cognitive and metacogni-
tive strategies (Chu, Chan, & Tiwari, 2012a; Greenhow & Lewin, 2016; Jimoyiannis
& Angelaina, 2012; Pavo & Rodrigo, 2015), effective learning in seminars (Hamstra,
Kemsley, Murray, & Randall, 2011), online interaction and perceived closeness with
others (Lee & Bonk, 2016; Pavo & Rodrigo, 2015; Yang & Chang, 2012), blogging
and information and communication technologies (ICT) self-efficacy (Papastergiou,
Gerodimos, & Antoniou, 2011), English oral proficiency (Liu, 2016), writing skills
(Lin, 2014; Vurdien, 2013), and research interests and skills (Chong, 2010).
Some characteristics of blogging are essential in promoting key learning out-
comes. Freeman and Brett (2012) show that frequency (number of blog entries),
timeliness (documenting the ideas at the right time), and topic resonance (inclusion
of topics that are relevant to students) can serve as essential factors in matching
5.1 Impact of Social Media Tools on Different Learning Outcomes 63

writing with blogging activities. Past studies have also revealed that the sense of
community acquired through blogging can enhance perceived learning (Top, 2012;
Top, Yukselturk, & Inan, 2010). Compared to solitary blogs, interactive blogs
are related to higher academic achievement in a particular course (El Tantawi,
2010; Vurdien, 2013; Yang & Chang, 2012) and can optimize perceived learning
(Churchill, 2009; Ducate & Lomicka, 2008; Halic, Lee, Paulus, & Spence, 2010).
This can be linked to the computer-supported collaborative learning perspective,
discussed in the previous chapter, in which learning is shaped by collaboration with
others. Furthermore, previous research indicates that “learner-centered” educational
blogging empowers learners to find ways to enhance classroom learning experiences
(Kang et al., 2011; Lin, 2015).
Scholars have recognized the “educational affordances” of blogs in academic
contexts (Deng & Yuen, 2011; Robertson, 2011). Affordances refer to the perceived
or actual characteristics of an object that offer concrete clues on how to use that object
(Norman, 1988). For example, games are for recreation and leisure, though they can
also be used for learning in the classroom. Previous literature has indicated that
blogs commonly operate as reflective devices because they provide greater prospect
for processing ideas as well as assessing one’s self and learning (Brescia & Miller,
2006; Ferdig & Trammel, 2004) as well as interactive devices because they cultivate
meaningful interaction with others in the online learning platform (Dickey, 2004; El
Tantawi, 2010; Hall & Davison, 2007; Vurdien, 2013).
Whereas past research provides promising evidence regarding the reflective
and interactive functions of blogs, Deng and Yuen (2011) propose that a more
nuanced framework of the educational affordances of blogs should involve looking
at the individual and social aspects of these functions. Drawing from constructivist
learning theory (Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell, & Haag, 1995), the authors
have posited that self-expression (e.g., conveying feelings, thoughts, and opinions
as well as documenting experiential accounts) and self-reflection (e.g., deriving
meanings out of the documented experiences or conveyed feelings, thoughts, and
opinions) serve as individual aspects of blogs’ affordances. Furthermore, Jonassen
et al. (1995) state that social interaction and reflective dialogue characterize social
processes that are involved when bloggers exchange feelings, perspectives, and
relevant experiences. Social interaction that pertains to “socio-emotional interaction
for the purpose of enhancing social presence” and reflective dialogue that refers
to “cognitive presence within a learning community” (p. 443) operate as the
social/community aspects of the blogs’ capabilities.
Blogging also matters for self-directed learning, self-regulation, and academic
engagement. To support this conjecture, previous research showed that blogging
can cultivate cognitive and metacognitive self-directed learning skills in a domain-
specific academic subject (Robertson, 2011). In particular, Robertson (2011)
discovered that students who were exposed to educational blogging perceived sig-
nificant improvement in their abilities to develop learning goals and implementation
strategies. Students would also be more capable in evaluating the extent of learning
64 5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …

Fig. 5.1 Internship learning processes framework

goals achievement and revising a plan with reference to the evaluation. In general,
findings from previous investigations concluded that blogs are a valuable tool for
cultivating effective learning (Fig. 5.1).
Turning to the use of blogs during internships, Rourke and Coleman (2009)
found that blogs used during internships to promote collaboration amongst stu-
dents and between students and their instructors in order to create a supportive
learning space were effective. The blog was also used as an authentic assessment
task. In a later study, they reported that the students’ internship blogs exhibited
“constructive criticism, empathy, and the moral obligation of assisting others with
kind words, while improving their ability to communicate their thoughts, knowledge
and understandings of the art world” (Rourke & Coleman, 2011, p. 1092). For
supervising students with internships overseas, blogs have been used to encourage
reflective practice within an online community and provide the students with their
supervisor’s teaching, social, and cognitive presence (Petit & Ntebutse, 2017). In
these examples, we may infer an application of the situated learning theory wherein
an online community of practice is formed for the purpose of collaborative learning.
Blogs have also been used by dietetic interns as a professional portfolio by sharing
their experiences and skills while also building an image as a nutrition authority to
5.1 Impact of Social Media Tools on Different Learning Outcomes 65

Fig. 5.2 Learning processes in blogging in the context of internships (Adopted from Chu et al.,
2012a, p. 993)

the public audience (England, Fatzinger-McShane, Scarpero, & Stapley, 2008). Chu
et al.’s (2012a) study supports previous literature by presenting a model (Fig. 5.2)
on the different learning processes that occur through a student’s blog during their
internship (to be elaborated in Sect. 5.2.1). Finally, more recent literature has
demonstrated that using blogs in internships allows students to develop reflective
writing and practice skills where they can begin to see themselves as “professionals”
engaging in “reflection-in-practice” (Rourke & Lewer-Fletcher, 2016). The authors
go further to say that reflective blogs can help build student confidence for their
internship if the blogs are posted on a creative, flexible, and user-friendly platform.

5.1.2 Social Networking Sites

As mentioned in Chap. 2, social networking sites (SNS) allow users to gather as a

community, share content through various media forms, and converse and collaborate
with one another. Facebook is one of the most popular SNS in the world and will
be used as a focus for discussion in this section. Yammer and LinkedIn, which are
professionally oriented SNS, are also briefly discussed.
In 2004, Mark Zuckerberg conceptualized and created Facebook for students of
Harvard University (Cassidy, 2006). Initially designed and run as a closed online
social networking platform, Facebook quickly evolved into an open networking
site used by professionals, high school students, and the public. To date, Facebook
ranks as the third most globally recognized SNS (Alexa, n.d.); given its popularity,
students and faculty staff in universities commonly rely on this SNS to perform
a wide range of duties in the educational setting (Al-Bahrani, Patel, & Sheridan,
2015; Hampton, Goulet, Rianie, & Purcell, 2011). Previous literature proposes that
Facebook has several academic and non-academic values. For example, Facebook
may enable students to experience a stronger sense of connection to friends, social
acceptance, and effective adjustment (Raacke & Bonds-Raacke, 2015; Veletsianos
& Kimmons, 2013; Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010). Furthermore, Sheldon (2008)
has demonstrated that some of the possible reasons why students use Facebook
include: companionship, entertainment, passing time, relationship maintenance, and
engagement in virtual community including the establishment of new friendships or
romantic relationships. Some studies also show that the use of Facebook is linked
66 5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …

to higher perceived civic engagement (Lenzi et al., 2015; Park, Kee, & Valenzuela,
2009) and other desirable social, psychological, and educational outcomes.
As Facebook was not originally designed to facilitate academic activities in educa-
tional contexts, some studies have suggested that Facebook appears to have negative
effects on academic-related outcomes or result in lowered academic performance
(Junco, 2012, 2015; Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Michikyan, Subrahmanyam, &
Dennis, 2015; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012) as there may be a tendency for stu-
dents to be distracted by its non-academic features (Gupta & Irwin, 2016; Janković,
Nikolić, Vukonjanski, & Terek, 2016). These findings seem to suggest that Facebook
may have a potentially detrimental impact on student academic performance.
Nevertheless, existing literature offers a promising line of evidence about the
advantageous uses of Facebook in academic settings. Students use Facebook to dis-
cuss academic-related concerns, as well as to discuss educational information (Jong,
Lai, Hsia, Lin, & Liao, 2014), and to seek assistance and advice from academic
advisors. Through Facebook, students could acquire important information about
university-related matters and academic knowledge (Amador & Amador, 2014).
These students also appreciate how academic advisors use Facebook in sharing
general details about their academic life in the university such as registration dates,
advising arrangements, etc. Other studies indicate that Facebook could expand
traditional educational terrain (Manca & Ranieri, 2013) and be used to manage
courses (LaRue, 2012; Park, Nahm, & Rogers, 2016), creating blended learning
infrastructure (Irwin, Ball, Desbrow, & Leveritt, 2012), and implementing research
projects (Sciutto, 2015). Furthermore, Facebook provides greater opportunities for
current students to connect with alumni and faculty (Lawson, Kleinholz, & Bodle,
2011), who may be considered as “more knowledgeable others” and aid students’
learning according to the social constructivist theory. Results of these studies
suggest that Facebook has a wide range of educational functions, and thus, using
it can be a potentially beneficial alternative to more traditional course management
platforms (Wang, 2012).
With SNS’ identified academic uses, previous research has documented the con-
sequences of these platforms on students’ functional skills. SNSs catalyze academic
engagement (Badge, Saunders, & Cann, 2012), career development self-efficacy
(Argyris & Xu, 2016), academic performance (Ainin, Naqshbandi, Moghavvemi,
& Jaafar, 2015), confidence and motivation in writing and convey ideas in English
as well as a positive attitude toward courses taught in English (Kabilan, Ahmad,
& Abidin, 2010), students’ network troubleshooting capabilities (Lin, Hou, Wu, &
Chang, 2014), and perceptions of better learning processes (de Vargas, de Lara,
Gonçalves, das Neves, & Mello-Carpes, 2014).
The extant literature provides potential mechanisms as to why Facebook can
enhance a wide range of educational outcomes. In line with this direction, it has been
demonstrated that Facebook cultivates intrinsic learning and motivation (Blattner
& Fiori, 2009; Manca & Ranieri, 2016), social cognitive skills, and perceived
satisfaction on the psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence
in students who were members of a Facebook learning group to compared to those
in face-to-face academic courses (Akbari, Pilot, & Simons, 2015).
5.1 Impact of Social Media Tools on Different Learning Outcomes 67

Facebook serves as an important catalyst for key academic outcomes because

it can promote collaborative learning. Supporting this conjecture, existing research
shows that using Facebook for an advanced oral presentation course enhances
students’ interactions with others in group-related activities (Magogwe, Ntereke,
& Phetlhe, 2015) and enables students to help each other in completing complex
academic tasks through an interactive online discussion (Cuesta, Eklund, Rydin,
& Witt, 2016). Some studies also have suggested that Facebook can be an avenue
for promoting collaboration among individuals of different cultural backgrounds
(Wang, 2011, 2012), and meaningful interactions that are taking place on Facebook
can cultivate academic collaboration and social adjustment (Khan, Wohn, & Ellison,
2014; Selwyn, 2009; Yang & Brown, 2015). These examples align with the social
connectivism perspective wherein knowledge construction happens through the
collective sharing of personal knowledge by group members.
Aside from Facebook, other SNS that may be used for education include Yammer
and LinkedIn. Yammer, a professional-oriented SNS targeted for communication
and collaboration across organizations (Microsoft Office, n.d.), has also been used
to promote collaborative learning among university students but with mixed results.
Students of an introductory human–computer interaction course successfully used
Yammer to create an online learning community (Borge & Goggins, 2014). The
instructor took efforts to acculturate students to Yammer as a situated learning envi-
ronment by “model[ing] desired posting behaviors, coach[ing] students on their posts,
encourage[ing] sense-making activity, provid[ing] guides to help students learn how
to moderate Yammer, slowly shift[ing] moderating responsibility to student teams,
and then slowly fad[ing] from the environment” (Borge & Goggins, 2014, p. 755).
This resulted in high engagement for the whole class. However, students of a market-
ing course deemed that Yammer had no added value to their regular communication
methods and preferred using Facebook in coordinating for their group project (Pinto,
2014). This illustrates the importance of acculturating students as well as using SNS
that students are familiar with to get their buy-in and to ease the transition between
personal uses to educational purposes.
LinkedIn, a professional SNS, has also been embraced by universities. Although it
is useful for students to build a professional network and seek internships or employ-
ment, higher education professionals (e.g., career counselors, admissions officers,
etc.) may also use LinkedIn to prepare students for employment, engage alumni, and
for marketing (LinkedIn, n.d.) Using LinkedIn for educational purposes has very
limited research. However, it has been shown that for business education, LinkedIn
can be a useful tool to exercise business concepts such as branding and relation-
ship building (Cooper & Naatus, 2014). Aligned with the situated learning theory,
LinkedIn has also been shown to be useful for hand surgery professionals who used
the SNS’s group function as an online community of practice for sharing knowledge
and best practices (Dong, Cheema, Samarasekera, & Rajaratnam, 2015). Further
research into the educational application of LinkedIn and Yammer can be explored
and expanded to include internship learning purposes.
In the context of internships, a number of studies have focused on the use of
Facebook in supporting internship learning. Chan and colleagues (2013) found that
68 5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …

students shared their reflection, provided feedback, exhibited knowledge capture and
sharing, as well as expression of social support in their internship course’s private
Facebook group. Deng and Tavares (2013), on the other hand, compared students’
use of their cohort’s private Facebook group to their internship course management
system (Moodle). The study revealed that students were more active on Facebook
due to existing habits, and a strong sense of ownership and community, and the social
presence of peers. Another study (Chau et al., 2013) provided evidence that Facebook
use was effective for knowledge transfer during internship with contributing factors
such as technological (e.g., newsfeed, like, comment, and private group functions)
and human (i.e., social tie) aspects. These studies also align with Cheong, Hu, Chu,
and Ng’s, (2017) recent research results which showed that students’ internship-
related Facebook posts and blog posts both manifested socio-emotional support and
knowledge-sharing processes and that Facebook allowed for more interaction and
engagement. These examples can be associated with computer-supported collabo-
rative learning wherein learning was shaped by social interaction made through the
SNS’ technical functions.
Some theoretical models provide explanations on how the use of online social
networking platforms such as Facebook facilitates the crystallization of relevant
learning outcomes during the internship process. Firstly, the framework, Learning
Processes in Blogging to Support Internship Learning, Chu et al. (2012a, b) argues
that using blogs when implementing an internship program is beneficial as it not only
promotes important academic abilities (i.e., cognitive and metacognitive skills) but
also non-academic competencies (i.e., collaborative skills and affective states). From
this model, the ability of Facebook to cultivate meaningful social interaction with
teachers, supervisors, and co-interns through an online educational resource may
promote the successful acquisition of essential academic and non-academic skills.
Secondly, the self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2001) posits that providing
opportunities for individuals to meet the basic psychological needs for autonomy,
relatedness, and competence may enable them to achieve optimal performance and
psychological functioning. As Facebook serves as a vehicle for effective interaction
between student interns and relevant social partners (i.e., course professors, work-
place supervisors, and co-interns) in the internship course, it is likely that interns may
realize the affordance of Facebook for satisfying a basic need for relatedness. In turn,
the potential capability of Facebook to foster a sense of connectedness to interns’
teachers, supervisors, and co-interns may enhance the possibility of effectively learn-
ing a wide range of discipline-based professional skills. Examples include performing
authentic assessments for teachers-in-training, conducting mental status examination
for psychologists-in-training, checking blood pressure for nurse-trainees.
5.1 Impact of Social Media Tools on Different Learning Outcomes 69

5.1.3 Interpersonal Applications and Sites

Safko (2012) describes interpersonal social media tools as applications and/or sites
that allow users to communicate in real time with individuals and groups. This cate-
gory includes messaging applications, video conferencing applications, and sharing
applications. Schoology is one example of an interpersonal site used specifically for
education. Schoology is one of the most recently created online educational plat-
forms. It is a free teaching tool that enables teachers to build an online learning
community and serves as a virtual classroom that promotes meaningful interactions
among teachers, students, and even parents. Biswas (2013) notes that “Schoology
supports an intimate partnership between educational institutions and technology
developers and serves as a catalyst to empower teaching and educational effective-
ness at different levels of any environment (i.e., K-12 education, higher education,
corporate)” (p. 189).
An examination of the experience identifies several features that make it appeal-
ing for both teachers and students. The interactive nature of this platform enables
students to communicate, ask questions, and exchange ideas and perspectives in an
online learning community. For instance, a student who posts some questions about
a specific topic can potentially evoke interesting responses from other students that
may give rise to collaborative learning. Schoology also allows teachers to design
learner-centered educational arenas through the addition of music, videos, or images
that are relevant to the lessons. Schoology is a highly valuable learning platform as it
can catalyze multiliteracies in students (Biswas, 2014): the acquisition of competen-
cies in various domains of academic and non-academic tasks (New London Group,
1996). This learning outcome is an example of computer-facilitated learning which
is associated with the computer-supported collaborative learning perspective. To
elaborate further, for example, as students need to create, manage, and monitor an
account on this educational website, their computer literacy may improve over time.
At the same time, students are expected to accomplish various academic tasks such
as homework, individual studies, and group projects in Schoology that can enhance
their academic literacy. Moreover, as students are required to exchange ideas and col-
laborate on this platform, students can enhance their social literacy. In other words,
Schoology facilitates student literacy development in many different aspects.
Schoology has been used by Bachelor of Social Sciences students to support their
learning during their summer internship program. Zainuddin and colleagues (2017)
report that Schoology enabled students to reflect on their learning and problem-
solving skills and to interact with their peers and faculty supervisor.
Slack is another example of an interpersonal site. Although its design is geared
toward companies and businesses for collaborative work, the platform has also been
used to help prepare medical students before their internships. An online social media
curriculum was developed by Park, Kulkarni, and McLean (2018) through Slack for
an internship program. Microsoft Teams is an example of an interpersonal app that
may also be used for educational purposes. It is “a cloud app digital hub that brings
channels, conversations, meetings, files and apps to Microsoft 365” (Martin & Tapp,
70 5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …

2019, p. 58). Microsoft Teams was used for teaching in a law course utilizing the app’s
functions for sharing of teaching materials, co-creation of documents, submission
and grading of assignments, as well as discussions and announcements through chat
(Martin & Tapp, 2019). The authors used social constructivist theory and computer-
supported collaborative learning perspective. Although the use of Microsoft Teams
during internships is not yet researched, it may be worth looking into as a possible
social media tool that faculty supervisors may use to maximize the learning of student
interns.

