An electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric

motors, using energy stored in rechargeable batteries. The first practical

electric cars were produced in the 1880s.[1] Electric cars were popular in the
late 19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal
combustion engines, electric starters in particular, and mass production of
cheaper gasoline vehicles led to a decline in the use of electric drive vehicles.
From 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to
advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[2]
Several national and local governments have established government
incentives for plug-in electric vehicles, tax credits, subsidies, and other
incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of
new electric vehicles, often depending on battery size, their electric range and
purchase price. The current maximum tax credit allowed by the US
Government is US$7,500 per car.[3] Compared with internal combustion
engine cars, electric cars are quieter, and have no tailpipe emissions and
lower emissions in general.[4] In January 2019 and updated in April, a Reuters
analysis of 29 global automakers concluded that automakers are planning on
spending $300 billion over the next 5 to 10 years on electric cars, with 45% of
that investment projected to occur in China.[5]
Charging an electric car can be done at a variety of charging stations, these
charging stations can be installed in both houses and public areas.[6] The
Tesla Model 3 was the world's best selling EV from 2018 to 2019 and had a
maximum electric range of 500 km (310 miles) according to the EPA.[7][8][9]
As of December 2018, there were about 5.3 million light-duty all-electric and
plug-in hybrid vehicles in use around the world.[10] Despite the rapid growth
experienced, the global stock of plug-in electric cars represented just about 1
out of every 250 vehicles (0.40%) on the world's roads by the end of 2018.[11]
The plug-in car market is shifting towards fully electric battery vehicles, as the
global ratio between annual sales of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) rose from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in
2015, and 69:31 in 2018.[12][13]

Terminology[edit]
NASA's Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery-driven

Schematic of a BEV
Electric cars are a variety of electric vehicle (EV). The term "electric vehicle"
refers to any vehicle that uses electric motors for propulsion, while "electric
car" generally refers to highway-capable automobiles powered by electricity.
Low-speed electric vehicles, classified as NEVs in the United States,[14] and
as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe,[15] are plug-in electric-powered
microcars or city cars with limitations in terms of weight, power and maximum
speed that are allowed to travel on public roads and city streets up to a
certain posted speed limit, which varies by country.
While an electric car's power source is not explicitly an on-board battery,
electric cars with motors powered by other energy sources are typically
referred to by a different name. An electric car carrying solar panels to power
it is a solar car, and an electric car powered by a gasoline generator is a form
of hybrid car. Thus, an electric car that derives its power from an on-board
battery pack is a form of battery electric vehicle (BEV). Most often, the term
"electric car" is used to refer to battery electric vehicles, but may also refer to
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).
History[edit]
Main article: History of the electric vehicle

Gustave Trouvé's personal electric vehicle (1881), world's first full-scale electric car to
be publicly presented
Early electric car, built by Thomas Parker, photo from 1895[16]

"La Jamais Contente", 1899

The General Motors EV1, one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources
Board (CARB) mandate, had a range of 260 km (160 miles) with NiMH batteries in
1999

