Marine Pollution Bulletin 149 (2019) 110505

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Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Review

The impact of improper solid waste management to plastic pollution in T

Indonesian coast and marine environment
⁎
Prieskarinda Lestari, Yulinah Trihadiningrum
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil, Environmental, and Geo Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Kampus ITS Sukolilo, Surabaya
60111, Indonesia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Plastic pollution has become a major concern in Indonesian coast and marine environment today. It occurs
Coastal because 14% of the solid waste (SW) components in this country is plastic, and the SW management (SWM)
Marine infrastructure and services are still limited. The objectives of this article are to discuss the improper SWM and its
Plastic impact to plastic pollution in Indonesia. Ten plastic pollution studies concerning macroplastics (MaP) and mi-
Pollution
croplastics (MP) were described. These studies covered 5 regions, namely Java, East Nusa Tenggara, East
Solid waste
Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, North and Southwest Sumatera. The highest MP abundance of
37,440–38,790 particles/kg dry weight (DW) sediment was found in Jakarta Bay, followed by Wonorejo Coast in
Surabaya City (414–590 MP particles/kg DW sediment). The MP has entered the food chain through bivalves and
fish. Therefore, the plastic pollution which is related to population density, and inadequacy of SWM, needs
urgent solution.

1. Introduction
Almost all economic sectors generate solid waste (SW). Some factors
that influence high SW generation are population and economic
growths, education, occupation, consumption patterns, and gross do-
mestic product per capita (GDP) (Malinauskaite et al., 2017). With a
high GDP, Indonesia generates large amount of annual municipal SW in
ASEAN countries (Jain, 2017). The same author stated that annual SW
generation rate in Indonesia is 64 million tons with a composition
dominated by 60% biodegradable organic, 14% plastics, and 9% pa-
pers. On the contrary, the average municipal SWM service in Indonesia
has not been fully implemented (Ministry of Public Works and Public
Housing of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016). The SWM service, how-
ever, still varies between cities. For example, the municipal SW cov-
erage in Surabaya, Serang, Pekan Baru, Samarinda, and Jayapura are
54.84%, 43.3%, 47.40%, 31.67%, and 11%, respectively (Safitri et al.,
2018).
Indonesia was suspected as the second largest country contributed
to plastic pollution in marine environment after China (Tibbetts, 2015;
Jambeck et al., 2015). It was estimated about 3.22 million metric tons
(MMT) per year of plastic waste was mismanaged (Jambeck et al.,
2015). This condition contributed to 0.48–1.29 MMT per year of global
mismanaged plastic waste, or 10.1% of plastic marine debris globally.
In addition, 4 main rivers in Indonesia, namely Brantas, Solo, Serayu,
and Progo were included as the top 20 polluted rivers as predicted by
the global river plastics inputs model (Lebreton et al., 2017). The plastic
pollution also occurred over a wide area in Indonesia (Syakti et al.,
2017; Manalu et al., 2017; Cordova and Wahyudi, 2016; Sur et al.,
2018). Moreover, the average composition of plastic waste in urban
water flow in Indonesia is high, in which the highest percentage oc-
curred in Balikpapan, Makassar, Semarang, Surabaya, and Yogyakarta
(World Bank, 2018). As rivers, riversides, and coastal beaches are the
main sources of marine debris to the ocean, this condition may lead to
global plastic marine debris problem (Rech et al., 2014).
Plastic debris is formed as a result of plastic waste accumulation and
released into aquatic and marine environment (Dobaradaran et al.,
2018). According to its size, plastic debris can be categorized into
macroplastic (> 5 mm), mesoplastic (5 mm to 2.5 cm), and microplastic
(< 5 mm) (Blettler et al., 2017; Lahens et al., 2018; Duis and Coors,
2016; Lippiat et al., 2013; Jabeen et al., 2016; Beer et al., 2018;
Anderson et al., 2016). Further, recent research has found nanoplastics,
or plastic particles smaller than 100 nm, polluted the environment
(Ferreira et al., 2019). Various sizes of plastic debris in environment
occurs due to its varied degradation processes. It can be degraded by
ultraviolet radiation, weathering, current, mechanical-physical, and
biodegradation (Vermaire et al., 2017; Leslie et al., 2011; Klein et al.,
2018).
In addition, MP has become a significant concern of environmental