5.1.4 Forums

Online discussion forums are a continuously growing learning resource for students
(Chang, Chen, & Hsu, 2011; Hong, 2011; Liu, Cheng, & Lin, 2013; Tan, Chai,
Tsai, Lim, & Chou, 2012). Forums also serve as a known venue for conveying
perspectives or sharing information about contentious issues. The main social media
characteristics associated with forums are sharing and community formation.
Engagement in online forums has also been found to be associated with a wide
range of positive educational outcomes such as active participation in online discus-
sion (Liu et al., 2013), effective learning (Hawkes, 2006), and collaborative learning
(Kear, Woodthorpe, Robertson, & Hutchison, 2010; Shaw, 2013; Yang, Yeh, &
Wong, 2010). A study on a massive open online course forum contents showed that
the participants benefitted socially, cognitively, and disciplinarily (Cohen, Shimony,
Nachmias, & Soffer, 2019). Certain aspects of online forums also contribute to
students’ reading behaviors as well as learning satisfaction, including group size
(Shaw, 2013), social navigation features (Buder, Schwind, Rudat, & Bodemer,
2015), and even teacher’s presence in online classroom discussions (Mazzolini, &
Maddison, 2003; Park et al., 2015). It is likely that forums can optimize effective
learning processes as an online discussion forum’s central aim is “to create an online
learning environment that will achieve high levels of learning” (Andresen, 2009,
p. 251). This is associated with the situated learning perspective since forums allow
room for meaningful user interaction in a particular learning context. Findings from
previous empirical investigations clearly point to the advantageous impact of using
forums as a learning resource.

5.2 How Social Media Promotes Learning in an Internship

Context

As discussed in Chap. 2, the three characteristics of social media—UGC, sharing,

and community—correspond to tool-specific activities. In Chap. 3, internship pro-
grams were discussed, highlighting recommendations to improve internship learning
5.2 How Social Media Promotes Learning in an Internship Context 71

outcomes. Under the lens of early and contemporary learning theories in Chap. 4,
we have gained some insight into the complex mechanisms of how social media can
promote learning. Learning outcomes associated with specific social media types and
tools were also discussed in the previous section. This section proposes and discusses
a theoretical framework exhibiting the relationship of the concepts of internship,
social media tools, and learning theories (see Fig. 5.1).
In the proposed framework, different student interns’ learning processes are
ignited by experiences in the internship site and are supported by social media
tools and people such as faculty supervisors, workplace supervisors, and peers.
Although the features of social media are already quite useful in promoting educa-
tional outcomes, maximization of its potential is only possible within a structured
context. With the internship course as the context and the starting point, its learning
objectives decide how social media tools are utilized. Putting all three factors
together—cognitive, metacognitive, social—and affective learning processes can
take place. This framework reflects the author’s experiences in incorporating
social media tools to improve internship learning. It is also aligned with Aksal,
Gazi, and Bahçelerli’s (2013) study on a connectivist learning environment with
the use of Facebook for Tourism and Hospitality Management student interns.
After one semester, students reported significant learning through peer discussions
and reflection in the online group. From the social connectivism perspective, an
online learning community enables interaction centered on knowledge sharing and
construction results in effective learning. Coupling this online community with
internship experience and relevant social and pedagogical support can be an effective
way to enhance students’ internship learning.
To explore how the internship learning processes framework may be applied,
Table 5.1 outlines some internship activities, possible social media tool and its char-
acteristics, and learning outcomes. The internship activities listed represent only a
few possible examples that can be complemented by the use of social media tools.

5.2.1 Learning Processes When Student Interns Engage

in Social Media Tools

A mixed-methods study by Chu et al. (2012a, b) has generated the framework,

Learning Processes in Blogging to Support Internship Learning, which places impor-
tance on the cognitive, metacognitive-reflective, collaborative, and affective learning
processes that take place when information management and nursing interns engage
in blogging during their internship (see Appendix 5.4 for an example). The model
articulates how blogs foster positive learning strategies, social interactions, and affec-
tive states in an internship course. The proposed framework aligns with this model.
In terms of the cognitive aspect of the learning process, findings indicate that
students tend to share knowledge efficiently and solve problems as a result of blog
integration. In the metacognitive aspect, students tend to reflect on their knowledge
Table 5.1 Summary of internship activity, social media tool (SMT), and learning outcomes and theories
Internship activity
Student’s weekly learning
log (see Appendix 5.4)
72
Possible SMT Utilized features of SMT Learning outcomes of SMT and associated theory
SNS Sharing, UGC, • From the social connectivism perspective, knowledge construction
Community entails collective sharing of personal knowledge by members. An
example is the students’ logs
• Learning outcomes are intrinsic learning and motivation (Blattner &
Fiori, 2009; Manca & Ranieri, 2016), social cognitive skills, and
perceived satisfaction on the psychological needs for autonomy,
relatedness, and competence (Akbari, Pilot, & Simons, 2015), and
crystallization of relevant learning outcomes during the internship
process (Chu et al., 2012a, b)
Blog Sharing, UGC, • From the computer-supported collaborative learning perspective,
Community learning is shaped by collaboration with others
• Through students’ blogs, collaborative learning (Kang et al., 2011)
can occur in addition to developing deep learning strategies
(Mohamad, Tasir, Harun, & Shukor, 2013), cognitive and
metacognitive strategies (Chu et al., 2012a, b; Jimoyiannis &
Angelaina, 2012; Pavo & Rodrigo, 2015), interactive and reflective
thinking (Alqudsi-ghabra & Al-Bahrani, 2012; Luehmann, 2008;
Osman & Koh, 2013), and effective learning in seminars (Hamstra
et al., 2011)
(continued)
5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …
Table 5.1 (continued)
Internship activity Possible SMT Utilized features of SMT Learning outcomes of SMT and associated theory
Faculty supervision SNS Sharing, Community • Connecting with alumni and faculty (Lawson et al., 2011) who can be
considered as more knowledgeable others can lead to learning
according to the social constructivist theory
Interpersonal site Sharing, Community • Drawing from the computer-supported collaborative learning
perspective, supervision and engagement through interpersonal sites
can be part of a computer-facilitated knowledge building process. A
related learning outcome is catalyzing multiliteracies as in Schoology
(Biswas, 2014)
Online discussion SNS Sharing, Community • From the social connectivism perspective, online discussions
contribute to collective knowledge construction and sharing
• Learning outcomes of online discussions in SNS are collaborative
learning (Magogwe et al., 2015), interactive online discussion (Cuesta
et al., 2016), and social adjustment (Khan et al., 2014; Selwyn, 2009;
Yang & Brown, 2015)
Forum Sharing, Community • Forums allow user interaction in a particular learning context, which
is crucial for the situated learning perspective
• The learning outcomes in online discussions in forums are interactive
online discussion (Liu et al., 2013), effective learning (Hawkes,
2006), and collaborative learning (Kear et al., 2010; Shaw, 2013;
5.2 How Social Media Promotes Learning in an Internship Context

Yang et al., 2010)

73
74 5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …

and experiences. The ability of blogging to promote cognitive and metacognitive

learning functions corroborates the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer,
2005), emphasizing the beneficial impact of online learning platforms especially
through materials with appealing multimedia contents and designs.
In the collaborative domain of learning, findings show that students used blog-
ging to enquire about their co-interns and to obtain feedback on the information or
experiences that they shared. The interactive nature of blogs in facilitating positive
academic outcomes offers some support for the situated learning theory (Lave &
Wagner, 1991), which argues that the capability of online learning infrastructures
to catalyze meaningful interactions with others may explain why these platforms
can promote better academic functioning. Blogging also enabled students to share
a wide range of emotional experiences (both positive and negative feelings) toward
the internship course and to offer support, especially to students who shared nega-
tive feelings in various internship-related experiences (see Fig. 5.2). The dynamic
interplay among the cognitive, metacognitive, collaborative, and affective learning
processes explains why the use of blogs may not only serve as a sound but also a
cost-efficient approach to implement experiential internships.
The integrative model (see Fig. 5.2) proposed by Chu et al. (2012a, b) partly
resembles the extant theories that elaborate the beneficial role of online learning
platforms like the productive online discussion model (Gao, Wang, & Sun, 2009) in
which they offer valuable insight on how these online educational interventions can
enhance social, cognitive, and metacognitive processes. Furthermore, the model can
proffer a more comprehensive discussion about the practical benefits of online learn-
ing platforms through proposing specific mechanisms on how they can cultivate
positive internship-related outcomes. Given that interns share and exchange ideas
through blogs, it is likely that they will learn important insights on how to carry out
relevant tasks on internship sites. The interactive nature of blogs also enables interns
to offer emotional support especially to those who have been encountering a plethora
of issues in accomplishing internship requirements. As blogs may require interns to
use effective planning, problem-solving, and reflective practices, it is possible that
interns may improve their cognitive and metacognitive skills. In general, the model
proposes that using blogs and online classroom discussion can yield significant edu-
cational impact, because these learning platforms were found to be efficacious. The
learning platform could promote cognitive and metacognitive learning approaches,
and also in cultivating positive emotions when interns are engaged with relevant
academic and professional tasks.

5.3 Summary

The extant literature has shown that blogging, Facebook, Schoology, and online
forums may effectively promote important educational outcomes. Previous studies
have revealed that the interactive and reflective features of these online learning
5.3 Summary 75

platforms assist greatly in optimizing positive academic functioning. However,

limited work has been done to explore the important theoretical mechanisms and
explain why using these online learning platforms is beneficial especially in the
context of internship courses. Clearly, more empirical investigations are needed to
explore the various affordances of these online pedagogical resources for effective
internship experiential learning. The present chapter, therefore, expanded this line
of discourse through offering concrete theoretical explanations as to why these
online social media platforms may catalyze beneficial academic and non-academic
outcomes in internship courses.

5.4 Appendix: Sample of a BSCIM Student’s Log

of Learning Experience in a Blog

Student CI shared the following on her blog in 2008. Names of people and the
organization have been removed for confidentiality purposes.
A meeting was held by Mr. A at the conference room in the office today. All the interns
attended the meeting. Mr. A talked about his expectations for us and asked for suggestions
to redesign and reconstruct the current website of the organization.
The organization website consists of two versions: the English and Chinese versions. Yet,
the content and the structure of the English version is different from the Chinese one. Not
only is the content in the English version is not up-to-date, the content displayed is different
from the Chinese version. Meanwhile, the website design is not user-friendly at all.

THINGS I HAVE DONE ON THIS

In order to specifically resolve the problem, I have written a proposal for redesigning the
website. First, I tried to identify who are the main visitors of the website and what kind
of information they would like to look for. The level of how easy the visitor can access to
his needed information is very important. It affects the visitor mood and willingness to stay
browsing the site.
Second, I compared the structure, content and the web design of both versions. They are
indeed vastly different. The links on the menu bar are not the same, the navigation in the
English version is better than the Chinese one, and there is an additional search function in
the Chinese version but not in the English one. I have pointed out these discovered problems
in the website and suggested for further enhancement.

BEING REJECTED?
Having handed in the proposal, I found that Mr. A doesn’t know much about the importance
of user-friendliness of a website. He first refused my ideas because he thought we should
update the contents in the website first so I explained to him the main idea behind this
proposal—no matter how sufficient and useful the information are, users will not find
them if they don’t know how to access the website easily. I acted as a website visitor and
demonstrated to Mr. A how a user would go through the website by assuming a user need.
Afterward, he realized there was problem in accessing the required information. Finally, he
accepted my proposal and passed it to Mr. B for further consideration).
76 5 Social Media as Tools to Facilitate Experiential …

LESSON LEARNED
Through this experience, I have learned to express my point of view even though
someone may not take it. If it is something I think he or she should understand, I
should try my best to advocate my ideas by finding evidences to support myself.
Comment from CS
I like your sentence “no matter how sufficient and useful the information are, users will not
find them if they don’t know how to access the website easily.”
This is exactly the spirit of information management. Information retrieval is the first step
of managing information.

Comment from X
To CI:
Yes. Many IT persons do not understand the structure of information. They usually put
emphasis on the technologies used, which is a bit naive.
Like my client company, they want a big change in their IT. However, they cannot specify
WHY and they haven’t thought about the Change Management in IT. User resistance is
always an issue to be addressed if you want to update stuff regarding IT.
To CS:
CS, you are gifted with information management. And I think IM is the best degree for you
since you enjoy it. You have the “sense” of Information Management while most of us don’t.
Hope you are doing OK and wish you all the best in the future. IM is a degree that seems
tailor-made for you.
See you in a bit!

Comment from WB
Good! Your proposal was accepted by others. You did a great job :)

Comment from CP
You are so great. You can identify the issue clearly and explain for them. You did it well.

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Retrieved from http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/246184.
Chapter 6
Developing an Experiential Internship
Program with Social Media
and a Participatory Design Approach

As emphasized in preceding chapters, use of social media platforms can serve as a

potentially effective strategy to support students’ experiential internship learning and
to enable emotional support among peers. In designing social media platforms for
internship programs, assessing the unique personal and academic needs of students is
paramount. However, exploring the roles that other major stakeholders (e.g., alumni,
workplace supervisors, and faculty supervisors) play in the design process is an
equally vital aspect of constructing optimal internship learning environments. This
chapter first discusses the definition and characteristics of a participatory design
approach, provides insight on utilizing social media platforms within the approach
and highlights the importance of involving end-users and stakeholders in selecting
social media tools for internships. The chapter also introduces a model that guides
faculty supervisors and students to select appropriate social media tools for internship
learning. Previous research findings on the effectiveness of this approach in designing
and implementing an internship program will be summarized and critiqued.