The Tesla Roadster helped inspire the modern generation of electric vehicles.
The invention of the first model electric predecessor vehicle is attributed to
various people.[17] In 1828, the Hungarian Ányos Jedlik invented an early type
of electric motor, and created a small model car powered by his new motor.
Between 1832 and 1839, the Scot Robert Anderson built a crude electric-
powered carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary power cells.[18] In
1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport built a similar contraption
which operated on a short, circular, electrified track.[19] In the same year,
Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his
assistant Christopher Becker from Germany created a small-scale electric
car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.[20]
Other prototypes of electric cars were probably built before, but it was not
until the batteries were improved by French inventors Gaston Planté (in 1865)
and Camille Faure (in 1881) that electric cars really took off.[21]
In November 1881, Gustave Trouvé presented an electric car at the
Exposition internationale d'Électricité de Paris.[22]
In 1884, over 20 years before the Ford Model T, Thomas Parker built a
practical production electric car in London using his own specially designed
high-capacity rechargeable batteries.[23][24][25] The Flocken Elektrowagen of
1888 was designed by German inventor Andreas Flocken.[26] Electric cars
were among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th
century and early 20th century, providing a level of comfort and ease of
operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time.[27] The
electric vehicle stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of
the 20th century.[28]
In 1897, electric cars found their first commercial use as taxis in Britain and
the US. In London, Walter Bersey’s electric cabs were the first self-propelled
vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn.[29] In New York City, a
fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the design of the
Electrobat II, were part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage
Battery Company of Philadelphia.[30] During the 20th century, the main
manufacturers of electric vehicles in the US were Anthony Electric, Baker,
Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric, Detroit Electric
and others. Unlike gasoline-powered vehicles, the electric ones were less
noisy, and did not require gear changes.[31][32]
Advances in internal combustion engines (ICE) in the first decade of the 20th
century lessened the relative advantages of the electric car. Their much
quicker refueling times, and cheaper production costs, made them more
popular. However, a decisive moment was the introduction in 1912 of the
electric starter motor that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting
the ICE, such as hand-cranking.[33]
Six electric cars held the land speed record.[34] The last of them was the
rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke
the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105.88 km/h
(65.79 mph) on 29 April 1899.
Modern electric cars[edit]
The emergence of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology led to the
development of modern electric road vehicles.[35] The MOSFET (MOS field-
effect transistor, or MOS transistor), invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and
Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,[36][37] led to the development of the power
MOSFET by Hitachi in 1969,[38] and the single-chip microprocessor by
Federico Faggin, Marcian Hoff, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel
in 1971.[39] The power MOSFET and the microcontroller, a type of single-chip
microprocessor, led to significant advances in electric automobile technology.
MOSFET power converters allowed operation at much higher switching
frequencies, made it easier to drive, reduced power losses, and significantly
reduced prices, while single-chip microcontrollers could manage all aspects
of the drive control and had the capacity for battery management.[35] Another
important technology that enabled modern highway-capable electric cars is
the lithium-ion battery,[40] invented by John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and
Akira Yoshino in the 1980s,[41] which was responsible for the development of
electric cars capable of long-distance travel.[40]
In the early 1990s, CARB began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-
emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero-emissions
vehicles such as electric vehicles.[42][43] In response, automakers developed
electric models, including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck,
GM EV1, and S10 EV pickup, Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan Altra EV
miniwagon, and Toyota RAV4 EV. Both US Electricar and Solectria produced
3-phase AC Geo-bodied electric cars with the support of GM, Hughes, and
Delco. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market.[44]
California electric automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on
what would become the Tesla Roadster (2008), which was first delivered to
customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway legal serial production
all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-
electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.[45]
Tesla global sales passed 250,000 units in September 2017.[46][47] The
Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance achieved the milestone of 500,000
electric vehicles sold in October 2017.[48] Tesla sold its 200,000th Model S in
the fourth quarter of 2017.[49] Global Leaf sales passed 300,000 units in
January 2018, keeping its record as the world's top selling plug-in electric car
ever.[50] Tesla delivered its 100,000th Model 3 in October 2018.[51]
Many countries have set goals to ban the sales of gasoline- and diesel-
powered vehicles in the future, notably: Norway by 2025, Denmark by 2030,
China by 2030, India by 2030, Germany by 2030, France by 2040, and Britain
by 2040 or 2050.[52][53][54] Similarly, more cities around the world have begun
transitioning public transportation towards electric vehicles than previously
was the case.[55]
In July 2019, US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully electric
Tesla Model S as the "ultimate car of the year".[56]
As of September 2019, the two best selling electric cars were the Nissan Leaf
and the Tesla Model S, which have EPA-rated ranges reaching up to 243 km
(151 miles) and 600 km (370 miles) respectively.[57][58][59] The Leaf is the best-
selling highway-capable electric car ever with more than 400,000 units sold,[60]
followed by the Tesla Model S with over 400,000 units sold worldwide by
June 2019.[49][61][62][63][64]
Economics[edit]
Total cost of ownership[edit]
As of 2019, electric cars are less expensive to run than comparable internal
combustion engine cars due to the lower cost of maintenance and energy,[65]
but cost more to buy new.[66]. However, Matthew Debord states, "the cost-of-