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: trihadiningrum@gmail.com, yulinah_t@enviro.its.ac.id (Y. Trihadiningrum).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110505
Received 26 April 2019; Received in revised form 6 August 2019; Accepted 6 August 2019
Available online 20 August 2019
0025-326X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Lestari and Y. Trihadiningrum Marine Pollution Bulletin 149 (2019) 110505

Table 1
SW generation rate, percentage of plastic waste, and availability of SWM infrastructure in several cities in Indonesia.
Cities Estimation of SW generation Percentage of plastic SWM infrastructurec
ratea wasteb
Official Collection truck Collection cart Temporary waste storage Heavy equipmente
(TPS)

(Tons/day) % (Person) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit) (Unit)

Jakarta 7164.53c 12.40 10,414 1692 1447 1099 2064

Surabaya 2790.89 19.44 1822 173 630 183 73d
Makassar 1425 16.29 200 125 983 36 273
Medan 1874c 15.27f 3013 18 276 876 57
Denpasar 750 7.04 1609 112 40 150 103
Semarang 1270.13 15.49 277 120 – 266 128
Yogyakarta 335 19.18f 385 43d 36 143 40
Pontianak 300 5.57 730 45 80 112 53
Padang 520c 22.63f 1197 81 – 480 83

a
Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2018d, 2018e, 2018f, 2018g.
b
Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2018h, 2018i, 2018j, 2018k, 2018l, 2018m, 2018n, 2018o, 2018p.
c
Safitri et al., 2018.
d
Statistics of Indonesia, 2016.
e
Heavy equipment includes bulldozer, excavator, containers truck, roll arm truck, dump truck and more.
f
Percentage in province scale.

issue worldwide due to its unique characteristics, such as shape, size,
colour (Peng et al., 2017). The MP shapes commonly observed as
fragment, fiber/line, pellet, film, and foam (Free et al., 2014; Van
Cauwenberghe et al., 2015). The MP size categorized into large mi-
croplastics (LMP) and small ones (SMP). Size of the LMP ranges from 1
to 5 mm, and that of the SMP is 1 μm to 1 mm. The MP colour cate-
gorized into blue, black, yellow, transparent, white, and red. These
colours could affect MP bioavailability to be ingested by aquatic biota
due to its attractiveness as food items and similarity with original prey
(Van Cauwenberghe et al., 2015; Wright et al., 2013). Moreover, MP
can be distributed in a certain water column due to its density
(Anderson et al., 2016). Thus, MP could transfer into aquatic food chain
from the lowest to the highest trophic level (Scherer et al., 2018).
Therefore, plastic debris, even MP in particular, could give complex
impact, such as worsens aesthetic values of environment, deteriorates
water resource quality, threats aquatic biota biodiversity, and human
health (Gregory, 2009; Neves et al., 2015).
Regarding this emerging situation, plastic pollution in Indonesia is
an unavoidable problem that occurred as a result of “throw away”
habit. As most of food and beverage packaging are made from plastics,
many of these materials are commonly found in rivers and seas (Syakti
et al., 2017). This occurred due to limited SWM service as an impact of
lacks of funds for infrastructure construction and operation (Zurbrugg
et al., 2012). In the other side, most population in big cities in Indonesia
still use rivers as raw water sources for drinking water (Cita et al.,
2012). This condition makes MP can potentially be transferred to
human through consumption. Moreover, Rochman et al. (2015) found
that 55% of 11 species of fish samples purchased from South Sulawesi
were identified containing MP. Consequently, plastic pollution is a
significant concern in Indonesia (Syakti et al., 2017). It also becomes a
great challenge for Indonesia to provide proper SWM for coping with
plastic pollution. Therefore, the objectives of this article are to discuss
the improper SWM and its impact to plastic pollution in Indonesia.
2. Materials and methods
A methodological approach in this paper was done by using best
evidence review method (Mayer, 2009). This method was implemented
by selecting relevant literatures to two concerns, namely current con-
dition of SWM, and plastic pollution cases in Indonesian coast and
marine environment. The selected data and information were analyzed
systematically to obtain a complete explanation concerning the influ-
ence of SWM condition to plastic pollution in the marine environment.
Sources of the information were from articles published in reputable
scientific journals, regulations and annual reports from the state and
local governments.
3. Solid waste management condition in Indonesia
The annual population growth in Indonesia is considerably high
(1.36%) (Statistics of Indonesia, 2017a). This will lead to significant SW
generation rate in 10 years (World Bank, 2018). The average plastic
consumption per capita in Indonesia is also high, up to 17 kg per year
(Indonesian Institute of Sciences, 2016). Meanwhile, the average mu-
nicipal SWM services in Indonesia only covered 47.35% of total po-
pulation, or practically only 112 million people were served. From the
technical point of view, only 24.9% of the total MSW was landfilled and
0.8% was managed by 3R facilities (Ministry of Public Works and Public
Housing of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016; Coordinating Ministry for
Economic Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia, 2015). In addition, ac-
cording to the Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs of the
Republic of Indonesia (2013), approximately 70% of the total number
of landfills ( ± 492) in Indonesia has been designed for sanitary landfill.
However, ± 99% of total landfills in Indonesia is still operated as open
dumping sites. Considering that the municipal SW in Indonesia contains
about 14% plastics, serious efforts for better performance of the SW
from its sources should be undertaken. This paper will further discuss
about the current condition of the SWM, more specifically in the pro-
vision of infrastructure facilities and regulations.
3.1. Solid waste management infrastructure
General SWM activities in Indonesia consist of collection, transport,
limited separation and treatment, and final disposal (Borongan and
Okumura, 2010). Collection was generally done by hand-carts, motor-
cycles, or trucks. Separation of SW components in 3R facilities were
done manually, conveyor, or gravitational sorting machine. Operation
of SW disposal is generally using controlled landfill, where the SW is
dumped open on the soil. Cover soil is applied after several days. Some
cities, however, have operated sanitary landfill with gas extraction. The
SWM performance varies between one city to another. Cities in the
main islands, Java in particular, have better SWM performance than
those in remote islands. The difference is related to the difference in SW
generation rates (Table 1), and determined by availability of funds and
technology.
Jakarta, with current population up to 10,374,200 (Statistics of