6.1 What is a Participatory Design Approach?

A participatory design approach is a framework that highlights the active contribu-

tions of both designers and users when designing a product or infrastructure (Reich,
Konda, Monarch, Levy, & Subrahmanian, 1996; Sanders, Brandt, & Binder, 2010).
While a traditional design approach is characterized by the interaction between
designers and other experts (e.g., marketing specialists and sellers) in the process of
product development, a participatory design approach also involves potential users
or consumers in the design construction. A participatory design approach has usu-
ally been adopted “for the design and development of innovations that are tailored
to end-user groups and contexts by including those users in various phases of the
design process” (Cober, Tan, Slotta, So, & Könings, 2015, p. 204) and is aimed at
promoting a good fit between the employees’ practices and technological innovations

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 83

S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_6
84 6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social Media …

(Kensing & Blomberg, 1998). The involvement of users in the design conceptualiza-
tion phase is advantageous because designers and experts obtain immediate feedback
from their target users on how to improve the features and content of a specific design
(Davis et al., 2017; Reich et al., 1996). Participatory design practitioners commonly
believe that participants involved in the design process are considered experts in their
own right (Sanoff, 2008). Furthermore, a participatory design approach is a dynamic
model that continually examines users’ needs to enhance the design of a product.
In this way, designers can develop products or infrastructures that may address the
needs of consumers from different socio-contextual backgrounds.
The appealing value of a participatory design approach has been recognized
in different fields. For instance, Barcellini, Prost, and Cerf (2015) adopted this
approach in evaluating software that assesses the sustainability of agricultural
cropping systems. The authors found that the users’ participation contributed
not only on the functional and operational aspects of the product but even on
the conceptual—for instance, the concept of “sustainability”—which is crucial
because through this process, the users are finally given the right to take part in
discussions influencing the vision of agriculture (Barcellini et al., 2015). Wilkinson
and De Angeli (2014) have also emphasized how this approach enables effective
interactional experiences between product designers and users that may result in
innovative intelligent mobility aids for older adults. The ability of a user-centric and
participatory design approach to engage potential users in the process of identifying
relevant issues before and during the design phases has also led to the formulation of
new ideas. Chu et al. (2015) used the principles of participatory design approach in
developing “Making Smart Choices”, an interactive game that aimed to provide sex
education with positive attitudes toward relationships and sex among Hong Kong
secondary school students. Drawing from a game-based approach with participatory
design, this study highlighted the roles of sex education and health experts, education
experts, target users and experienced web users, computer and information science
experts, and game development experts. The authors have demonstrated that this
sex education game enhanced students’ knowledge about safer sex. Recently, others
have also used a participatory design approach in creating augmented reality maps
for blind and low vision people (Albouys-Perrois, Laviole, Briant, & Brock, 2018) as
well as a person-centered patient portal smartphone application (Kildea et al., 2019).
Such findings from varied research investigations clearly point to the potential role
of this approach in different fields of specializations.
A participatory design approach is a potential strategy to improve educational
practices by optimizing collaboration between students, teachers, and learning
designers, which is tantamount to the development of an effective learning environ-
ment (Könings, Seidel, & van Merriënboer, 2014b). Whereas students are commonly
considered as the recipients of learning resources, participatory design approaches
regard students as design partners when developing pedagogical techniques (Druin,
2002). Integrating student perspectives with teacher viewpoints can strengthen
the curriculum, as opinion from both major stakeholders is considered (Könings,
Seidel, Brand-Gruwel, & van Merriënboer, 2014a). Studies have demonstrated
that the implementation of participatory learning environments can result in better
6.1 What is a Participatory Design Approach? 85

learning processes such as metacognition (Bovill, Cook-Sather, & Felten, 2011),

self-confidence and motivation (Bovill, 2014), and the use of a participatory design
approach in developing technological tools targeting the needs of children with
autism has been beneficial in optimizing important skills (e.g., social skills and
improved relationship with adults) in the case of both children with autism and
mainstream schoolchildren (Benton & Johnson, 2014).
Although some existing literature indicates that it may be challenging to design
effective strategies to engage stakeholders in participatory design activities (Sanders
et al., 2010), there are significant potential gains. For instance, as teachers play
a significant role in enriching effective technology-enhanced learning environments
using a participatory design approach, they may further strengthen the design process
by “engaging in theoretical discussion, active participation in a design partnership,
reflection about pedagogy and practice, and experimenting with enactment” (Cober
et al., 2015, p. 204).
Different issues may be linked to the implementation of participatory design
approaches in various fields. For example, Hussain, Sanders, and Steinert (2012)
utilized participatory design tools to construct a device that allows children with
prosthetic legs to walk in muddy places in Cambodia. In this participatory design
approach, industrial designers worked with prosthetists, mechanical engineering
students, and targeted users to develop a user-centric prosthesis. The authors
found four categories of the participants’ responses that can lead to challenges in
implementing participatory design techniques. These categories include:
(a) human aspect: includes the designer’s relationship to participants, access to
users and other stakeholders, the participant’s capacity to participate, language
barriers and appropriate ways of rewarding participants;
(b) social, cultural, and religious aspects: involves social and cultural structures that
can make it difficult for participants to collaborate at an equal level (e.g., age,
sex, familial background, birth order, occupation, political position, influence,
education, and financial situation) and customs and religious beliefs that can
impact participants’ willingness to share opinions;
(c) financial and time aspects: includes financial resources available for transport,
rent of workshop premises, hiring translators, training participants; and
(d) organizational aspect: encompasses recognition of the importance of user
participation in the organization as well as the structural hierarchy of the
organization that produces or provides the product.

6.2 Applying a Participatory Design Approach with Social

Media in Internships

The growing body of evidence on the effectiveness of a participatory design approach

has attracted researchers to explore its educational affordances. For example, one of
the author’s recently implemented research programs emphasizes the use of Face-
book via a participatory design approach in managing the sharing of experiential
86 6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social Media …

Evalua on of: Facilitate the communica on and support among peers, students and
lecturers
1. Internship
learning outcomes

- Forma ve
assessment
during the 3. Choose 4. Assess 5. Decide
process of
internship Whole process
Social media tools
- Summa ve
2. Align (Facebook, WhatsApp, Blogs)
X2
assessment at
the end of the
internship 1. Review 7. Evaluate 6. Apply

2. Effec veness of
applying SM tools
in internship
Par cipatory design-based research approach

Fig. 6.1 Model for using social media (SM) tools to maximize experiential internship learning

learning during internships among Bachelor of Science in Information Management

students (see Fig. 6.1). The participatory design approach affords opportunities for
faculty supervisors, students, as well as other stakeholders (e.g., alumni and intern-
ship coordinator) to collaboratively design, evaluate, and perfect the management of
internship programs in various disciplines.
Figure 6.1 illustrates crucial processes in implementing and managing internship
courses that utilize social media to maximize students’ experiential internship
learning. First, faculty supervisors and selective alumni will review the learning
outcomes embedded in an internship course. One of the important objectives of this
step is to identify any weak areas and perform revisions in the articulated learning
outcomes. Faculty supervisors can also assess students’ preparedness to undergo
the internship program.
Second, faculty supervisors align the identified learning outcomes with the
university’s educational aims. The effective alignment of course learning outcomes
with university educational aims is important to ensure that the goals of the internship
corroborate with the university’s expectations for its graduates.
Third, students gain concrete opportunities to choose internship sites via their
faculty programs or to find one on their own. Although some students can readily
find internship posts themselves, some students may need the assistance of faculty
supervisors and/or faculty administrators to be able to secure an internship position.
Fourth, university administrators, faculty supervisors, and administrative staff
assess the types of social media tools (e.g., blogs, Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter,
etc.) that they can potentially use to facilitate sharing of students’ learning in an
internship program. The possible advantages and disadvantages of each identified
social media platform are discussed to select the most appropriate tool that can be
used to support the specific internship experience.
6.2 Applying a Participatory Design Approach with Social Media … 87

Fifth, the abovementioned stakeholders decide on the most optimal social media
tool for facilitating efficient communication between faculty supervisors and student
interns. Sixth, faculty supervisors apply the identified social media platform to man-
age the sharing of students’ internship experiential learning. At this stage, it is essen-
tial to discuss clearly the guidelines in using social media tools with student interns
to avoid the misuse of such social networking platforms. Seventh, faculty supervisors
evaluate whether the internship learning outcomes have been satisfactorily achieved
through the use of formative and summative assessment techniques.
To examine students’ extent of learning outcome attainment, faculty supervisors
review: (1) the students’ log of learning experience in the social media platform,
(2) the students’ final report that summarizes their reflection on the internship
experience, including the application of theories and models as well as skills and
knowledge acquired from performing major tasks, and (3) the respective workplace
supervisor’s evaluation. They also evaluate the effectiveness of the social media
platforms as tools to optimize experiential learning throughout the duration of
the students’ internship via interviewing student interns and faculty supervisors.
Students are requested to share whether they find social media tools effective in
facilitating internship experiential learning. Information from the evaluation is used
to refine the subsequent cycles of this approach. The stakeholders engage in this
iterative and rigorous process (from review to evaluate) for 2–3 times, which in turn
increases the likelihood of perfecting the design of the internship learning experience.
The author has been facilitating internship experiential learning using the
participatory design approach for over ten years. Throughout this time, feedback
has been acquired from fellow faculty supervisors, workplace supervisors, alumni,
and students to improve not only the desired internship learning outcomes but also
students’ overall learning experience. In terms of managing the sharing of students’
learning and exchanging emotional support, the author and his colleagues initially
used blogs for the first 5 years. However, former students and alumni suggested
that Facebook might serve as a more appealing and valuable platform for internship
learning optimization. Acting on these suggestions, the author and his colleagues
have been using Facebook groups in managing the sharing of students’ learning
during internships for 6 years.
Individual interviews were conducted by the author to collect more evidence on the
benefits and challenges in managing an internship course using a participatory design
approach. Interview participants included 20 students from a Bachelor of Science in
Information Science and Management course, alumni, workplace supervisors, and
faculty supervisors. Their responses were analyzed via content analysis in which a
methodical classification of codes derived from the data to be used in interpreting the
content (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). Portions of the data that may elicit insights on the
potential benefits and issues in using this internship approach were coded. Similar
codes were grouped together to form the categories characterizing the participants’
perceived benefits and challenges during the internship period using the partici-
patory design approach. Associated learning theories are also highlighted in this
discussion. Furthermore, the author gathered responses on what recommendations
the participants could give to improve the implementation of internship experiential
learning.
88 6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social Media …

6.2.1 What are the Benefits?

Participants’ perspectives characterizing the perceived benefits in managing an

internship course using the abovementioned model are described in Table 6.1.
Specifically, the categories of responses fell into two broad themes, namely (a)
use of social media and (b) support from university. Then, the frequency of the
responses falling into each category of response is shown to offer evidence upon the
occurrences of response categories in the current study.
Convenient Contact Point. Findings indicate participants’ responses regarding
the advantages of using Facebook may be divided into four major categories. The
role of Facebook as a convenient contact point occurred most frequently (n = 22).
Participants highly recognized the ability of Facebook to optimize effective and
timely communication between faculty supervisors and student interns. This reflects
the student interns’ desire for seamless learning which enables continued learning
across different contexts usually with the help of mobile technology (Wong & Looi,
2011). Supporting this category, one alumni, BSIM_LH, claimed:
I think it is better to use a user-friendly, accessible, and popular social media platform.
Facebook is good in a sense that you could get access to it either via the Internet or mobile
phone. You could instantly look at the postings or comments of other students and reply
accordingly. You could see them at once. This is one of the merits of Facebook in my own
opinion.

A faculty supervisor, FS_CD, concurred:

Since most students use Facebook in their daily life, it is a very convenient platform for
students to communicate with their peers and teachers. When problems arise, students can
reach out to their peers and even teachers in a short amount of time. So the help is direct!

Another alumnus, BSIM_CB, also mentioned that all stakeholders, students,

supervisors, and other users should find the social media platform “convenient in
the first place”.
Emotional Support. The second most frequently occurring category identified in this
research emotional support (n = 20). This category suggests that using Facebook

Table 6.1 Perceived benefits elicited via a participatory design approach

Categories Frequency
Use of social media Convenient contact point 22
Learning from peers 13
Emotional support 20
Documentation 7
Support from university Helpful supervisors 11
Help in getting internship opportunities 5
Alignment of faculty and workplace supervisors 4
6.2 Applying a Participatory Design Approach with Social Media … 89

is as an optimal learning environment conducive for providing emotional support

and meeting new friends within the internship context. Aligned with the situated
learning theory, students’ meaningful interactions and support in a learning context
creates a “community of practice” that facilitates learning. An alumnus, BSIM_CB
commented:
In terms of meeting new friends, Facebook did give us a positive and supportive environment.
We could also exchange our information and inspirations with one another.

One of the faculty supervisors, FS_CD, said:

I think the platform provides students with the feeling that they are not alone without helping
hands when they come to a whole new and strange working environment.

A student, BSIM_LS, shared:

Classmates’ comments or advice is something that I would associate with emotional support.

Documentation. Documentation refers to how students used their social media posts
as a reference for learning purposes or to complete reports done at the end of their
internship. One of the alumni, BSIM_YKC, stated:
If you did not record what you learn[ed], at the end, when asked to write a final report, we
could only hand in a vague one. Even if you jotted down things with notebook, pens and
paper, you could not write a good essay in a proper chronological order but for Facebook, it
was indeed a completely different case.

Similarly, a student, BSIM_LS, shared:

Posting on Facebook can help me reflect on what I have learned in this internship program
which inexplicitly helps me to improve my internship performance and the experience.

Learning from Peers. This is the third most frequently occurring benefit; learning
from peers refers to knowledge acquisition through reading others’ logs or getting
answers or advice from fellow students. This corroborates with social constructivist
theory wherein the social media platform becomes a way for students to interact
meaningfully and learn from their faculty supervisors and peers, which may lead to
some bridging between students’ zone of proximal development and zone of actual
development. In relation to this theme, a faculty supervisor, FS_CS, verbalized:
[The students] may share their learning, some may voice out their problems, and some may
provide suggestions and encouragement. Since they are sharing their learning, thus students
can learn from each other. Although they may not work in the same company or industry,
they actually learn from each other.

Another alumni, BSIM_LH, said:

What benefited me most was that I could learn about others’ situation in their internship
programs and this was an additional information for me indeed. It allowed me to learn more
and in fact I learnt a lot.
90 6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social Media …

Under the category of support from university, the following themes character-
ized the beneficial impacts of adopting a participatory design approach: (a) helpful
supervisors; (b) help in getting internship opportunities; and (c) alignment of faculty
and workplace supervisors.
Helpful Supervisors. This benefit under the category of support from university
refers to how the students received help from their faculty supervisors who assisted
in their learning such as sharing essential information, references, encouragement,
and advice. BSIM_LH, an alumni, shared:
[S]ome supervisors were very caring and tried to reply [to] every post of students and give
them advice at the same time … [T]hey did not set any barriers between us and them, barring
us from communication. Instead, they were free for discussion. No matter what happened,
they would discuss the matters with us and learn with us at the same time. This was very
good indeed … They also provided us with emotion[al] support.

Another alumnus, BSIM_FKF, said:

Both my work and academic supervisor had helped me a lot … through face-to-face
interactions, as well as emails and Facebook.

Help in Getting Internship Opportunities. Help in getting internship opportunities

is about how the faculty supervisors, internship coordinator and faculty administra-
tive support team provide adequate support to students in acquiring an internship
opportunity. Although students may seek internship opportunities by themselves, the
faculty also provides assistance to those who need help. In line with this category,
an alumna, BSIM_LH, said:
They are of course very helpful because they inform us about internship opportunities. I
know many students did approach them to get related information. They would tell them
which one suits their needs and their career path. They are very helpful in this sense because
they know well, in the current job market, which are the best for students. They would
also chat with students and give them suggestions accordingly that suits them well. These
are indeed the contributions of the advisors. For support team, I remember that there are
workshops teaching us how to prepare for CVs and I think all those are helpful, for newly
graduated students. So far I think both parties are helpful and good, as far as student interns
are concerned.

Another alumna, BSIM_YKC, shared:

[The internship opportunity was] given by my supervisor. I had found some on my own but
I was not given interview opportunities.

Alignment of Faculty and Workplace Supervisors. Finally, the alignment of faculty

and workplace supervisors pertains to having an understanding between the parties
along with the student intern on the program’s learning aims, the student’s major
projects, assessment criteria, as well as details such as working period, and set com-
munication type between the student intern and the workplace supervisor. A learning
agreement form signed by the faculty supervisor, workplace supervisor, and student
intern summarizes the aforementioned information. This alignment meeting between
the parties happens at least once throughout the internship period. In this meeting,
6.2 Applying a Participatory Design Approach with Social Media … 91

workplace supervisors may also give some feedback and the student intern can share
his or her progress. Supporting this category, one alumnus, BSIM_YSW, said:
Supervisors at work usually won’t put too many responsibilities on interns, if there is a
supervisor from the university to talk about such situations with my work supervisor, things
may get better. Also, they would sign an agreement at first, so I feel that my university
supervisor would help to encourage my supervisor at work to distribute more work duties to
me.

Another faculty supervisor, FS_CD, shared:

The employer would know what we have taught the students and find out whether we have
missed anything or whether the teaching on certain subjects is insufficient, whether the
students’ attitude is problematic etc. It is to give more information to the employers so that
they would know more about this program. Actually many employers did not know about the
content of this program, after I have explained it to them, their feedback was mostly positive,
and said there were still places out there and they would continue to find our students to do
internships. There is a promotion effect.