ownership analysis has to be seen as somewhat unpredictable today, mainly
because ... we don’t know how much it will ultimately cost to replace batteries
on ageing EVs."[67]
The greater the distance driven per year, the more likely the total cost of
ownership for an electric car will be less than for an equivalent ICE car.
However, this may only be achievable for EVs with adequate battery
temperature regulation, which is critical for battery longevity.[citation needed] It also
varies by country depending on the taxes and subsidies on different types of
energy and car, and in some countries it may vary by city, as different cities
within the country have different charges for entering the city with the same
type of car; for example, the UK city of London charges ICE cars more than
Birmingham does.[68]
Purchase cost[edit]
Several national and local governments have established incentives to
reduce the purchase price of electric cars and other plug-ins.[69][70][71][72]
When designing an electric vehicle, manufacturers may find that for low
production, converting existing platforms may be cheaper as development
cost is lower, however, for higher production, a dedicated platform may be
preferred to optimize design, and cost.[73]
Almost 80% of electric vehicles in the U.S. are leased, while the lease rate for
the country's entire fleet is about 30%.[74] In early 2018, electric compact cars
of 2014 are worth 23 percent of their original sticker price, as comparable
cars with combustion engines worth 41 percent.[74]
As of 2019 the electric vehicle battery is a significant part of the total cost of
the car.
Operating cost[edit]
According to a study done in 2018, examining only fuel costs, the average
fueling cost of an electric vehicle in the United States is $485 per year, as
opposed to an internal combustion engine's $1,117 per year. Estimated
gasoline costs varied from $993 in Alabama to $1,509 in Hawaii. Electric
costs varied from $372 in Washington to $1,106 in Hawaii.[75]
Manufacturing cost[edit]
The main cost driver of an electric car is its battery. The price decreased from
€600 per kWh in 2010, to €170 in 2017, to €100 in 2019.[76][77]
Environmental aspects[edit]
Main article: Environmental aspects of the electric car
Electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combustion
engine automobiles, including a significant reduction of local air pollution, as
they do not directly emit pollutants such as particulates (soot), volatile organic
compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various
oxides of nitrogen.[78][79][80]
Depending on the production process and the source of the electricity to
charge the vehicle, emissions may be partly shifted from cities to the material
transportation, production plants and generation plants.[42] The amount of
carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emissions of the electricity source,
and the efficiency of the vehicle. For electricity from the grid, the emissions
vary significantly depending on your region, the availability of renewable
sources and the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used.[81][82][83]
The same is true of ICE vehicles. The sourcing of fossil fuels (oil well to tank)
causes further damage and use of resources during the extraction and
refinement processes, including high amounts of electricity.
The cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid
by health cost savings in less than 3 years.[84]
In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the
milestone of 3 billion kilometers (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through
November 2016.[85]
Lithium availability[edit]
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 The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the
world[86][87]
See also: rare-earth metals availability and supply security
It is estimated that there are sufficient lithium reserves to power 4 billion
electric cars.[88][89] Most electric cars use a lithium-ion battery and an electric
motor that uses rare-earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals,
and other elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the
batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future
sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term.[90][91] Some
of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in
countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility
to various overseas interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing
dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to
supply strategic materials.[86][90][91][92]
Performance[edit]
Acceleration and drivetrain design[edit]
Rimac Concept One, concept of electric supercar, since 2013. 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph)
in 2.5 seconds, 1224 hp[93]
Electric motors can provide high power-to-weight ratios, batteries can be
designed to supply the currents needed to support these motors. Electric
motors have flat torque curve down to zero speed. For simplicity and
reliability, many electric cars use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch.
Many electric cars have higher acceleration than average internal combustion
cars, largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses, and the more quickly
available torque of an electric motor.[94] However Neighborhood Electric
Vehicles (NEVs) may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak
motors.
Electric vehicles can also use a direct motor-to-wheel configuration that
increases the available power. Having motors connected directly to each
wheel simplifies using the motor for both propulsion and braking, increasing
traction.[failed verification][95][96][97] Electric vehicles that lack an axle, differential, or
transmission can have less drive-train inertia.
For example, the Venturi Fetish delivers supercar acceleration despite a
relatively modest 220 kW (300 hp), and top speed of around 160 km/h
(100 mph). Some DC-motor-equipped drag racer EVs have simple two-speed
manual transmissions to improve top speed.[98] The 2008 Tesla Roadster 2.5
Sport can accelerate from 0 to 97 km/h (0 to 60 mph) in 3.7 seconds with a
motor rated at 215 kW (288 hp).[99] Tesla Model S P100D (Performance /
100kWh / 4-wheel drive) is capable of 2.28 seconds for 0–60 mph at a price
of $140,000.[100] As of May 2017, the P100D is the second quickest production
car ever built, taking only 0.08 seconds longer for 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph),
compared to a $847,975 Porsche 918 Spyder.[101] The concept electric
supercar Rimac Concept One claims it can go from 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph) in
2.5 seconds. Tesla claims the upcoming Tesla Roadster could go 0–60 mph
(0–97 km/h) in 1.9 seconds.[102]
Energy efficiency[edit]
Main article: Electric car energy efficiency
Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency,
expressed as fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to
energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15%
of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and
diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%, while electric vehicles