2
P. Lestari and Y. Trihadiningrum
Fig. 1. Distribution of plastic pollution studies in Indonesia. Circle diameter in each site relates to plastic particle abundance as shown in Table 2.
Map source: Google Image, 2018.
Indonesia, 2018), needs a sufficient provision of SW infrastructure to
overcome the high daily SW generation rate (Table 1). However, there
are several technical and non-technical aspects of the SWM problems
(Coordinating Ministry for Economic Affairs of the Republic of
Indonesia, 2015). The technical aspects comprise: 1) SW separation into
three types and each component transport have not been done properly,
2) technical requirement for SW transport, such as lacks of number of
trucks, age of trucks, has not been fully fulfilled, 3) area for recycling
facilities (TPS 3R) is limited, 4) capacity of Bantar Gebang landfill has
almost exceeded its capacity. The non-technical aspect is social pro-
blem, which causes the community not separate the SW components
properly as regulated by the DKI Jakarta Province Decree No. 3/2013.
With plastic waste amount 12.40% from the total SW, Jakarta needs to
improve the current condition of SWM for anticipating the plastic waste
pollution into the marine environment.
On the other hand, Surabaya has showed some improvement of
SWM in available infrastructure and innovative programs. For example,
as a new running innovation, Surabaya City has established “Suroboyo
Bus” program. Payment from each passenger is plastic waste for ticket
replacement (Riski, 2018). Payment with plastic waste can be done in
the Waste Banks, or directly to the bus driver. The payment for one way
trip can be 3–5 used mineral water bottles, 10 used cups, or other
plastic packaging waste. This program has encouraged the Waste Banks
in Surabaya to grow. Accordingly, 180 waste bank branches in 31 local
districts with > 10,000 accounts have been developed, in which its
average turn over ranged from IDR 350,000 to 5,000,000 monthly
(Wijayanti and Suryani, 2015).
The infrastructure data as shown in Table 1, have an average na-
tional SWM service coverage of 47.53%. This means that all cities need
urgent improvement of this insufficiency (Ministry of Public Works and
Public Housing of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016; McAllister, 2015).
Furthermore, inadequate SW infrastructure and improper SW disposal
problems, such as open dumping, can cause plastic waste to be released
to the environment (Ferronato and Torretta, 2019). Therefore, a robust
and comprehensive action is required for coping with the SWM pro-
blems, the plastic pollution in particular.
3.2. Solid waste management regulation
Indonesia has regulated Act No. 18/2008 concerning Solid Waste
Management (Government of the Republic of Indonesia, 2008). This
Act clearly stated that the aims of SWM are to improve public health,
3
Marine Pollution Bulletin 149 (2019) 110505
environment quality, and waste utilization. This Act also stipulates that
the SWM must be implemented by the government and the commu-
nities. The state government is in charge for: (1) establishing regula-
tions, strategies, standards; (2) facilitating the SW management co-
ordination between the state to local agencies; and (3) determining the
state policy for SWM implementation. The local government has similar
authorities to the state government, but in limited administration area.
For accelerating SWM implementation, the Indonesian government
has established the Presidential Decree No. 97/2017, concerning
National Policy and Strategy (JAKSTRANAS) for the Management of
Household Solid Waste and the Alike. The objectives of JAKSTRANAS
were to increase SWM services and community participation in SW
reduction. Every city is targetted to reduce the SW up to 30% in 2025.
JAKSTRANAS also targets to accelerate SWM services in every city up
to 70% in the same year (Government of The Republic of Indonesia,
2017). On the other hand, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry of
the Republic of Indonesia (2018q) reported that the national SW re-
duction achievement in 2018 was still 2.26%. This value was quite far
from the ambitious 30% SW reduction target in 2025. One of the causes
is the community involvement in SW reduction is still low (Sudibyo
et al., 2017). Some of the major reasons were laziness (47.4%), lack of
knowledge in SW recycling procedure (31.9%), and lack of time (13%)
(Dhokhikah et al., 2015). Therefore, workable action plans for formal
education and training on community awareness and SW recycling
technologies, should be set-up to accelerate the JAKSTRANAS target
achievement.
4. Plastic pollution cases in Indonesia
There have been at least 10 plastic pollution studies in Indonesian
coastal and marine environment from 2015 to date (Fig. 1, Table 2).
These studies were carried out in different regions, namely North and
Southwest Sumatera, Java, East Kalimantan, East Nusa Tenggara, also
South Sulawesi.
Data in Table 2 show results of plastic pollution studies in 4 most
polluted regions in Java island. This condition is related to the impact
of the dense population in Java (56.57% of the total population in In-
donesia) based on Statistics of Indonesia (2018). The highest MP
abundance was found in Jakarta Bay (37,440–38,790 MP particles/kg
DW sediment). The second highest MP abundance was found in Wo-
norejo Coast (414–590 particles/kg DW sediment). The difference be-
tween Jakarta Bay's data from that of Wonorejo Coast could be because
P. Lestari and Y. Trihadiningrum Marine Pollution Bulletin 149 (2019) 110505