6.2.2 What are the Challenges?

A total of seven challenges for managing an internship program with the abovemen-
tioned model social media component exist. Students may (a) perceive social media
use as homework and consider it as (b) additional and heavy workload, leading to
(c) posts of poor content. Furthermore, (d) not all students use or are active in social
media and might run into (e) difficulties with a social media interface or function.
Lastly, students might experience a (f) lack of deep emotional support, and (g) diverse
internship contexts as seen in Table 6.2. Two perceived challenges in getting support
from the university are also listed.
Taking social cognitive theory into consideration, a social media platform mixed
with tasks set out by faculty supervisors creates the environmental factors that may

Table 6.2 Perceived challenges elicited using a participatory design approach

Categories Frequency
Use of social media Perceived as homework 8
Additional heavy workload 8
Posts with poor content 5
Inactive in social media 8
Difficulty in social media interface or function 7
Lack of deep emotional support 3
Diverse internship contexts 11
Support from university Balance of faculty help 7
Internship as the student’s responsibility 16
92 6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social Media …

potentially form effective learning processes. However, Bandura (1999) emphasized

that optimal learning is contingent on the interplay between environmental, personal,
and behavioral factors. As seen in the previous section, some students find the envi-
ronmental factor of social media platforms to be conducive for learning, and thus, the
following perceived challenges can be taken by educators and faculty supervisors as
opportunities to improve the implementation and management of internship courses.
Perceived as Homework. Interns’ may develop a perception that their social media
log is simply another academic requirement utilized for assessment rather than an
avenue for students to receive emotional support and enhance their learning. One of
the alumni, BSIM_ASKK, shared:
I think the social media platform is useless. … Students only did so because they had to hand
in homework.

Another alumnus, BSIM_YSW, suggested:

I think the platform should be more casual. The reflections we uploaded were quite serious,
just like homework. These [more emotional] kind of reflections are rather few. Students
have to be able to share emotions if emotional support is to be obtained. But since this is
homework, the students won’t do it very casually.

Additional Heavy Workload. This refers to the students’ perception that the social
media requirement is another taxing internship responsibility. To support this theme,
an alumna, BSIM_LH, shared:
It was an uphill task for me to review all posts of my friends and classmates whenever I
have to make a post. This was time-consuming. [Given] the fact that we are off at night, very
tired and exhausted, doing so would affect our performance on the next day actually. A good
social media should not ask students to keep checking posts like that.

A student, BSIM_LS, elaborated:

The challenge is related to time management … My internship requires long working hours
relatively, and we have to work over-time, which means that we have no time to write logs
on Facebook. But for those with shorter working hours, they should not have this problem.
So I have say it depends on the situation.

Posts with Poor Content. Another challenge is posts with poor content, which
pertains to the students’ undesirable feedback on both their own, and their classmates’
social media posts. This may be a consequence of the previous challenge. One of the
alumni, BSIM_ASKK, commented:
But I would not take a look at others’ work … We all wrote some rubbish, honestly.

Inactive in Social Media. This refers to the inactivity of some students and faculty
supervisors in their social media accounts that may affect their participation. One of
the students, BSIM_OR, mentioned:
I am not using Facebook always. Those who use Facebook frequently, or rely more on it,
may find these [comments] encouraging, but not for me.

A faculty supervisor, FS_WP, shared:

6.2 Applying a Participatory Design Approach with Social Media … 93

I have to say I have not been active on my Facebook as I should have been.

Difficulty in Social Media Interface or Function. This challenge refers to the

inconveniences students and faculty supervisors experience using the selected social
media. One faculty supervisor, FS_HX, mentioned:
A little bit inconvenient is actually the interface of Facebook. Facebook does not rank the
messages based on time but based on how recently they have been commented. This makes
it a bit inconvenient to trace their posts in chronological order.

Lack of Deep Emotional Support. Often, students may find the peers in the social
media group superficial and for some students, they could not obtain the type of
support needed. As discussed in Chap. 4, many learning theories involving social
interactions, such as situated learning theory and computer-supported collaborative
learning, highlight collaborative learning. Therefore, to maximize internship learning
with the aid of a social media platform, high interaction and engagement must be
facilitated. An alumnus, BSIM_CSK, shared:
If you ask me whether I felt supported emotionally because many people have read my
reflections, I don’t think so. There are around 40 students in a group, and I was not familiar
with all of them. The minimum requirement was for each post to have 2 responses, so students
would naturally only comment on the posts written by those they were close to.

Diverse Internship Contexts. Lastly, this challenge refers to the group’s diversity
when it comes to their industry and responsibilities making it difficult to support
and learn from each other’s social media posts. To support this category, one of the
alumni, BSIM_LH, shared:
When it comes to the details of the job and assignments, Facebook did not offer much help.
It was because, again, different students had different posts, doing different work. We did
not know [about] others’ situation well … Their comments you receive would not be useful.

Certain programs, such as Bachelor of Science in Information Management, allow

students to take up internship posts in various industries which accounts for the
diversity of projects and responsibilities the student interns will experience. However,
these differences do not mean one student intern’s experiences and learning are
irrelevant to another. One of the assumptions of social connectivism is that learning
involves seeing the relationships of specialized information (Siemens, 2005). The
student interns may need more guidance from the faculty supervisor in processing
their unique experiences and summarizing them as reflections that their peers can
learn from, creating a collaborative learning environment.
Balance of Faculty Help. This refers to the problematic balance between providing
help to students but at the same time giving them space to learn and grow on their own.
This can be associated to the social constructivist theory where the faculty supervisors
are “more knowledgeable others” who can maximize the student interns’ learning
through the process of scaffolding. It potentially becomes complicated because some
student interns need more and different types of support than others. One of the faculty
supervisors, FS_WP, shared:
94 6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social Media …

It is a tricky balance. We have [support] for students. And students also always support
themselves through Facebook, you know. So they have peer support as well. So … we do not
want to mutter the students too much. I think we need to have a certain level of proactivity
for interns, for students. Over a long [period of] time, we should try to contact them. Yeah.
But again, we want them to separate a little bit with the Faculty and prefer when they have
problems, they contact us.

While an alumnus, BSIM_CJ, said:

They [supervisors] could not help you if you say nothing. I am not saying that all of
your requests will be accepted or that whenever you ask supervisors, they will give you
a satisfactory answer. At least [the] students have to filter their questions and then ask.

Internship as the Student’s Responsibility. Connected to the previous challenge is

the perception that internship is the student’s responsibility. This points to the belief
held by some students and faculty supervisors that students are responsible for their
own learning in their internship. One of the students, BSIM_OR, shared:
I think internship is something personal. It is related to your future career. Students should
be responsible for that on their own.

A faculty supervisor, FS_CD, commented:

I don’t think academic supervisors have that much linkage with students’ internship learning.
After all, it is the student’s own work … or maybe let me put it this way, not one medium
can help to optimize the internship learning, it is mainly up to the students’ performance at
work and the efforts they put in. All other means are only subsidiary.

From the social constructivist perspective, individuals learn from purposeful and
meaningful interactions. The student interns’ work performance in their respective
internship sites is important, and some students may even do well independently.
However, as the Internship Learning Processes Framework (see Chap. 5) proposes,
supplementing their internship experiences with an online learning platform and
relevant social and pedagogical support can help enhance students’ internship learn-
ing. For instance, as discussed in Chap. 5, the use of social media during internship
results in cognitive, metacognitive, social, and affective learning processes (Chu,
Chan, & Tiwari, 2012) resulting in an increased sense of community (Deng &
Tavares, 2013), knowledge transfer (Chau et al., 2013; Cheong, Hu, Chu, & Ng,
2017), and reflective practices (Rourke & Lewer-Fletcher, 2016) to name a few. In
sum, although students are responsible for their internship learning and outcome,
there is much to gain from engaging in a supportive online community of peers and
faculty supervisor.

6.2.3 What are the Recommendations?

The respondents’ recommendations for improving the internship course are summa-
rized in Table 6.3. The table covers (a) assessment for social media posts and need for
further support from the university regarding (b) faculty supervisor matching, aiding
students in (c) securing more relevant internship opportunities, and (d) providing
additional programs.
6.2 Applying a Participatory Design Approach with Social Media … 95

Table 6.3 Recommendations elicited via participatory design approach

Categories Frequency
Use of social media Assessment covering social media posts 4
Support from university Faculty supervisor matching 2
Need for help in getting more relevant internship 11
opportunities
Need for additional programs (e.g., CV writing 16
training)

Under support from the university, recommendations include: faculty supervisor

matching, need for help in getting more relevant internship opportunities and need
for additional programs.
Assessment of Social Media Posts. The recommendation under use of social media
is regarding the assessment of social media posts. This pertains to how students think
social media posts should not be used for assessment, because such posts may not
truly or fully reflect internship learning. A student, BSIM_LS, shared that:
Facebook takes up part of the final grade. That is not too good. Because we have no time to
work on the Facebook tasks … I think the percentage should be lowered or even it should
not counted. Just use it as a reference. The assessment should be based on the workplace
supervisors and the reports that we write in the end.

Another student, BSIM_OR, elaborated:

For example, someone takes up a job that is monotonous, which requires the interns to keep
repeating what he has done. At the same time, I work in a start-up company and have a
heavier workload compared to him. You would never know … He may manage to post a
lot of things but does it mean he learns more than me? The assessment on the aspect of
Facebook cannot differentiate this.

Faculty Supervisor Matching. This refers to the recommendation that faculty

supervisors’ specialization must be closely related to the student’s internship
responsibilities so that the students can receive more specific support.
A faculty supervisor, FS_SF, explained:
If I specialize in library work, and my students are assigned computing and programming
work, this is not a perfect match. You see my point? In this case, even though we see a lot
of bugs, can we help them and solve the problems? Impossible.

An alumnus, BSIM_CB, shared:

I do think they [supervisors] did well in all aspects [in helping me] at that time. It was because
the job that I took up during my internship was actually the expertise/research area of my
supervisor. So he could give me both practical and technical advice.

Need for Help in Getting More Relevant Internship Opportunities. This rec-
ommendation refers to the expansion of the current faculty’s network of internship
partners since it may not suit all students’ desired internship opportunities. An
alumna, BSBIO_LJ, shared:
96 6 Developing an Experiential Internship Program with Social Media …

For science-related internships … introduced by the faculty … they are not much related
to food nutrition. They should provide students with more advice and make use of their
connection to help students. Many students do not even know what internship they should
participate in.

Another alumnus, BSIM_YKC, commented:

I think it is good for them to provide us with more and diversified choices, exposing us to
different experience and industry.

Need for Additional Programs. Finally, the need for additional programs refers to
offering the students programs on pre-employment such as CV writing and job inter-
view skills, and programs on specific skills that may be needed in certain internships.
In relation to this category, one of the workplace supervisors, WS_WD, shared:
If [the interns] are equipped with more IT knowledge, I think it would be better. Database,
programming—they only have to acquire simple knowledge of them [from their program].
It is impossible for them to take up technical assignments without any prior knowledge in
programming and acquiring data.

In addition, a student, BSIM_LS, suggested:

Perhaps the faculty or the program should give us more training about interview skills …
Giving more training on interview skills to us will be helpful.

6.3 Summary

Effectively managing internship experiential learning programs is important to

ensure that students can apply the theories they have learned to workplace settings.
A valuable strategy is to adopt a participatory design approach, which involves
students and stakeholders including faculty supervisors, faculty administrative
staff, workplace supervisors, and alumni. For instance, feedback received from
this approach includes suggestions on which social media tools may be optimal in
facilitating the sharing of students’ internship learning and exchanging of emotional
support. Furthermore, the approach enables faculty supervisors to continuously
evaluate and refine delivery of the program in order to address students’ needs
throughout the duration of an internship experience.
As anticipated, the findings reported in this chapter, as elicited via a participatory
design approach, highlight the potential benefits of using social media tools when
managing an internship experiential learning program. Social media can facilitate
a convenient communication channel, interpersonal learning, exchanging of emo-
tional support, and easier documentation. However, a number of issues are linked
to the use of social media platforms during an internship including perceptions that
social media tasks create an additional academic burden, posts with poor content, as
well as classmates and teachers who are usually “inactive” in their respective social
media. Indeed, there are potential caveats in using social media to manage sharing
of students’ learning during an internship.
6.3 Summary 97

Faculty administrative staff, faculty supervisors, and workplace supervisors are

encouraged to carefully consider the abovementioned strengths as well as the chal-
lenges in the use of social media platforms via a participatory design approach so that
they may help start to optimize achievement of learning outcomes during internships.

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 Part III
Setting Up Online Platforms
for Experiential Internship Learning
Chapter 7
Setting Up Online Social Media
Platforms to Help Manage Internship
Programs

Theoretical foundations and empirical findings on the potential value of using social
media to assist internship program management have been discussed in previous
chapters. Indeed, existing literature has demonstrated that social media platforms
(e.g., SNS and blogs) can serve as valuable tools to enhance learning experiences in
different subjects. However, previous investigations paid little attention to the devel-
opment of course-related activities and processes that can aid university lecturers
who are teaching/managing internship courses.
Building on the previous chapter, this chapter focuses on the steps Assess, Decide
and Apply of the Model for Using Social Media Tools to Maximize Experiential
Internship Learning. These steps deal with assessing, deciding, and applying a social
media tool to aid internship learning. First, the social media learning environment
design is presented based on the participatory design approach and results elucidated
in the previous chapter. Then, recommended social media tools for managing the
sharing of internship learning are discussed. Finally, ethical considerations on the
use of social media tools during an internship course are presented.

7.1 Learning Environment Design

In the context of using social media in an internship program, learning becomes

seamless; it is difficult to pinpoint where learning starts and ends. Usually assisted
by mobile technology, learning can be seen as continual across different contexts
(e.g., facilitated by a teacher or self-initiated), and learners are placed at the center of
knowledge production (Wong, 2012). As Kukulska-Hulme and Viberg (2018) pointed
out, seamless learning relies on the learners’ habits and skills such as metacognition,
motivation, and discipline, which controls self-directed learning behavior. However,
as described in Chap. 6, some of the challenges in utilizing social media for internship
learning (e.g., perceived as homework, additional heavy workload, poor content, and
being ‘inactive’) are associated with individual differences in metacognition and
motivation that influence effective seamless learning. Sha (2015) concludes that,
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 101
S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_7
102 7 Setting Up Online Social Media Platforms to Help …

“one of the fundamental challenges for the twenty-first-century learners is not only
what they learn, but also how and when they learn in the ways that make meaningful
learning happen” (p. 94). Students’ access to and daily use of social media platforms
does not always equate to smooth transition in using these platforms for learning
purposes. Therefore, there is a need to scaffold self-regulated learning skills in the
use of social media for internship learning.
Dabbagh and Kitsantas (2012) developed a pedagogical framework for educators
to support students’ self-regulated learning through the use of social media as a
personal learning environment. There are three levels based on the interactivity that
social media tools allow. Level 1 concerns students’ creation of a personal learning
space (e.g., personal journal, calendars) by generating and managing content. Goal
setting and planning also takes place at this level. Social interaction and collaboration
is the goal of Level 2 where sharing and collaborative activities (e.g., commenting)
extend the personal learning space into a social learning space. Through students’
self-monitoring and help seeking, they can perform learning tasks better. Finally,
Level 3 is concerned with information aggregation and management whereby
students synthesize information from the previous levels to reflect on their overall
learning. Students can gauge their progress in achieving the goals set in Level 1
and make necessary adjustments after the self-reflection process in this level.
The framework aligns well with using social media for an internship program.
As mentioned in Chap. 6, a learning agreement form signed by the student, fac-
ulty supervisor, and workplace supervisor outlines learning aims, student’s major
tasks/projects, and assessment criteria. Alongside these goal setting processes, the
author and his colleagues have used blogs and then Facebook groups for the students
to share and manage their learning, much like a personal journal (Level 1). Through
the ‘comments’ feature in the social media tools, the students and faculty supervisor
can give feedback and provide emotional support (Level 2). Finally, synthesis of
learning occurs through the aggregating of online sharing and experiences in a final
report (Level 3).
Informed by this framework, the author’s experiences, and the benefits, challenges,
and recommendations presented in the previous chapter, three strategies to promote
effective internship learning with the use of social media are presented below.