have efficiencies of 69-72%, when counted against stored chemical energy,
or around 59-62%, when counted against required energy to recharge.[103][104]
Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in
converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally
efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors
have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second
electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds. The electronics
select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and
acceleration.[105] Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric
vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during
braking.[42][103] Efficiency increases when renewable electricity is used[106]
Cabin heating and cooling[edit]
While heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater, higher
efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump.
PTC junction cooling[107] is also attractive for its simplicity — this kind of
system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster.
To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the
range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in.
For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and the
Tesla Model S and 3 can be pre-heated while the vehicle is plugged
in.[108][109][110]
Some electric cars, for example the Citroën Berlingo Electrique, use an
auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline-fueled units manufactured by
Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice "green" and "Zero emissions"
credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external
batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to
flow through the car when parked. Two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius
include this feature as an option.[111]
Safety[edit]
 Side impact test of a Tesla Model X
The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard
ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific
issues:
• On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery[112]
• Functional safety means and protection against failures[113]
• Protection of persons against electrical hazards[114]
Risk of fire[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents
Like their internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts, electric vehicle
batteries can catch fire after a crash or mechanical failure.[115] Plug-in electric
vehicle fire incidents have occurred, albeit less per mile than ICE vehicles.[116]
The first modern crash-related fire was reported in China in May 2012, after a
high-speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen.[117] The second
reported incident occurred in the United States on October 1, 2013, when a
Tesla Model S caught fire over ten minutes after the electric car hit metal
debris on a highway in Kent, Washington state, and the debris punctured one
of 16 modules within the battery pack.[118][119] A third reported fire occurred on
October 18, 2013 in Merida, Mexico. In this case the vehicle was being driven
at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a
tree. The fire broke out several minutes after the driver exited the vehicle.
In the United States, General Motors ran in several cities a training program
for firefighters and first responders to demonstrate how to safely disable the
Chevrolet Volt's powertrain and its 12 volt electrical system. The Volt's high-
voltage system is designed to shut down automatically in the event of an
airbag deployment, and to detect a loss of communication from an airbag
control module.[120][121] GM also made available an Emergency Response
Guide for the 2011 Volt for use by emergency responders. The guide also
describes methods of disabling the high voltage system and identifies cut
zone information.[122] Nissan also published a guide for first responders that
details procedures for handling a damaged 2011 Leaf at the scene of an
accident, including a manual high-voltage system shutdown, rather than the
automatic process built-in the car's safety systems.[123][124]
Vehicle safety[edit]
The weight of the batteries themselves usually makes an EV heavier than a
comparable gasoline vehicle, in a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle
will on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a
lighter vehicle; therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits (to the
occupant)[125] despite having a negative effect on the car's performance.[126]
Depending on where the battery is located, it may lower the center of gravity,
increasing driving stability, lowering the risk of an accident through loss of
control. An accident in a 2,000 lb (900 kg) vehicle will on average cause
about 50% more injuries to its occupants than a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg)
vehicle.[127]
Some electric cars use low rolling resistance tires, which typically offer less
grip than normal tires.[128][129][130] The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in
America had condemned the use of low speed vehicles and "mini trucks,"
called NEVs when powered by electric motors, on public roads.[131] Mindful of
this, several companies (Tesla Motors, BMW, and Uniti) have succeeded in
keeping the body light, while making it very strong.[132]
Controls[edit]
As of 2018, most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car
with a conventional automatic transmission. Even though the motor may be
permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear and no
parking pawl may be present, the modes "P" and "N" are often still provided
on the selector. In this case the motor is disabled in "N" and an electrically
actuated hand brake provides the "P" mode.
In some cars the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in
"D", similar to a traditional automatic.[133]
When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by
engine braking depending on the type of transmission, and mode. An EV
would coast when the accelerator is similarly released, but it may be
equipped with regenerative braking that mimics a familiar response of slowing
the vehicle and also recharging the battery to an extent.[134] Regenerative
braking systems also decrease the use of the conventional brakes similarly
as engine braking would in an internal combustion vehicle, reducing brake
wear and maintenance costs.
Batteries[edit]
 Prototypes of 50 watt-hour/kilogram lithium-ion polymer batteries. Newer lithium-ion
cells can provide up to 130 W·h/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.
Main article: Electric vehicle battery
Lithium-based batteries are often used for their high power and energy
density, although they eventually wear out.[135] Other battery types, such as
nickel metal hydride (NiMH), which have a poorer power-to-weight ratio than
lithium ion, but are cheaper. Batteries with different chemical compositions
are in development such as zinc-air battery that could be much lighter.
Range[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect
recent events or newly available information. (March 2019)