Table 2
Results of plastic pollution studies in Indonesia.
No. Year Study area Plastic abundance in

Sediment Seawater Coastline Bivalve Fish

(MP particles/kg DW sediment) (MP particles/m3) (MaP particles/m2) (MP particles/g ST) (MP particles/individual)

1 2017 Jakarta Baya 37,440–38,790* ND ND ND ND

Pluit (sampling site 2)
Ancol (sampling site 2) 18,405–27,284* ND ND ND ND
2 2018 Wonorejo Coast, East Java 414–590**b ND ND 5c ND
3 2018 North Sumaterad 64–173.33 (0–30 cm in three ND 20–240 ND ND
stratified depths)
4 2015 East Kalimantane • 69.3–90.12 (in 0–10 cm depth) ND ND ND ND
• 57.53–91.80 (in 10–20 cm depth)
5 2018 Sumba Sea Waters, East ND 44 ± 24.59 ND ND ND
Nusa Tenggaraf
6 2016 Sunda Straitg 6 #1
(in 88.5 m sea depth with 50 cm ND ND ND ND
height of box core)
#2
Southwestern Sumatera 3 (in 66.8 m sea depth with 50 cm ND ND ND ND
deep seag height of box core)
7 2018 Tambak Lorok Coast,
Central Javah
In brackish water (31 ppb) ND ND ND 4*** ND
In high salinity (36 ppb) ND ND ND 20*** ND
In low salinity (33 ppb) ND ND ND 8*** ND
8 2015 Makassar, South Sulawesii ND ND ND ND 1.4 ± 3.7****
9 2017 Cilacap Coast, Central Javaj ND 0.27–0.54 16.8–41.6 ND ND
10 2018 South Sulawesik ND ND 0.065 m3 marine ND ND
debris/m2

Numbers are sorted by MP abundance rank.