7.1.1 Meaningful Learning Tasks

Making learning tasks meaningful is one strategy to address the motivation and
metacognition challenges mentioned in Chap. 6. Journaling, or in this context, the
student’s learning log, is one of the assessment tasks the author and his colleagues use
in the internship course. It promotes cognitive and metacognitive learning as students
share and reflect on their knowledge and experiences (Chu, Chan, & Tiwari, 2012a;
Chu, Kwan, & Warning, 2012b). To maximize the potential of the learning log as a
meaningful learning task, students can be encouraged to take ownership and voice
in the learning process. Aligned with constructivism, Wilson (1996) recommends
7.1 Learning Environment Design 103

enabling students to identify target content and direction for learning. Wang (2009)
agrees that when students see the value and relevance of the task to their learning
needs, individual accountability is promoted.
The faculty supervisor then assumes the role of a facilitator and must provide clear
guidelines to scaffold the students’ self-regulated learning. For instance, Library
and Information Management students of a university in Hong Kong receive an
internship handbook, which outlines the internship program’s aims, guidelines, and
protocols, including the procedures for writing the weekly log. Some of the topics
the author and his colleagues encourage students to address in their logs are their
expectations and goals at the beginning of the program and later on, the key events
and/or issues in their internship. However, it is crucial to give timely feedback so
that students’ log quality can improve and remain high. For instance, they must not
only describe events or tasks but also demonstrate self-awareness, analysis from
multiple perspectives, and reflection in a wider context. Another reason why faculty
supervisors must consistently engage in the class’s chosen social media platform
is that it has been evidenced that students reported better learning outcomes and
feelings of being valued in the course for classes where the instructors contributed
more frequently in their Facebook group (Hurt et al., 2012).
The students are also able to use their creativity and different media in their logs
through the use of images, videos, and poems. This aligns with Wilson’s (1996)
recommendation to utilize multiple modes of representation for a richer experience
and possible new perspectives. As postulated in the cognitive theory of multimedia
learning (Mayer, 2005), incorporating various media can result in better learning
outcomes.
To summarize, strategies to instill more meaning into learning tasks include:
• Creation of a log of learning experience which demonstrates self-awareness,
analysis, and reflection, as well as some descriptive information;
• Facilitation of learning by faculty supervisors through necessary guidelines and
timely feedback;
• Inclusion of multimedia use.

7.1.2 Collaboration and Mutual Communication

Another strategy to promote effective internship learning as well as make learning

tasks meaningful is the social component where students can build supportive rela-
tions or even a community in a learning context. Chu et al. (2012a, b) found evidence
for social and affective learning processes in student’s internship-related blogging.
They shared knowledge, solved problems, and expressed emotional experiences with
their peers. As illustrated in Chap. 6, students found that social media use during
their internship allowed for peer learning, emotional support, and additional help
from supervisors. This is aligned with learning theories in social interactions such
104 7 Setting Up Online Social Media Platforms to Help …

as social information processing theory (Walther, 1992, 1996; Walther & Burgoon,
1992), situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991) and computer-supported
collaborative learning (Koschmann, 1996).
However, not just any social interaction between students will be helpful for
learning. According to Arvaja, Hakkinen, Etelapelto, and Rasku-Puttonen (2000),
exploratory talk, where students critically but constructively engage with each other’s
ideas, best promotes understanding and learning. They compared it to cumula-
tive talk, where repetition, confirmation, and elaboration positively but uncritically
constructs common knowledge, and disputational talk, characterized by disagree-
ment, competitiveness, or little attempt to offer constructive criticism. From another
perspective, Gao, Wang, and Sun (2009) posit in their productive online discussion
model that discussion to comprehend, discussion to construct knowledge, and dis-
cussion to critique are all necessary and allow for discussion to share improved
understanding which is a synthesis of learning from the previous three discussions.
In sum, collaboration and mutual communication through social media during an
internship course also allow for cognitive learning in addition to social and affective
learning processes. Connecting this with the previous strategy, these discussions
can also be considered meaningful learning tasks as students are encouraged to
take ownership of their knowledge and opinions, promoting accountability and
individual contribution. This reason, in addition to a supportive learning community,
may engage the learners and address the challenge of inactivity in social media as
mentioned in Chap. 6. Informed by these, students are encouraged to respond to
others’ sharing and to raise and discuss issues and questions. Guidelines can be
provided to encourage different types of discussion. Student interns are also given
liberty to reach out to their faculty and/or workplace supervisor.
Conversely, faculty supervisors are expected to remind their students to observe
appropriate behavior on social media, as the platform’s purpose is for students
to reflect on their practical experiences. For example, students are encouraged to
use appropriate language when sharing their learning experience on social media.
Instead of expressing disappointment and anger toward their supervisors as well as
fellow interns if conflicts arise, students are recommended to be civil and respectful.
For instance, in dealing with specific issues such as problematic interaction with
co-interns from other universities in the workplace, students are encouraged to
resolve it proactively through discussing how to effectively address the conflict.
Alternatively, students can talk to their workplace and faculty supervisors privately
if they fail to resolve problems themselves.
Another consideration is the confidentiality of workplace-related information.
Prior to the course implementation, faculty supervisors are encouraged to prepare
contracts with confidentiality clauses to ensure that concerns regarding confidential-
ity will be observed by student interns throughout the duration of their internship.
If necessary, both students and supervisors should create new social media accounts
(separate from any existing personal accounts) to ensure that only the faculty
supervisors and students have access to the details or information posted regarding
the internship program. Students are also not allowed to talk publicly about the
organizational details of their respective internship sites via their professional or
7.1 Learning Environment Design 105

personal social media accounts. Furthermore, students should not divulge confiden-
tial information related to the critical functions of their workplace. For example,
human resources management interns must not discuss actual salary amounts for
different full-time positions on social networking sites.
In conclusion, to promote collaboration and mutual communication in social
media platforms for effective internship learning, student interns should be:
• Encouraged to engage in different types of discussions with their peers;
• Given freedom to easily contact their faculty supervisors online for assistance;
• Reminded to respect proper decorum and confidentiality of workplace information
when discussing online.

7.1.3 Monitoring Learning Processes

Further discussion on assessment using social media tools will be covered in the next
chapter. For this subsection, monitoring learning processes is a recommended design
strategy to encourage active student participation and to improve learning. Moreover,
in the context of an online platform for sharing internship learning experiences,
monitoring learning processes can allow faculty supervisors to assess individual and
group learning, gain insight on strengths and weaknesses of the learning environment,
instruction, and curriculum, etc. Wang (2009) recommends tools such as blogs and
e-portfolios to assist in monitoring as students’ thought processes are made explicit.
Gao et al. (2009), on the other hand, endorse online discussion since this “not only
records learning processes but also demonstrates learning outcomes (p. 69).”
To address the challenge of inactivity on the social media platform, monitoring can
be another way to promote students’ individual accountability. Wang (2009) posits
that by putting more emphasis on the learning process, students will be encour-
aged to exert more effort into the learning tasks thereby making more individual
contributions. Taking this into consideration, the issue of using social media logs
for assessment, as raised in Chap. 6, can be addressed by focusing on the learning
process. Guidance questions may be given to students on what they can post such as:
(1) what do I already know?; (2) what do I want to know?; (3) what have I learnt?;
and (4) provide any resources that you find useful. These questions are formulated
from the KWL (know-want-learned) learning technique (Tok, 2013; Usman, Fata,
& Pratiwi, 2019). Aside from these general questions, students are encouraged to
answer specific questions that will help them express their learning and self-reflection
on their professional experiences. For example, they may post:
• about their challenges and how they overcame those,
• an analysis and critique of theories when applied to their workplace, major
knowledge or lessons learned,
• about personal changes observed after the internship.
106 7 Setting Up Online Social Media Platforms to Help …

This actually helps address another challenge which is finding the balance of pro-
viding help for the students. Through the students’ logs and discussions, faculty
supervisors can observe who may need more assistance.
In a wider context, for an internship program utilizing the participatory design
approach presented in the previous chapter, monitoring and assessing on an ongoing
basis to improve implementation is a must. The need for additional programs was
the top recommendation raised in Chap. 6. Students were concerned about acquiring
specific technical skills that may be an indication for faculty members to review the
curriculum and adjust accordingly. Due to the evolving nature of jobs and job skills,
monitoring will help with up keeping the relevance of the university curriculum.
To conclude, some strategies in relation to monitoring learning processes in a
social media platform include:
• Focus on learning processes when assessing logs and discussion;
• Ongoing evaluation and collection of feedback to improve program
implementation.

7.2 Choosing a Social Media Tool to Manage Students’

Sharing of Internship Learning

Guided by the learning environment design, internship coordinators and faculty

supervisors are recommended to assess and select the most appropriate social media
tool that matches the objectives and tasks of the internship program. Chapter 5 previ-
ously presented the impact of different social media tools on learning outcomes. This
section will briefly revisit blogs and SNS that are, from the author’s experiences, both
effective tools for supporting internship learning. Cheong, Hu, Chu, and Ng’s, (2017)
findings also support this with their analysis of student interns’ postings on Facebook
and blogs manifesting emotional expression, social support, and knowledge capture
and knowledge-sharing processes.

7.2.1 Using Blogs

The research program on blogging developed by Chu and colleagues has yielded con-
siderable evidence regarding the academic value of using blogs as a pedagogical tool.
As previously introduced in Chap. 5, Chu and colleagues used a blog as a learning
journal in which nursing and information management student interns of a university
in Hong Kong were asked to reflect on the advantages of using blogs for academic-
related activities (Chu et al. 2012a). This investigation shows that students actively
shared their learning experiences, interacted with their classmates’ posts and pointed
to the capability of blogs to enhance collaboration, reflection and problem-solving
thereby pointing toward how blogs promote cognitive, reflective, affective, and
7.2 Choosing a Social Media Tool to Manage Students’ Sharing … 107

collaborative learning processes (see Fig. 5.2 Learning processes in blogging in the
context of internships). In a related study, Chu et al. (2012b) found that students
shared positive feedback in terms of using blogs to facilitate knowledge and infor-
mation sharing and mutual emotional support. Despite the students’ appreciation
of the usefulness of the blog for their internship learning, some expressed the
opinion that they only used the blog to comply with their teachers’ requirements.
This highlights the possibility of exploring alternative pedagogical tools to support
internship learning.

7.2.2 Using Social Networking Sites

SNS have been widely used for communication. Facebook is one SNS that has
became popular not only for developing interpersonal relationships and interaction
but also for education (Al-Bahrani, Patel, & Sheridan, 2015; Ellison, Steinfield,
& Lampe, 2007). Because of its diverse features, many educators have utilized it
as a tool in their teaching (Al-Bahrani et al., 2015; Wang, Woo, Quek, Yang, &
Liu, 2011). Wang et al. (2011) used Facebook as a learning management system
(LMS) in teaching two courses in Singapore. The authors found that students were
comfortable in using this platform. As Facebook is appealing to students, Wang
et al. have also recommended Facebook as either a substitute or a supplementary
learning management system. Similarly, Chan, Chu, Lee, Chan, and Leung (2013)
have demonstrated that Facebook can bolster social support among peers and strongly
encourages knowledge sharing which in turn enhances students’ learning. In addition,
although blogs seem to be effective as a platform for managing students’ sharing of
their internship learning (Chu et al. 2012a), it appears that Facebook has been more
efficient than blogs in facilitating the sharing process (Chan et al., 2013). For instance,
Facebook seems to display a strong potential in serving as a platform for hospitality
students’ reflection on their learning experiences in Malaysia (Harris, 2012).
LinkedIn is another SNS that is more professionally oriented. It can be used
by university students to build alumni, academic, and professional networks for
internships and job placements (Manca & Ranieri, 2016). Users have reported
high professional informational benefits in terms of access to relevant professional
information and career opportunities (Utz, 2016). LinkedIn has also been used
for education purposes. Business concepts such as branding, relationship building,
market research, and so on can be reinforced through LinkedIn for business students
(Cooper & Naatus, 2014). LinkedIn’s group function was also deemed helpful
by professional hand surgeons to keep up with trends in current practice, engage
in discussion for treatment ideas, and build support and network globally (Dong,
Cheema, Samarasekera, & Rajaratnam, 2015). With these previous studies, faculty
internship supervisors may begin to look into utilizing LinkedIn’s group function
for student interns to discuss and share their learning. Furthermore, compared to
Facebook, LinkedIn limits non-professional content uploads which can assure users
that when colleagues, recruiters, students, etc., view their public profile, personal
information is not revealed (Cooper & Naatus, 2014).
108 7 Setting Up Online Social Media Platforms to Help …

7.3 Ethical Considerations in Setting Up Online Social

Media Platforms for Internship

Social media can serve as a concrete medium to facilitate effective achievement of

different internship learning outcomes. The use of social media enables students
to share learning experiences, provide feedback on others’ experiential accounts,
and ask for faculty supervisor’s and peers’ assistance in various problems related to
students’ internship. Even with the potential educational benefits of this platform,
there is always a risk that some students may misuse social media in the context of
internship learning. This subsection describes ethical guidelines in setting up social
media platforms.

7.3.1 Privacy

One of the main considerations in preparing an online social media platform involves
the creation of a private group by the faculty supervisor and individual private
accounts by students. Membership must be monitored and approved by the super-
visor to assure privacy and confidentiality. In the case of Facebook, creation of the
private group means that only the members of the Facebook group have access to
the group along with the posts and comments regarding each student’s internship
learning experience. Only group members can view and share comments on other
members’ posts. The faculty supervisor and the students must also determine when
the Facebook group will be deleted after finishing the internship. It is therefore pos-
sible that privacy can be ensured because other people (e.g., students from other
universities and random Facebook account holders) will not have opportunities to
interact with interns on topics or comments that are posted in the private Facebook
group. Alternatively, educators may consider using more professionally oriented
social media tools such as LinkedIn. Finding ways to observe privacy is important
given that the existing literature indicates that ethical issues may arise through these
technologically supported platforms (Shevellar, 2017; Torous, Keshavan, & Gutheil,
2014).
After the Facebook-Cambridge Analytica scandal, Facebook has updated its terms
and data policies and has made it easier for users to manage their privacy settings
(Egan, 2018). It is important for both educators and students to be reminded to
manage their personal data and what they allow to be shared or seen by members of
the class upon adding them as ‘friends’ and joining the private group.
7.3 Ethical Considerations in Setting Up Online Social Media … 109

7.3.2 Citing Sources of Posted Information

Through using social media to optimize internship experiential learning, students

can enjoy the freedom to share positive learning experiences as well as challenges
in accomplishing work-related tasks. Students can also post information or recom-
mendations that may assist others in effectively carrying out their respective duties
and responsibilities. While sharing valuable information via Facebook and other
social media platforms may offer an accessible and a cost-efficient way to promote
learning, there is also a potential risk in immediately sharing such materials. For
example, some students may be posting information from specific websites or rele-
vant articles without explicitly citing such sources. To some extent, this is because the
internet increases one’s proneness to copy and paste information from one article to
another (Baysen, Hošková-Mayerová, Çakmak, & Baysen, 2017; Deuze & Yeshua-
Katz, 2001). To ensure that sources of posted information are properly cited, faculty
supervisors may remind and provide guidelines to the students. This practice may
also train the students to be more selective with their sources instead of immediately
sharing any articles.

7.3.3 Referring to Professional Code of Ethics

and Organizational Policies Before Sharing
Information via Social Media

As students are expected to demonstrate the highest level of professionalism

throughout their internship learning experience, it is essential to educate them about
the importance of professional codes of ethics and relevant organizational regulations
when posting information through social media. Beaumont, Chester, and Rideout
(2017) have pointed out that it is important to rely on existing ethical guidelines
as well as organizational policies to avoid the possibility of experiencing ethical
challenges in posting work-related information online. For instance, psychologists-
in-training are recommended to observe confidentiality even when interacting with
clients using technologically supported platforms. They are not supposed to divulge
information related to their clients’ diagnostic impression, symptoms and treatment
schedules in a specific social networking site, not unless the following conditions
are present: (a) the client can be a danger to himself/herself or to others; (b) he or she
is still considered a minor; and (c) a judiciary court ordered the psychologist/trainee
to breach confidentiality. In the same way, management interns should not disclose
sensitive information about the critical functions of their workplace contexts to
refrain from violating organizational rules and regulations. In the field of social work,
professional associations (e.g., the Australian Association of Social Work, the British
Association of Social Work) have advocated for the positive use of social media based
on the ethical principles specified in the Code of Ethics for social work professionals.
110 7 Setting Up Online Social Media Platforms to Help …

7.4 Summary

Many universities and schools have recognized the educational benefits of using
social media in educational contexts. In particular, existing studies have provided
evidence on the effectiveness of blogs and SNS (e.g., Facebook) in optimizing
positive learning processes and outcomes. However, the scarcity of research on the
academic impacts of social networking platforms during internships calls for the need
to investigate the potential effects of adopting such social media tools on interns’
experiential learning. It is hoped that this chapter can help internship coordinators
and faculty supervisors build and implement an optimal online learning environment
for internship.