DW = dry weight, ST = soft tissue, ND = no data.
* See Table 3, ** see Table 4, *** adapted from original data, **** mean value (from Table 5), #1 and #2
are converted data from the original, using mud specific
density value of 1.73 g/cm3 and WW to DW conversion factor of 0.38 (van Sprang et al., 2008).
a
Manalu et al., 2017.
b
Firdaus et al., 2019.
c
Lestari et al., 2018.
d
Bangun et al., 2018.
e
Dewi et al., 2018.
f
Cordova and Hernawan, 2018.
g
Cordova and Wahyudi, 2016.
h
Khoironi et al., 2018.
i
Rochman et al., 2015.
j
Syakti et al., 2017.
k
Sur et al., 2018.

of the difference in topographic shoreline morphology (Ballent et al., in Jakarta Bay than that in Wonorejo Coast is due to the differences in
2016). Microplastics will be more accumulated in the bay area, due to shoreline morphology, density population, and current condition of
its specific morphology, than that of the shoreline. Furthermore, the SWM.
ocean contributes 20% of MP pollution sources (Pawar et al., 2016; Li
et al., 2016). Once the MP reach the coastal area, their transport and
dispersion pathway will be influenced by oceanic and atmospheric 4.1. Microplastics in coastal sediment of Jakarta Bay
dynamics, and resulted in accumulation (Atwood et al., 2019). In ad-
dition, the MP abundance in Jakarta Bay is higher than in Macajalar Manalu et al. (2017) found that the MP pollution in sediment of
Bay, Philippines (86–481 particles/kg DW sediment) (Kalnasa et al., Jakarta Bay were sourced from two locations, namely Pluit and Ancol.
2018). Meanwhile, Singapore's coastal mangrove was also polluted by The MP sampling using Van Veen Grab was conducted in December
MP (36.8 ± 23.6 particles/kg DW sediment), and so as the gulf of 2015 and January 2016. At each sampling locations, two sampling
Thailand ( ± 80–170 particles/kg DW sediment) (Manalu et al., 2017; points were divided into close to (Site 1) and far from the sea (Site 2).
Nor and Obbard, 2014; Matsugama et al., 2017). The distance between each sampling site was 10 m. The MP abundance
Other significant cause of the high MP abundance is the high po- in this area is shown in Table 3.
pulation density (Hamid et al., 2018). Accordingly, Jakarta's population
Table 3
is 10,374,200, or almost 3.6 times higher than that of Surabaya
The abundance of MP in sediment of Jakarta Bay.
(2,874,699 people) (Statistics of Indonesia, 2018; Statistics of East Java
Province, 2018). Furthermore, SW generation rate in Jakarta was Location MP abundance (particles/kg DW sediment)
7164.53 tons per day, while those of 5300–6000 tons were landfilled
December 2015 January 2016
(Safitri et al., 2018; POKJA AMPL Nasional, 2013). Meanwhile, SW
generation rate in Surabaya was 2790.89 tons per day, and only Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2
1477 tons were transported to the landfill (Ministry of Environment and
Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2018x). The unmanaged SW is Pluit 38,790 38,112 38,592 37,440
Ancol 27,284 22,202 19,230 18,405
released to the environment. Therefore, the higher MP abundance data