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Chapter 8
Evaluation of the Internship
and the Effectiveness of Online Platforms

Evaluating the success of internships is important to provide evidence of the impacts

of experiential internship learning programs. The use of appropriate assessment
techniques serves as a potential approach to examine whether desired internship
learning outcomes have been satisfactorily achieved. This chapter offers insight on
how to evaluate internship programs through recommending approaches to conduct
formative and summative assessment. It concentrates on providing examples on
how to effectively assess students’ different learning outcomes. This chapter also
elucidates a number of strategies to examine the effectiveness of selected online
social media platforms.

8.1 What is Assessment?

In school settings, there are specific scenarios that call for the need to adopt relevant
assessment strategies. How can teachers know if students have learned domain-
specific academic skills (e.g., solving word problems in algebra and trigonometry)?
How do teachers judge the quality of students’ projects? What can teachers do to
improve their instructional practices? Why are students not learning various lessons
in a specific academic domain? How do students learn a particular academic skill?
These questions can be directly answered through conducting theoretically sound
and practically relevant educational assessment.
Assessment is a systematic process involving (1) collection of information about
student learning, (2) review and interpretation of collected information and other
relevant variables vis-à-vis desired learning outcomes, and (3) using knowledge,
expertise, and resources to make informed decisions to improve learning (Farrell &
Rushby, 2016; Palomba & Banta, 1999; Walvoord, 2004). Simply put, assessment is
interpreted as a process of gathering evidence about the students’ learning process
quality to improve instructional practices in an academic context. Assessment serves
as a valuable approach to determine whether or not the desired learning objectives
have been satisfactorily achieved. Consistent with this observation, it has been found
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 113
S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_8
114 8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …

that assessment approaches matter significantly for enhancing the quality of learning
outcomes (Fernandes, Flores, & Lima 2012; Flores, Veiga Simão, Barros, & Pereira,
2015).
The extant literature has provided specific approaches to classify educational
assessment. One of the most popular taxonomy involves categorizing assessment
into three forms, namely assessment of, as, and for learning (Earl, 2003). Assessment
of learning refers to the process of evaluating the extent to which students have
learned and whether the desired learning outcomes in a specific academic domain
were satisfactorily achieved. Typical examples of this assessment include tests and
individual projects that are given at the end of an academic year. Assessment for
learning pertains to the assessing of a student’s learning process to improve teaching
strategies that typically take place during a class or course. The use of quizzes and
diagnostic tests serve as concrete examples of assessment for learning. Compared
to assessment of and for learning that emphasize the role of teacher in evaluating
learning processes and outcomes, assessment as learning places much importance
on the ability of students to assess their own learning experiences. In assessment
as learning, students gain opportunities to monitor their learning processes through
identifying and implementing learning strategies that may result in better academic
performance.
Alternatively, assessment can also be categorized into two major categories:
formative assessment and summative assessment.

8.2 Formative Assessment

Formative assessment is carried out usually at the beginning and in the middle of a
course to gain insights about students’ learning in a specific area (Angelo & Cross,
1993; Dixson & Worrell, 2016). The primary aim of this assessment approach is
to enhance the quality of instruction or learning tasks rather than to evaluate the
actual academic performance of students (Earl, 2003; Gikandi, Morrow, & Davis,
2011; Marshall & Drummond, 2006). Examples include classroom observations,
interactions and questioning, assigning homework exercises, giving feedback, and
structured class activities and presentations (Looney, 2011). Results of formative
assessments are used to alter any challenging aspects of the learning activities embed-
ded in a specific course. It has been also considered a pedagogic approach (Black
& William, 1998) because conducting formative assessment is a gradual process
of enhancing students’ academic competencies with reference to specific learning
objectives.
Recently, researchers explored the potential utility of technological platforms
in conducting formative assessment (Maier, 2014; Maier, Wolf, & Randler, 2016;
Russell, 2010) and the importance of online formative assessment tools to monitor
student’s learning progress (Gikandi et al., 2011; Hooshyar et al., 2016; Vasilyeva,
Pechenizkiy, & De Bra, 2008). In particular, studies showed that online formative
assessments could improve motivation and interest in an online learning platform
8.2 Formative Assessment 115

(Gardner, Sheridan, & White, 2002; Hooshyar et al., 2016). For example, researchers
have explored and provided evidence about the effectiveness of online multiple-
choice tests with post-test feedback (Peat & Franklin, 2002; Kibble, 2007). A review
by Gikandi and colleagues (2011) on the effects of online formative assessment
also pointed out that the exact mechanisms may support the effectiveness of this
assessment strategy “through offering expanded opportunities to document, monitor
and assess students’ progress and achievements, which informs the desired formative
feedback” (p. 2345).
One of the strategies in conducting technologically supported formative assess-
ment is with social media tools. For example, the author has encouraged his students
to select and use a specific social media tool (e.g., PBworks, Google Sites, and
Google Docs) in co-constructing a group assignment wherein students are expected
to provide a critical review of a Master’s dissertation project. Students are expected
to provide comments on the following aspects of the dissertation: (a) clarity of focus
and context; (b) engagement and treatment of literature; (c) justification and imple-
mentation of the methodology; (d) implementation and presentation of data; and (e)
quality of discussion and recommendations. Students are asked to present their initial
comments on the five areas to the lecturers as they are working on this project during
the course. This technique is an example of “assessment for learning”.

8.3 Summative Assessment

Summative assessment is utilized to evaluate students’ learning at the end of the

course (Angelo & Cross, 1993; Gardner, 2010; Gikandi et al., 2011). Findings from
a summative assessment can provide comprehensive insights on the cumulative and
overall learning experience of students in a particular course or program. The goal of
summative assessment ensures that the learning goals or objectives of a program have
been adequately fulfilled through quantitative and qualitative approaches. Whereas
formative assessment involves examining relevant insights from the learning
activities that are used to improve the delivery of instruction, summative assessment
encompasses the evaluation of whether learning outcomes have been satisfactorily
achieved (Stobart, 2008). Summative assessments can also provide concrete indica-
tion of how much students have learned at the end of a program (Dixson & Worrell,
2016). Common examples of summative assessment may include but are not limited
to a learning portfolio, class examinations, national achievement tests, and investiga-
tive projects. Dixson and Worrell (2016) also noted that performance-based assess-
ment is another form of summative assessment that requires students to exhibit what
they have learned about a specific subject. For example, teachers may require students
to produce a multimedia children’s book to demonstrate a critical appreciation and
understanding of the qualities, features, and scope of multimedia children’s literature.
116 8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …

8.4 Formative and Summative Assessment in the Context

of Internships

Traditional formative and summative assessment strategies have been adopted to

evaluate the effectiveness of internship programs. In terms of formative assessment,
internship instructors have commonly relied on student self-assessment or reflective
activities (Jackson, 2018). An example is the use of weekly journal logs of learning
experience to examine students’ learning processes. The journal logs may specify
the date and time of duty, tasks performed, and the number of hours earned for a
particular timeframe (see Table 8.1 for a sample of a weekly journal log). Although
weekly logs may provide essential descriptions of the weekly experience of students
in their respective internship sites, minimal insights can be gained on student’s learn-
ing experiences. Other techniques for formative assessment for internships include
structured reflection, oral presentations, and e-portfolios (Jackson, 2018).
Table 8.1 describes the weekly journal log of John Doe (all names are
pseudonyms), a Bachelor of Science student in Secondary Education at a university
in Hong Kong, who underwent an internship program with Ms. Antonia Richards,
a specialist in Secondary Mathematics Education. The first and second columns
provide details on the date, day, and time of John’s internship exposure. In the third
column, his actual tasks (e.g., assistance in teaching preparation and assessment-
related duties) with his supervisor are briefly stated. The next column reports the
number of hours that he rendered for two days (e.g., March 6–7, 2017). This weekly
journal log offers important details on a student’s learning experience within a specific
period of time. A log of learning experience can be also curated through alternative
and non-traditional strategies such as using a social media tool (see Appendix 8.8).
A reflective diary has been also used to gain insights about students’ learning expe-
riences during an internship. Normally, this assessment technique involves requesting
students to: (a) report the tasks that they performed in a specific period of time; (b)
articulate lessons that they gained in performing such tasks; (c) highlight challenges

Table 8.1 Example of a Weekly Internship Journal Log

Student’s name: John Doe Supervisor: Ms. Antonia Richards
Date and day Time Tasks performed Number of hours
Weekly Internship Journal Log
March 6–7, 2017 10:00 AM–3:00 PM Marking students’ quiz on 4
trigonometry; creating a
PowerPoint presentation on
Pythagorean theorem
10:30 AM–3:00 PM Marking and recording 4
students’ assignments;
delivering a class on
Pythagorean theorem
Note The names indicated in the table are pseudonyms and for illustrative purposes only
8.4 Formative and Summative Assessment in the Context of Internships 117

that they faced in fulfilling such duties; (d) record the reactions that they felt after
encountering a particular challenge; and (e) suggest potential solutions that they can
do to overcome such challenges in the future.
Table 8.2 reports the internship learning experience of Julia Leung, a Master of
Business Administration student, who is pursuing a business postgraduate degree
at a university in Hong Kong. She worked under the supervision of Mr. Mason
Churchill (all names are pseudonyms), a human resources specialist of a company in
Hong Kong. The schedule of internship sessions and tasks are stated in the first and
second columns. In the succeeding columns, her learning insights and challenges in
performing work-related tasks are documented.
Different techniques are frequently used in conducting a summative assessment.
In the medical field, doctors undergoing residency receive clinical performance
assessments, usually from multiple assessors (Scarff, Bearman, Chiavaroli, & Trum-
ble, 2019). In Spain, the Objective Structured Clinical Examination is a compulsory
internship assessment for pharmacy students (Beitia, Beltran, Ortega, Perez-
Mediavilla, & Ramirez, 2019). It involves seven stations where student interns must
perform pharmacist duties with doctors or patients that are played by trained actors.
The more common approach in performing summative assessments is to ask the
workplace supervisor to fill in the student’s internship performance evaluation form.
The form may include a number of items that measure the degree to which students
have demonstrated mastery of various performance areas. Evaluative forms may also
include an assessment of how the students exhibited non-cognitive characteristics that
are relevant to fulfillment of work-related duties and responsibilities. An example of
a summative assessment form that can be used by workplace supervisors to provide
feedback on students’ overall performance throughout the course of an internship is
presented on Appendix 8.9.

8.5 Technology-Enhanced Assessments in Internships

8.5.1 Use of Facebook Groups for Learning Logs

Studies have shown that technology may be utilized to conduct both formative
and summative assessments. For instance, Chu, Kwan, and Warning (2012b) have
explored the effectiveness of blogs for enhancing academic and non-academic abili-
ties during the internship of Bachelor of Science in Information Management students
in Hong Kong. In terms of academic abilities, the authors have demonstrated that
blogging could enhance the ability of students to reflect on their learning experi-
ence as interns in specific professional contexts. In particular, blogs have enabled
students to monitor their tasks and projects systematically and with a high degree of
convenience. Furthermore, students have gained opportunities to interact with their
classmates without requiring physical meetings. This result corroborates findings
 118

Table 8.2 Sample of a reflective diary

Name: Ms. Julia Leung Supervisor: Mr. Mason Churchill
Date/Time Tasks Lessons learned Challenges Reactions Possible solutions
February 13, 2017, Administering mental I have gained actual Some applicants were I felt a bit disappointed Prior to administering
9:00 AM–12:00 PM ability, work values, experience in assessing not paying attention that some applicants the tests, I will remind
and personality tests job applicants when I was giving the appeared to be all the applicants to
standardized test inattentive during the listen attentively to test
instructions test taking task instructions
February 14, 2017, Conducting initial I have realized the There were times when I was happy with my I will ask suggestions
1:00 PM–4:00 PM interviews to job importance of knowing I could not control experience in from my supervisors
applicants for the the profile of the myself from laughing interviewing applicants on how to effectively
Customer Service companies where the because some conduct interviews
Representative post applicants are applying candidates tended to
share tangential
responses to some
questions
February 15, 2017, • Performing sourcing I have learned about It is hard to ask Although this task is None
1:00 PM–4:00 PM processes to identify the significance of candidates to move quite challenging, I feel
possible list of staying in one from their current that I can accomplish it
candidates for the organization for a long organization to newer
Operation Manager period of time. Some companies
post candidates started as
• Calling potential Customer Service
candidates to Representatives but
conduct initial ended up getting senior
screening managerial posts (e.g.,
Senior Team Leader
and Operations
Manager)
Note The names indicated in the table are pseudonyms and for illustrative purposes only
8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …
8.5 Technology-Enhanced Assessments in Internships 119

from existing investigations which yielded evidence on the ability of blogs to cat-
alyze cognitive, metacognitive, social/collaborative, and affective learning processes
(Chu & Chan, 2011; Chu, Chan, & Tiwari, 2012a; Chu, Malhotra, Ho, Leung, & Mo,
2009; Kwan et al., 2009).
Existing literature has also compared how different social media tools can facil-
itate the sharing of students’ internship experiential learning. For example, Chan,
Chu, Lee, Chan, and Leung (2013) explored students’ perceptions on the benefits
of using blogs and Facebook to optimize effective internship learning. Findings of
their study revealed that both blogs and Facebook may serve as effective platforms
to enhance learning throughout an internship. However, it seems that Facebook
could play a stronger role than blogs in promoting social-collaborative learning as
students reported higher frequencies of receiving feedback from peers and faculty
supervisors. Some features of Facebook may account for the beneficial impacts of
using Facebook for managing the sharing of students’ internship learning. Studies
have shown that the newsfeed, photo album, comment, and tag features of Facebook
could facilitate optimal academic outcomes during an internship (Chau et al., 2013;
Siu & Chu, 2017). These findings indicate that Facebook can serve as a valuable
tool for knowledge sharing when appropriately applied in an internship program.
Although little is known about what technologically supported assessment
practices are considered effective, it is pivotal to explore what types of technologies
can be utilized to effectively assess student’s performance based on specific learning
outcomes. One of the documented approaches to assess the quality of student’s learn-
ing involves the use of social networking sites such as Facebook. There are specific
aspects of the Facebook-inspired social media internship platform that can resemble
formative assessments. The following paragraphs aim to describe how various facets
of this platform for an internship may characterize traditional assessment strategies.
The log of learning experiences component of the platform serves as a concrete
type of formative assessment. Documenting student reflections about the internship
experience may provide an opportunity for teachers or course instructors to examine
how students are actively applying the theories that they have learned in real-life
contexts. In the case of Information Management interns, the use of learning logs
pinpoints the actual tasks that can boost the practical relevance of the concepts
that they learned through various university coursework activities. This assessment
technique can also give teachers an idea regarding any challenges that students may
be facing in their respective internship sites. Students are encouraged to share their
reflections about their practicum experiences. Knowledge about typical issues or
problems that interns are facing may enable teachers to design and implement relevant
solutions which may lead to optimal learning environments for interns. Furthermore,
as other interns can freely post in the Facebook group (that comprises logs of learning
experiences), they can learn from each other regarding how to effectively fulfill their
internship tasks and requirements. Indeed, these aspects of online learning logs may
elucidate how and why this assessment approach can potentially improve the quality
of instructional practices in teaching internship courses.
120 8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …

8.5.2 Learning Logs Through Vlogs and e-Portfolio

This subsection briefly discusses alternative digital outputs such as vlogs and
e-portfolios that can be used for formative or summative assessments. Vlogs, or
video blogs, have been reported to be useful for sharing learning during internships.
In Fidan and Debbag’s (2018) study, teachers undergoing internship shared weekly
vlogs on YouTube that are about 3–7 min long about their experiences and the
group members are encouraged to watch and comment on each other’s’ vlogs. Their
findings show that vlogging helped the participants reflect on and correct shortcom-
ings as well as foster self-expression, information sharing, and critical thinking. On
the other hand, Kajder and Parkes (2012) have utilized a multimodal approach in
developing a reflective practice for pre-service teachers by having them alternate
between vlogging and blogging in their weekly logs. In their findings, blogs had
more surface-level reflection and its composition is more curated as it can be revised
and hyperlinks can be used in the entries to connect other relevant information while
for vlogging, it involved more pedagogical reflection and the composition is more
conversational and had a stream-of-consciousness nature (Kajder & Parkes, 2012).
Another method for sharing learning logs is through the use of an e-portfolio. The
use of e-portfolio has been shown to deepen learning and promote critically reflective
learning among master’s students (O’Keeffe & Donnelly, 2013). E-portfolios may
also be utilized for a summative assessment as in the case of an online graduate pro-
gram in educational leadership where students curated their professional credentials,
internship artifacts, and internship final report (McBride et al., 2018). Similarly, it
has been used as a summative assessment for teacher preparation programs (Parkes,
Dredger, & Hicks, 2013).
Additionally, Parkes, Dredger, and Hicks (2013) have found that although
blogging or vlogging can be a useful standalone reflective practice, when used as an
artifact in building an e-portfolio, individual posts can be connected and re-connected
to varied themes and help students make sense of their learning process.
Furthermore, because the e-portfolio documents coursework, research, intern-
ship, and extracurricular activities and promotes reflection, the students may receive
additional benefits such as showcasing accomplishments to potential employers and
facilitating career and/or academic advising (Reese & Levy, 2009). Faculty supervi-
sors can also benefit as well because students’ e-portfolios can be used for assessment,
departmental review, facilitate advising, monitor and archive coursework and
reference for recommendation letters (Reese & Levy, 2009).