4
P. Lestari and Y. Trihadiningrum
Table 4
The abundance of MP in sediment of Wonorejo coast.
No Station MP abundance (particles per kg DW sediment)
1 Station 1 414
2 Station 2 484
3 Station 3 590
Average 496
The results showed that MP abundance in Pluit sampling sites were
much higher than those in Ancol. It occurred due to the dense com-
munity settlements near Pluit. In addition, percentage of plastic waste
in Jakarta is up to 12.44% of the total SW generation (Ministry of
Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2018h). Re-
garding to this condition, the MP pollution in Jakarta Bay sediment
might unavoidably occur due to continuous SW inputs, and as the im-
pact of long term accumulation. Furthermore, since Jakarta's annual
population growth rate is reasonably high (0.94%) to date (Statictics of
DKI Jakarta Province, 2018), this condition could lead to higher plastic
waste abundance in the future, if proper SWM effort is not undertaken
immediately.
4.2. Microplastics in Wonorejo Coast, Surabaya, East Java
Firdaus et al. (2019) investigated the sediment of Wonorejo Coast
was polluted by the MP. Sediment sampling was done by using Van
Veen Grab. The results showed that MP abundance in sediment ranged
from 414 to 590 particles, or 496 particles in average, per kg DW se-
diment from 3 stations (Table 4). Shapes of the MP were mainly fiber
(50–83%) and film (14–41%). Colour of the MP was dominated by
transparent (22–48%). About 98% of MP in the sediment was of large
size (LMP), which consisted of 56.7% polyester, 24.5% low density
polyethylene (LDPE), and 18.7% polypropylene (PP).
Lestari et al. (2018) also reported that a commercial bivalve, Mer-
etrix meretrix from Wonorejo Coast, was contaminated by MP. A total of
86 MP particles found in 9 individuals of M. meretrix. The MP abun-
dance ranged from 3.64 to 6.75 particles/g soft tissue (ST). The average
MP abundance in M. meretrix was 5 particles/g ST or approximately
9.56 MP particles/individual. Based on total MP found in M. meretrix,
its shapes were consisted of 75 fibers (87.21%) and 11 film particles
(12.79%). The MP colours were consisted of 52.33% black, 18.60%
blue, 16.28% red, 10.47% transparent, 1.16% white, and 1.16% yellow
particles. In addition, 61.63% of those particles were included as SMP,
while the LMP was 38.37%.
With regard to SWM status, it is estimated that Surabaya generates
2790.89 tons SW daily, in which 19.14% is plastics, or approximately
534.18 tons/day (Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic
of Indonesia, 2018b, 2018i). As the location is included as East Sur-
abaya area, it has been estimated that the plastic waste composition
from household SW in this area is 10.79% (Dhokhikah et al., 2015).
Even further, Doaly (2017) reported that Surabaya River was polluted
by used disposable baby diapers, which contained plastics.
4.3. Macroplastics and microplastics in intertidal zone of Jaring Halus
Village, Langkat Regency, North Sumatra Province
Both MaP and MP have polluted intertidal zone of Jaring Halus
Village, Langkat Regency, in North Sumatera Province (Bangun et al.,
2018). The MaP abundance was found in a range of 20–240 particles/
m2 of its intertidal zone. Meanwhile, the MP was in higher abundance
of 64 to 173.33 particles per kg DW sediment. Shape of MP was
dominated by 52.30% film. In accordance, Langkat regency generates
35 tons SW per day, and 14.60% of which is plastic (Ministry of
Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2018r, 2018s).
Meanwhile, it was reported that 3 tons of the SW in this region had not
5
Marine Pollution Bulletin 149 (2019) 110505
been managed at all (Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the
Republic of Indonesia, 2018t).
4.4. Microplastics in coastal sediment at Kutai Kartanegara Regency, East
Kalimantan
Microplastics polluted the coastal sediment in varied depths at
Muara Badak subdistrict, Kutai Kartanegara regency, East Kalimantan
(Dewi et al., 2015). The results showed that the MP abundance ranged
from 69.3 to 90.12 particles per kg DW sediment in 0–10 cm depth. In
10–20 cm depth, the MP abundance was in a range of 57.53 to 91.80
particles per kg DW sediment. Shapes of MP were dominated by frag-
ment, followed by film, and fiber. Relating to this study, the current
SWM practices in Muara Badak showed a good performance, in which
90% among 174.50 tons SW/day was transported (Statistics of
Indonesia, 2017b). This achievement has been supported by the addi-
tion of SW collection trucks and bins since 2015. However, this area
was susceptible to be polluted by the MP due to the varied and complex
surrounding activities, such as community settlements, harbor and ship
loading, fish catchment, oil mining, and palm oil plantation. Therefore,
SWM management should always be performed in order to prevent the
increase of plastic waste pollution.
4.5. Microplastics in Sumba Sea waters, East Nusa Tenggara
Cordova and Hernawan (2018) found that Sumba sea waters (East
Nusa Tenggara) has been polluted by the MP. Water samples were
collected from 10 sites in five different depths (5, 50, 100, 300 m, and
near the sea bottom). The average MP abundance was 44 ± 24.59
particles per m3. In this study, the distribution of the MP sizes, which
were divided into 4 categories (< 300, 300–500,
500–1000, > 1000 μm), was 9.09%, 40.91%, 40.91%, and 9.09% re-
spectively. These MP consisted of 63.64% polyethylene (PE), 22.73%
PP, 9.09% polystyrene (PS), and 4.55% polyamide. The MP shapes were
45.45% fiber, 36.36% granule, and 18.18% others.
Regarding to this condition, Sumba sea waters, with current popu-
lation of East Nusa Tenggara province only 5,287,300, has been pol-
luted by the MP of 44 ± 24.59 particles per m3 (Statistics of Indonesia,
2018; Cordova and Hernawan, 2018). The SWM service in urban area in
West, East, Southwest Sumba, and Bima regencies were still only
23.89%, 24%, 43.56%, and 45% respectively (POKJA AMPL Kabupaten
Sumba Timur, 2016; POKJA AMPL Kabupaten Sumba Barat, 2018;
POKJA AMPL Kabupaten Sumba Barat Daya, 2018; POKJA AMPL
Kabupaten Bima, 2016). One of the causes is the SW transport access
and infrastructure are still inadequate (POKJA AMPL Kabupaten Sumba
Barat, 2018). Even further, community participation to recycle the SW
in Central Sumba was only 31.5%, in which resulted 65% of total SW
was still unmanaged properly (POKJA AMPL Kabupaten Sumba
Tengah, 2015, 2016). In addition, MP pollution in this area could be as
a result of massive accumulation from other areas in the Pacific. It
occurs as this location is known as a place for Indonesian Through Flow
interaction, in which four water masses are mixing in the same place
(Cordova and Hernawan, 2018).
4.6. Microplastics in the deep-sea sediment of Sunda Strait and Southwest
Sumatera
Microplastic research in Southwest Sumatera Deep-Sea Sediment in
varied depths of 66.8 to 2182 m was conducted by the Research Center
for Oceanography of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (Cordova and
Wahyudi, 2016). The results showed that the highest MP abundance
was 6 MP particles/kg DW sediment, or 14 particles per 100 cm3 sedi-
ment, in the Sunda Strait at 88.5 m depth. Shapes of the particles were
dominated by granular/pellets and fibers. The MP origin was most
probably from busy shipping routes along the strait. This result was in
accordance with the MP shapes in the sediment of the North-East
P. Lestari and Y. Trihadiningrum
Atlantic, as investigated by Maes et al. (2017).
The second highest MP abundance found in this study was 3 parti-
cles/kg DW, or 6 particles per 100 cm3 sediment, in sampling site 1,
which was close to the east coast of Sumatera, Bengkulu. It was esti-
mated that these MP particles were originated from Bengkulu,
Jenggalu, and Babat rivers. The SWM service in Bengkulu was still low
(43.3%), and the plastic component in the SW was 14.14% (Safitri
et al., 2018; Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of
Indonesia, 2018u). This study reveals that the MP pollution in the deep
sea sediment, is related to the SWM service performance.
4.7. Microplastics in Asian green mussels from Tambak Lorok Coastal area,
Central Java
Khoironi et al. (2018) found that the MP has contaminated Asian
green mussel, Perna viridis in Tambak Lorok Coastal area, Central Java.
Sampling was done in September 2017, by collecting 10 mussel samples
from 3 locations with different conditions. The sampling sites were
close to Semarang city, which generates 1270.13 tons SW daily, with
plastic waste component of 15.49% (Ministry of Environment and
Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2018e, 2018n).
The results showed that the average MP abundance was 4 particles/
g ST, or 1 particle per 0.25 g ST, with size ranged from 154.76 to
232 μm in brackish water (salinity 31 ppb). In location with low salinity
(33 pb), the average MP abundance was 8 particles/g ST, or 2 MP
particles per 0.25 g ST, with size ranged from 45.33 to 124.74 μm.
Among these locations, the highest MP abundance was 20 particles/g
ST, or 5 particles per 0.25 g ST, in location with higher salinity
(36 ppb), with size ranged from 51.31 to 87.42 μm.
4.8. Microplastics in commercial fishes at Paotere Fish Market, Makassar,
South Sulawesi
Rochman et al. (2015) investigated the MP contaminated commer-
cial fishes from Paotere fish market in Makassar city. Among 76 fish
samples from 11 different species, 55% fish samples of 6 species con-
tained MP (Table 5). The highest abundance was 5.9 ± 5.1 MP parti-
cles in individual Carangidae. As the fish samples were purchased from
fish market and local fisherman directly, it might widen the possibility
that the MP containing fish could be consumed and become a threat to
human health (Neves et al., 2015).
The average MP abundance in fish was 1.4 ± 3.7 particles per in-
dividual. Shapes of the MP consisted of 60% fragment, 37% foam, 2%
film and 1% monofilament particles. The results showed that fragment
was the most dominant MP found in the fish samples. According to