8.5.3 Assessment Criteria

Effective evaluation of learning logs entails identifying clear assessment criteria. For
instance, the author and his colleagues have used the following criteria in assessing the
quality of interns’ logs of learning experiences in Facebook: (a) logical information
8.5 Technology-Enhanced Assessments in Internships 121

Table 8.3 Sample of

Assessment criteria Percentage of grade (%)
grading criteria for the logs of
learning experiences during Logical information and 5
internship exposure organization
Timely and regular posting of 10
reflection
Clarity of presentation 5
Quality of the students’ reflective 20
insights
Note The assessment criteria reflects the assignment grading
criteria in the syllabus for an internship course at a university in
Hong Kong

organization; (b) regular posting of reflection; (c) clarity of presentation; and (d)
quality of the reflection. In terms of the quality of reflection, students’ reflection
in the learning logs exhibited enough evidence and/or artifact of reflection, use of
reflection model or approach whenever appropriate, and depth of reflection were
examined. Students’ logs of learning experiences constitute 40% of students’ final
grade. Table 8.3 presents an example of assessment criteria for the logs of learning
experiences during an internship. Learning logs in different media (i.e., blogs, vlogs,
Facebook posts, e-portfolio), may have output-specific differences that need to be
considered when setting the grading criteria.
In addition to Facebook-based learning logs, the author and other faculty super-
visors also asked their student interns to prepare a written report that summarized
their practicum experiences. It is expected that students would provide discussion
points about the following issues in the report: (a) personal expectations toward
their internship; (b) internship preparation such as acquiring any skill necessary to
be selected by the host organizations; (c) analysis on the workplace using models
on information management; (d) major tasks performed during their internship;
(e) discussion of any changes in the interns’ attitudes toward learning or working
after their internship and identification of factors that lead to such changes; and (f)
reflection of personal achievement during their internship versus the original per-
sonal expectation toward the practicum. These reflective discussion points generally
target metacognitive skills with reference to cognitive (b–d), affective (e, f), and
social/collaborative skills (d, e) that may have manifested throughout the internship.
With regard to the grading of the report, each intern’s output is based on the report’s
coverage of the abovementioned issues, organization, clarity, clarity, and coherence
of the content. The abovementioned assessment criteria are reported on Table 8.4.
122 8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …

Table 8.4 Sample of grading criteria for the report of internship learning experiences during
internship exposure
Assessment criteria Percentage of grade (%)
Structure and clarity
Logical information organization 5
Clarity of presentation 5
Coverage of the following issues
Personal expectation toward internship 5
Internship preparation such as acquiring skills necessary to be 5
selected in any organizations
Analysis of situations on the workplace using theories on 15
information management
Relevant skills and knowledge acquired throughout the course of 15
internship (critical incidents and sample artifacts should be
compiled)
A discussion of any changes in your attitude toward learning or 5
working after internship and the factors that caused such changes
Analysis of personal achievement versus the original personal 5
expectations
Note The assessment criteria for the report are adapted from the syllabus for an internship course
for Information Management degree in a university in Hong Kong

8.6 Evaluating the Perceived Effectiveness of Social Media

Tools in Managing Sharing of Internship Learning

Social media tools can be used to facilitate learning processes and outcomes during
internships. As previously noted, examining the effects of social media platforms
on students’ cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social/collaborative skills is a
suitable research initiative to achieve key internship learning outcomes. However,
it is equally important to determine whether such social media tools are effective
in optimizing internship experiential learning. This subsection briefly describes the
authors’ studies on the effectiveness of blogs and Facebook as tools to manage
students’ sharing of internship learning.
Chu et al. (2012b) evaluated whether blogs can be valuable for optimizing infor-
mation management, learning, and social support in an internship course. The authors
conducted a telephone interview with Bachelor of Science in Information Manage-
ment students using close-ended and open-ended questions. Findings showed that
blogs could be used to facilitate communication and self-reflection. Furthermore,
Chu et al. (2012a) investigated the effectiveness of blogs to optimize students’ intern-
ship learning. Through a mixed-methods research design, these authors have shown
that using blogs could serve as an effective social media tool to promote sharing of
knowledge and information. Drawn from these studies, the survey has been recently
8.6 Evaluating the Perceived Effectiveness of Social Media Tools … 123

Table 8.5 Sample of a survey to evaluate the usefulness of Facebook for communication and
learning
It is useful for you to reflect on your summer internship in Facebook private 1 2 3 4
group
Facebook is a suitable platform for you to keep your reflection regarding the 1 2 3 4
summer internship on record
Comments from your classmates in your Facebook private group postings are 1 2 3 4
useful to your summer internship learning
Comments from your faculty supervisor in your Facebook private group 1 2 3 4
postings are useful to your summer internship
1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree

updated with Facebook as the selected social media platform. The scale appeared
to have excellent internal consistency, α = 0.91. Table 8.5 illustrates some of the
sample questions. The content of the survey is reported in Appendix 8.10.

8.7 Summary

Educational assessment plays a crucial and pivotal role in optimizing key learning
processes and outcomes. It provides a visible indicator of students’ academic
progress as well as a concrete guide to enhance teachers’ instructional practices.
Given the critical function that assessment has in facilitating successful acquisition
of knowledge and skills, existing literature has pinpointed both broader (e.g.,
assessment of learning and assessment for learning) and specific techniques (e.g.,
weekly diary) that can yield valuable insights on students’ academic functioning in
a specific course. However, little work has been done to evaluate the effectiveness
of these assessment strategies, especially in the context of internships.
Hence, the present chapter builds on previous literature to discuss the possible
role of assessment in managing sharing of students’ internship learning. Studies
on the common techniques that were used in assessing students’ learning-related
experiences have been cited to support the role of effective assessment during
internships. Different types of assessment strategies (i.e., assessment of learning,
assessment for learning, and assessment as learning) are also described to inform
readers on how various types of assessment can promote learning processes and
outcomes. Recognizing the role that technology plays in students’ lives, actual
examples on how a social media tools (e.g., blogs, vlogs, Facebook posts, and
e-portfolio) can be used to assess students’ internship experiences in their respective
sites have been discussed. Conducting formative assessment via SNS, such as
Facebook, has apparent advantages as it allows interns to share reflections about
their internship experience with their course instructors and classmates without
requiring face-to-face meetings. This technique also gives greater opportunities for
interns to offer feedback on each other’s learning experiences as well as to receive
124 8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …

immediate feedback from their course instructors on issues that they are facing in
their internship sites. Facebook and blogs have been used by the author and his
colleagues to manage students’ sharing of internship learning for years but literature
also illustrates that vlogs and e-portfolios can also be of valuable use.
Even with the potential benefits of integrating technology with traditional ways
of carrying out assessment, more research is needed to identify other technology-
supported and innovative approaches in conducting internship assessment. Future
empirical investigations should focus on evaluating other types of technology-
supported assessment strategies that can improve the delivery of internship courses
in various programs. For instance, is technology-supported internship assessment
more effective than traditional internship assessment? Which social media platforms
can best support internship assessment? How and why can technology-supported
assessment optimize better learning outcomes during internships?

8.8 Appendix: Sample of a BSCIM Student’s Log

of Learning Experience Using Facebook in a University
in Hong Kong

Student YHF shared a post on Facebook on his learning in 2015.

Student After checking and correcting the metadata record of new
books for 7 days, I feel relieved now because I’ve gained
more practice in managing this task. Although I made some
mistakes in the first few days, my colleagues did not blame
me and instead taught me how to do better and I was able
to correct my errors. This a good way to let me learn from
mistakes, since I will remember the wrong things I have
done. It left a deep impression on me and many mistakes
were reduced….
… I think the work atmosphere is great in my workplace.
I can see that the director and his staff have a close
relationship and they would help each other when they
have any problem. This work culture should be followed
by organizations that want to be successful and operate
smoothly. Employees will feel more passionate about their
work and will likely perform well. I learned about these
concepts in the Knowledge Management course and I find
that my internship workplace has actually applied them!
Internship Supervisor Great! (This is as an encouragement and praise for the
student’s work/self-reflection. Sometimes, the internship
supervisor may offer advice for problems encountered by
students).
8.9 Appendix: Sample of a Workplace Supervisor’s Evaluation … 125

8.9 Appendix: Sample of a Workplace Supervisor’s

Evaluation on Student’s Performance

Student’s name: Workplace supervisor’s name:

Telephone no.: Name of organization:

Email address: Telephone no.:

Poor Excellent Not

applicable

1 2 3 4 5 N/A

1. Evaluation criteria (to be completed by Workplace Supervisor)

Students’ overall quality of work

Working with staff

Working with clients

Assuming responsibility

Working independently

Working as a team member

Ability to solve problems

Written communication

Oral communication

Level of enthusiasm

Level of creativity

Working with technical matters

2. Please give your overall comments about the student’s performance

3. If your organization had a vacancy, would you recommend this student for consideration? If yes, for which
position? If no, why not?

4. Do you have any suggestions for improving the arrangement or any other aspects in relation to the MSc
[LIM] Internship Program?

5. Did you discuss the content of this evaluation with the student?

Note The Assessment Criteria reflect the assignment grading criteria in the syllabus for an internship
course for BSCIM in a university in Hong Kong
126 8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …

8.10 Appendix: Sample of a Survey to Evaluate

the Effectiveness of SNS in Supporting Internship
Learning

A. Learning through your own postings on Facebook

1. It is useful for you to reflect on your summer internship in 1 2 3 4
Facebook private group
If “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree”: Why do you consider reflection as not useful?
2. Facebook is a suitable platform for you to keep your 1 2 3 4
reflection regarding the summer internship on record
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: Can you explain why? If “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree”:
What other platform do you think would have been more suitable and why?
3. Comments from your classmates in your Facebook private 1 2 3 4
group postings are useful to your summer internship learning
Why/Why not?
4. Comments from your faculty supervisor in your Facebook 1 2 3 4
private group postings are useful to your summer internship
Why/Why not?
B. Learning through others’ postings on Facebook
5. Reading your classmates’ postings on Facebook private 1 2 3 4
group during the summer internship is useful
Why/Why not?
6. Your classmates shared something about their 1 2 3 4
problem-solving experience during the summer internship on
Facebook
7. You have learnt something from their problem-solving 1 2 3 4
experience posted on Facebook
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: Can you give me an example about what you have learned? If
“Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree”: Why?
8. Other than your classmates’ problem-solving experience, 1 2 3 4
you learnt something else by reading your classmates’
Facebook private group page
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: What else did you learn?
9. Facebook is a suitable platform for you to learn from your 1 2 3 4
classmates’ summer internship experience
If “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree”: What other platforms do you think may have been more
suitable and why?
10. Reading your classmates’ Facebook private group postings 1 2 3 4
is an effective and efficient way to learn how to improve your
performance in summer internship
(continued)
8.10 Appendix: Sample of a Survey to Evaluate the Effectiveness … 127

(continued)
If “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree”: please explain why? If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”:
How reading classmates’ postings actually help you improve your performance in the summer
internship?
C. Social Influence on using Facebook
11. During the internship, Facebook facilitated information 1 2 3 4
sharing among the classmates
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: How did it facilitate information sharing? If “Disagree” or
“Strongly Disagree”: Please explain why Facebook failed to facilitate information sharing
12. During the summer internship, I think Facebook have 1 2 3 4
facilitated knowledge sharing among the classmates. If
“Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree”: Please explain why
Facebook failed to facilitate knowledge sharing
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: How did it facilitate knowledge sharing?
13. During the summer internship, Facebook facilitated 1 2 3 4
emotional support among the classmates
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: How did it facilitate emotional support? If “Disagree” or
“Strongly Disagree”: Why did it fail to facilitate emotional support?
14. You felt supported by your classmates via discussing the 1 2 3 4
summer internship on Facebook
Why/Why not?
15. You felt supported by your own faculty supervisor via 1 2 3 4
mutual interaction on Facebook
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: What did he/she do to support you? If “Disagree” or “Strongly
Disagree”: Why did you feel not being supported?
16. You supported your classmates via Facebook 1 2 3 4
If “Agree” or “Strongly Agree”: What did you do to support them?
17. I think other students in this course have found it helpful to 1 2 3 4
use Facebook private group for the course
Why/Why not?
18. I think other students in this internship course have used 1 2 3 4
the Facebook private group actively
Why/Why not?
19. According to my memory, I received comments from 1 2 3 4
classmates on the Facebook private group from time to time
20. According to my memory, I received comments from my 1 2 3 4
own faculty supervisor on the Facebook private group from
time to time
D. Other aspects on your perceptions of Facebook private group as a learning tool
21. Setting up the private group on Facebook for this course 1 2 3 4
was easy for me
22. It was easy for me to use Facebook private group to write 1 2 3 4
reflections
(continued)
128 8 Evaluation of the Internship and the Effectiveness …

(continued)
23. It was easy for me to track others’ comments to my 1 2 3 4
reflections on Facebook
24. It was easy for me to communicate with classmates and 1 2 3 4
supervisor on Facebook private group
25. I felt enjoyable when posting reflections on the Facebook 1 2 3 4
private group
26. I felt enjoyable when communicating with others in my 1 2 3 4
Facebook private group
27. I had fun when using Facebook private group for the 1 2 3 4
internship course
28. Using Facebook private group increased my interest and 1 2 3 4
engagement in the internship
Which type of posting are you more interested in posting or reading?
29. I had difficulties in accessing Facebook in my internship 1 2 3 4
location (network infrastructure, country policy, working place
policy, etc.)
30. My device (computer, mobile phone, tablet) worked well 1 2 3 4
with Facebook private groups for the internship
31. I received support/help when I had difficulties in using 1 2 3 4
Facebook private group for the internship
If yes, from whom?
E. Recommendation on future arrangement on using Facebook for the summer internship
32. You are satisfied with Facebook’s functions for sharing 1 2 3 4
what you learnt from the summer internship with your
classmates
If “Strongly Agree” or “Agree”: Name the functions that satisfied you. If “Strongly Disagree”
or “Disagree”: Name the functions that failed to satisfy you
33. What does “Like” mean to you?
34. Did you enable the email notification function for the BSIM internship group? Why or Why
not?
35. Do you have other suggestions to improve the group feature on Facebook? And are there
any particularly good functions that should be maintained?
36. It was sensible that posting on Facebook accounts for 1 2 3 4
around 40% of your grade on your summer internship in 2014
If “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree”: Why not?
F. Behavioral Intention on using Facebook to support learning
37. I intend to use Facebook private group to support my 1 2 3 4
learning in the future
38. I would encourage others to use Facebook private group to 1 2 3 4
support their learning
39. I recommend the BSc[IM] program to continue to adopt 1 2 3 4
Facebook private group for next year’s summer internship
Why or Why not?
(continued)
8.10 Appendix: Sample of a Survey to Evaluate the Effectiveness of SNS … 129

(continued)
40. Besides Facebook and blog, are there any other platforms you would recommend for
summer internship?
41. Do you have other concerns/comments regarding the use of Facebook for sharing internship
experience with classmates/lecturers?
1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree
Note The content of this evaluation form was drawn from the instrument used in the study of Chu
et al. (2012a)

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Chapter 9
Summary and Future Directions

Internships might be one of the most important learning experiences for students
in university. Internships play an important role in students’ career exploration as
students may acquire crucial practical skills while also enhancing their sense of
independence and interpersonal skills. Students, supervisors, and other stakeholders
have diverse expectations for internship programs (Sauder et al., 2019) and to a large
extent, this book has been written in response to the increasing interest in develop-
ing and implementing innovative pedagogical approaches and technologies to help
students learn more effectively from internships. For instance, faculty supervisors
and/or internship coordinators use technological platforms such as social media tools
to revolutionize approaches in managing students’ sharing of their internship experi-
ential learning. Therefore, this book has been written to equip internship coordinators
and/or faculty supervisors and relevant stakeholders with valuable ideas and tools on
how to design pedagogical and assessment strategies. Together, it is very likely that
desirable internship experiential learning outcomes could be attained.
This book highlights the usefulness of social media tools to help optimize stu-
dents’ internship experiential learning, serving as one of its innovative features. Chu
and colleagues have demonstrated the significance of using social media platforms in
promoting effective learning processes and outcomes during internships (Chan, Chu,
Lee, Chan, & Leung, 2013; Chu, Chan, & Tiwari, 2012). This book capitalizes on the
strengths of using the social networking site Facebook to facilitate desirable intern-
ship learning outcomes, as universities have been using this platform to implement
different learning activities (Al-Bahrani, Patel, & Sheridan, 2015; Bharucha, 2018;
Park, Nahm, & Rogers, 2016). Early and contemporary learning theories propose
concrete explanations for how social media tools, such as Facebook, can improve
positive learning outcomes. These models sparked researchers’ interest in exploring
its effectiveness on a variety of outcomes by using social networking platforms.
This book also discusses anticipated beneficial impacts of social media in
managing the sharing of internship experiential learning, as well as promoting
positive social interaction. Social media encourages users to be prosumers and
create or upload their own contents to contribute to online communities. In addition,
social media enhances accessibility to information, socialization, other everyday life
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 133
S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6_9
134 9 Summary and Future Directions

activities, and learning. Hence, researchers, educators, and other organizations may
consider using social media platforms to optimize the achievement of key learning
outcomes during internships.
Numerous studies have demonstrated evidence on how social media use may
enhance students’ internship experiential learning by enabling them to share learning
insights and exchange emotional support with their peers. For example, through
blogs, students can express their emotions, reflections, ideas, and even raise questions
during their internship; blogs may offer appealing educational affordances (Deng &
Yuen, 2011; Robertson, 2011). In fact, using blogs to facilitate internship experiential
learning has been found to improve socialization and contemplation skills (Alqudsi-
ghabra & Al-Bahrani, 2012) as well as cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Chu
et al., 2012; Robertson, 2011).
The popularity of Facebook has prompted researchers to explore its educa-
tional benefits. Since students often use Facebook for recreation and interpersonal
communication, they tend to appreciate teachers who use it as a medium for
them to communicate with the class (LaRue, 2012; Park et al., 2016). To some
extent, the use of Facebook has outperformed other course management platforms
(Deng & Tavares, 2013; Wang, Woo, Quek, Yang, & Liu, 2012). In the context of
internships, Cheong, Hu, Chu, and Ng (2017), found that Facebook not only allowed
for knowledge-sharing processes and socio-emotional support but also higher
engagement and interaction. Encouraged by extant literature as well as student
feedback, the book primarily focused on how Facebook can be used as a sharing
platform to maximize internship learning. Indeed, faculty supervisors and internship
coordinators are encouraged to examine the unique needs of students when selecting
social media tools for use in managing the sharing of internship experiential learning.
Findings from previous studies on the advantageous effects of social medial
tools as well as the author’s research experience on using social media platforms for
internship courses are used to form a participatory design-based model to maximize
students’ experiential learning during internships. The model is an innovative strat-
egy in facilitating internship experiential learning and is characterized by engaging
students, alumni, faculty supervisors, and workplace supervisors in the process
of designing the desired learning outcomes up to the evaluation of the internship
program. This book provides concrete guidelines and examples in adopting the
participatory design-based model using social media platforms. Formative and
summative assessment strategies are also suggested for examination of learning
outcomes during and at the conclusion of a course. Furthermore, the book discusses
specific approaches that faculty supervisors can use to evaluate the effectiveness of
the chosen social media tools.
The following subsections offer suggestions for major stakeholders such as faculty
supervisors and internship coordinators and policymakers as well as researchers who
can directly contribute in improving internship practices in various universities.
9.1 For Faculty Supervisors and Internship Coordinators 135

9.1 For Faculty Supervisors and Internship Coordinators

This book suggests a participatory design approach model in implementing an intern-

ship program, the model also applies to pre-internship and post-internship activities.
A key benefit of this approach is the gathering of valuable feedback from students,
alumni, and other major stakeholders (e.g., faculty administrative staff) on improving
the delivery of internship programs. Active contributions of students and stakeholders
are also expected in the improvement process to achieve optimization of internship
learning outcomes and university educational aims.
When utilizing the participatory design approach, student’s internship learning
could be further supported by a learning design that includes meaningful learning
tasks, collaboration and mutual communication, and monitoring learning processes.
This is an important consideration when choosing social media tools to manage and
facilitate the exchange of students’ learning and emotional support throughout the
duration of their internship. Nonetheless, as stipulated in Chap. 6, it is also essential
to consider feedback from students and university stakeholders in selecting the most
appropriate social media platform. For example, although the author had initially
used blogs to help optimize internship experiential learning, his previous students
considered Facebook a more effective tool to manage the sharing of students’ intern-
ship learning. After selecting specific social media tool(s), it is equally important
to evaluate the effectiveness of such platform(s) in facilitating positive internship
learning experiences.
Faculty supervisors are encouraged to use social media tools to facilitate the
assessment of the extent of achievement of desired internship learning outcomes.
Specifically, utilizing both formative and summative assessment techniques is impor-
tant to provide evidence on the effectiveness of the internship program. As mentioned
in Chap. 6, a recommendation to lower the overall grade percentage for social media
logs was mentioned. Including this as an assessment task has successfully motivated
students to reflect and share their experiences, but the differences in the students’
working hours and extent of projects may affect the frequency of their logs. There-
fore, the recommendation should be explored so that students could focus more on
the learning process.
Chapter 6 discussed challenges of encouraging students’ internship-related
activities on social media platforms. Although most students find the engagement
helpful, others thought otherwise and low-quality posts were so created. Faculty
supervisors are encouraged to provide more guidance on how to write these posts
and to give immediate feedback to students. Furthermore, faculty supervisors
may consider gamification of the writing process (e.g., giving badge awards) to
strengthen student incentives and create a more enjoyable and engaging learning
experience for learners (Chu, 2014).
It is also recommended that faculty supervisors provide additional support to
students, such as helping them secure suitable internship opportunities in which
they can apply the theories learnt. Students also need help in pre-internship tasks;
workshops on CV and cover letter writing and interviews would help students acquire
136 9 Summary and Future Directions

internships. For some programs (e.g., information management), students mentioned

that workshop on technical skills would also be of great assistance. Addressing this
concern may involve substantial curriculum review work of the current syllabus
of the program and making the necessary adjustments. Internship coordinators and
faculty supervisors may also arrange intra- and inter-faculty discussions regarding the
management of internship programs. As there is no perfect formula that is applicable
to all faculties or educational institutions, supervisors should adopt varied approaches
in light of their own objectives and needs. Sharing best practices may be beneficial in
deepening the collective understanding on internship instruction and implementation.
In brief, faculty supervisors and internship coordinators are encouraged to:
• Apply a participatory design approach to gather valuable feedback from students,
alumni, faculty administrative staff, and workplace supervisors on how to enhance
the delivery of internship programs on an ongoing basis;
• Use social media tools to help assess whether the desired internship learning
outcomes are achieved;
• Consider the weight of social media assessment tasks for the course grading;
• Provide additional support to students such as assisting them in securing an intern-
ship opportunity, and conducting sufficient CV and cover letter workshops and
interview workshops;
• Review the current curriculum of concerned programs (e.g., information manage-
ment) to ensure that they include sufficient courses for equipping students with
the technical skills they need for their internship;
• Guide students on writing their social media posts and provide feedback on the
initial posts to minimize poor content;
• Consider gamifying students’ writing and commenting on social media posts to
encourage activity;
• Share best practices on managing internship programs with faculty supervisors
and internship coordinators within and across faculties.

9.2 For Policymakers

Implications for policymakers in higher education contexts are included in this book.
University administrators are expected to offer support on various innovative and
sound pedagogies to enhance students’ learning. For example, they can support ini-
tiatives for faculties to adopt a participatory design approach in managing internship
programs across different disciplines. A Vice President for Teaching and Learning in
a university and Associate Deans (Teaching and Learning) in various faculties may
ask their internship coordinators to request constant feedback from students, alumni,
faculty internship supervisors, and workplace supervisors in order to effectively align
internship learning outcomes with university educational aims. Administrators are
also recommended to provide additional support to departments offering internship
courses. For example, they may consider recruiting additional administrative staff
9.2 For Policymakers 137

for handling internship programs. Administrators may also re-allocate or reduce the
teaching load of lecturers who manage internship courses so that more time could
be allocated in providing necessary support to students.
Policymakers are also encouraged to develop incentive schemes (e.g., Teaching
Development Grants) for faculty internship supervisors and/or coordinators to test-
trial innovative pedagogies in enhancing students’ internship experiential learning.
Such educational endeavors should be formally recognized in staff performance eval-
uation. These explorative, structural schemes can lead to pedagogical advancement
as a result. This may even lead to a gradual cultural change within the university that
culminates in a diffusion of innovative pedagogies across faculties and staff to help
students to learn more effectively (Chu & Mok, 2016) (Fig. 9.1).
Introducing a training program for faculty supervisors to familiarize themselves
with social media tools may also boost the faculty supervisors’ confidence in utiliz-
ing one or more social media platform(s) for internships such as Facebook, Blogger,
or Schoology. Furthermore, it is essential to evaluate the impacts of these programs
to help faculty internship supervisors maximize their capacities in planning, imple-
menting, evaluating, and enhancing an internship program on a continuous basis.
To summarize, recommendations for policymakers are:
• Provide solid support on various innovative and sound pedagogies to enhance
students’ learning such as initiatives in applying a participatory design approach
in managing internship programs;
• Reduce lecturers’ teaching load if they are managing internship courses or recruit
administrative staff to assist them so that students can be better supported;

Fig. 9.1 The process of organizational change in promoting the use of social media in higher
education (Chu & Mok, 2016)
138 9 Summary and Future Directions

• Introduce incentive schemes for faculty internship supervisors and/or coordina-

tors to trial innovative pedagogies in optimizing students’ internship experiential
learning;
• Develop and implement training programs for faculty internship supervisors on
the application of the participatory design approach and the use of social media
tools to help manage internship courses.

9.3 For Researchers

At this point, investigations on the beneficial impacts of a participatory design

approach when implementing internship programs are scarce. It is hoped that this
book will inspire future researchers to continuously explore the effectiveness of
directly involving students and major stakeholders (i.e., workplace supervisors, and
faculty administrative staff) in the process of designing an optimal internship learning
experience for students. Researchers are recommended to identify precise mecha-
nisms underpinning the hypothesized advantageous effects of a participatory design
approach in helping students maximize their experiential internship learning. For
instance, in what way does the involvement of each stakeholder (e.g., faculty intern-
ship coordinator, faculty supervisors, workplace supervisors, alumni, and students) in
the participatory design approach help in optimizing students’ internship learning?
What are the aspects of an internship program that may directly assist in foster-
ing positive internship learning experiences? How can assessment strategies impact
the achievement of internship learning outcomes? To what extent can personal and
contextual factors influence an internship experience?
Future researchers are also encouraged to evaluate current and emerging technol-
ogy and social media’s role in aligning learning outcomes with educational aims and
in facilitating the achievement of internship learning outcomes. This becomes more
important as new forms of internships are emerging such as virtual internships. The
attributes of blogs and SNS that facilitate and support learning during an internship
could be further ascertained. Professional-oriented social media platforms such as
LinkedIn, Yammer, Slack, and Microsoft Teams need further research to explore
their educational benefits for higher education institutions as well as its use in
internship contexts. Investigation of the type and effectiveness of technologically
supported assessment practices of student internship performance is also required.
McBride and colleagues (2018) raised the issue of rater reliability in assessment of
e-portfolios and recommended further training for the assessors on the use of rubrics
for consistency. Richer understanding of best practices in technologically supported
assessment could provide educators and/or developers with information needed to
create an online platform that is specifically geared toward supporting internships
and professional development.
9.3 For Researchers 139

In summary, researchers are recommended to:

• Continue investigating the beneficial impacts of a participatory design approach in
designing and managing an optimal internship learning program, as well as further
exploration on the application of other social media tools (LinkedIn, Yammer, etc.)
in education and internship contexts;
• Identify the specific mechanisms underpinning the advantageous effects of the
approach;
• Evaluate the role of technology and social media in facilitating the achievement of
internship learning outcomes (e.g., attributes of blogs and Facebook that facilitate
learning during an internship and the efficaciousness of technologically supported
assessment practices in the context of an internship program).

9.4 Future Directions

Existing literature offers numerous approaches on achieving learning outcomes

during internships. Many universities highlight the importance of building a strong
collaborative relationship between workplace supervisors and faculty internship
coordinators. For most universities, the usual arrangement involves asking the stu-
dents to have regular face-to-face consultations with faculty supervisors regarding
the concerns that they have been experiencing in their respective internship sites or
workplace contexts (Boyce, Greer, Blair, & Davids, 2012; Cheng, Tang, & Cheng,
2012). Although this strategy may serve as an adequate way to carry out internships,
recent literature (Petit & Ntebutse, 2017) has emphasized the need to develop
cost-efficient and innovative approaches in supervising student interns and running
internship programs.
Against this backdrop, this book offers a theoretically grounded, practically mean-
ingful, accessible, and scalable way to design and implement internship programs
via a participatory design-based model. Integrating technologically driven tools like
social media tools is highly beneficial to help optimize internship experiential learn-
ing. With this approach, faculty supervisors and student interns can conduct an instant
exchange of academic-related information, emotional support, and feedback. With
effective facilitation, this virtual community can be a positive and nurturing learning
environment and complete a worthwhile internship learning experience.
Understandably, it is not possible to dramatically improve an internship program
over a semester, or even a year. Implementing a new approach will require persis-
tent and collective effort. Most importantly, this process of continuous assessment
and overcoming difficulties will enrich our knowledge of innovative approaches
for internship learning programs. Through fostering collaboration among the major
stakeholders in an internship program including policymakers, faculty internship
coordinator, faculty supervisors, workplace supervisors, alumni, and students, the
participatory design-based model can yield valuable insights on how to improve
140 9 Summary and Future Directions

pedagogical as well as assessment practices. Indeed, adopting a participatory design

approach may offer appealing implications not only for administrators and faculty
supervisors but also among students.
It is our hope that different ideas shared in this book, together with some of the
research recommendations in the concluding chapter, may offer a direction in how a
faculty member involved in an internship program can continuously improve program
delivery. This begins with preparing students with the knowledge and skills they need
in the kind of internship they are looking for, equipping them with job-seeking skills
(e.g., CV and cover letter writing, company research, and interview preparation),
helping them find a suitable internship opportunity, and preparing themselves to
enter a workplace. At the commencement of student internships, faculty supervisors
can help by ensuring that students will be assigned tasks at a professional level.
It is also important to ensure that students may seek help from their workplace
supervisor, faculty supervisor, or among their peers when needed. As students are
learning many things from their internship, faculty members can support the sharing
of their learning by encouraging them to properly share with their peers and learn
from each other’s experiences. Finally, the proper implementation of formative and
summative assessments throughout student internships is of paramount importance,
so that student interns can benefit the most from this significant learning opportunity.

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Glossary

Faculty Internship Supervisor A member of the faculty who aids the student intern
to achieve the goals on the learning agreement, which contains projects and
duties at the professional level. This ensures that the student intern’s internship
experience meets the learning outcomes of the program which are aligned with
the educational aims of the university. He or she provides necessary support,
supervision, and feedback to the student interns throughout the course and keeps
in contact with the workplace supervisor. He or she conducts formative and
summative assessments as detailed in the course syllabus.
Internship A short-term work experience related to the student’s major as part of
the university’s academic program to give the students supervised application of
studied theories. Also called “practicum” for education majors, “fieldwork” or
“field experience” for social work majors, or “clinical placement” for nursing
and medical students. Other countries have similar experiential programs such
as work-integrated learning in Australia and co-operative education in Canada.
Internship Coordinator A member of the faculty who oversees the internship pro-
gram, ensuring that the learning outcomes of the program meets the educational
aims of the university. He or she may aid students with searching and applying
for internship posts. He or she may establish and maintain relationships with
workplace supervisors in internship sites.
Participatory Design Approach A framework that involves the contribution of
designers and consumers in the process of product or infrastructure design as
opposed to traditional design approach that only includes experts and specialists
with the designers.
Social Media Internet sites and applications that promote social interaction or
networking and collaboration in creating and sharing user-generated content;
examples are Wiki, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and
Yammer.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 143

S. K. W. Chu, Social Media Tools in Experiential Internship Learning,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1560-6
144 Glossary

Workplace Supervisor On-site supervisor who aids the student intern to learn how
to work in a workplace environment and to achieve the goals on the learning
agreement by providing support, supervision, and feedback. His or her evaluation
of the student intern’s performance is one of the course assessment methods, also
called “site supervisor”.