Maes et al. (2017), the fragment particle was commonly found in water
surface, which is a proper habitat for most early stage and adult of fish
species (Allen et al., 2006). Thus, fragment could be dominant MP that
ingested by fish.
Coincidentally, the majority of fish from the Paotere fish market
were caught mostly from Spermonde Islands, that was polluted by
marine debris (Sur et al., 2018). This case provides a clear example of
how SWM and plastic pollution in one location could affect other lo-
cations, even up to biota contamination.
Table 5
The abundance of MP in fish samples from Paotere Fish Market.
Species n Number of individuals containing MP
Carangidae 7 5
Spratelloides gracilis 10 4 1.1 ± 1.7
Rastrelliger kanagurta 9 5
Siganus canaliculatus 3 1
S. argenteus 2 1
Decapterus macrosoma 17 5 2.5 ± 6.3
6
Marine Pollution Bulletin 149 (2019) 110505
4.9. Macroplastics and microplastics in Cilacap Coast, Central Java
Macroplastic (MaP) and MP pollution were also found in Cilacap
Coast, Central Java (Syakti et al., 2017). The abundance of MaP ranged
from 16.8 to 41.6 particles per m2 in its coastline. The MaP mostly
consisted of 38.9% PE bag, 22.9% plastic bottle fragment, 22.1% net
fishing gear, 12.6% polystyrene blocks, and 3.5% footwear. In addition,
the MP abundance was 0.27–0.54 particles per m3, or approximately
2.5 mg per m3 in seawater. Colours of the MP were white, blue, and
green. These MP consisted of 68% PP and 11% LDPE.
This area is susceptible to plastic waste pollution due to accumu-
lation from land and marine sources. From land, it originated from
human settlements along the coast, and illegal SW disposal into river.
Meanwhile, the marine sources were originated from fishing and water
recreation activities. In SWM perspective, Cilacap generates
1781.13 tons SW daily, and 97.67 tons is still untreated (Ministry of
Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2018v, 2018w).
4.10. Marine debris at Barrang Lompo Island, South Sulawesi
Marine debris study at Barrang Lompo Island, South Sulawesi was
conducted as a joint program of University of Hasanuddin (UNHAS) and
University of California (Sur et al., 2018). The aim of this study was to
increase society awareness about marine debris and improve the SWM
performance for better public health. The results showed that the
average volume of marine debris was 0.065 m3 per m2 in the shoreline.
The marine debris consisted of single used plastic packaging materials,
such as plastic bags and bottles, discarded cloth, styrofoam, and con-
struction waste materials. The MaP was the second mostly found in the
marine debris, of which sources were the surrounding human settle-
ments. This condition becomes a serious concern of public health in this
island, as the MaP can trap water and create mosquito breeding ground.
Thus, high incidences of malaria, dengue, and zika occurred in this
island.
The recently built and operated plastic recycling facility in this is-
land was closed due to ineffective operational cost and difficult acces-
sibility. Accessibility problem becomes one of SWM major constraints in
small islands in Indonesia as an archipelagic state, which in turn affect
MP pollution in marine environment.
All of the case studies showed that the Indonesian coast and marine
environment has been polluted by plastic waste. The main cause is not
only the lacks of SWM infrastructure, but also the lacks of environment
awareness among the people. Therefore, the government should not
only undertake serious strategic efforts for providing proper SWM in-
frastructure, but also improving community involvement through
education in comprehensive approachment.
5. Conclusion
All of the study cases reveal that Indonesian coast and marine en-
vironment has been polluted by plastic waste, the MP, in particular. The
most polluted marine environment was Java, particularly in the Jakarta
Bay (37,440–38,790 MP particles/kg DW sediment), followed by
Wonorejo Coast, Surabaya (414–590 MP particles/kg DW sediment).
The MP has also been found in fish and bivalves. The MP polluted coasts
Abundance of MP ± SD per individual Shapes of MP
5.9 ± 5.1 Fragments
Fragments
1 ± 1.1 Fragments, filaments, monofilament
0.3 ± 0.6 Monofilament
0.5 ± 0.7 Monofilament
Fragments
P. Lestari and Y. Trihadiningrum
are adjacent to most densely populated cities. Thus, the plastic pollu-
tion occurred as impacts of the improper SWM and the high SW gen-
eration rate, which is related to population density. Therefore, the
Indonesian government has to determine a workable strategy for im-
proving the SWM performance for coping with the plastic pollution as
one of the solutions.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful for research grant from the Masters towards
Doctoral Education Program for Excellent Graduate (PMDSU) of the
Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of The
Republic of Indonesia, Contract Number 2105/PKS/ITS/2018.
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