Further information: List of electric cars currently available

Comparison of EPA-rated range for model year 2016 and 2017 electric cars rated up
until July 2017. Tesla vehicles shown correspond to the variants with the longest and
shortest range for each model.[136][137] 320 miles is 515 km, 100 miles is 161 km.

Evolution of range of new full electric car models

NIO ES8 has swappable battery pack
The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries
used, and as with all vehicles, the weight and type of vehicle, performance
requirements, and the weather.[138]
The reported range of production electric vehicles in 2017 ranged from
100 km (60 miles) (Renault Twizy) to 540 km (340 miles) (Tesla Model S
100D).[139] Real-world range tests conducted by What Car in early 2019 found
that the highest real-world range was 417 km (259 miles) (Hyundai Kona).[140]
The majority of electric cars are fitted with a display of expected range. This
may take into account many factors of how the vehicle is being used, and
what the battery is powering. However, since factors can vary over the route,
the estimate can vary from the actual achieved range. The display allows the
driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a
charging point en route. Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge
trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency.[141]
A study in 2016 stated that 87% of US vehicle-days could be met by current
affordable electric cars.[142][143]
Charging[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to
reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2019)

Main article: Charging station

Electric cars are typically charged overnight from a charging station installed
in the owner's house, or from faster charging stations found in businesses
and public areas.[144]
Compared to fossil fuel vehicles, the need for charging using public
infrastructure is diminished because of the opportunities for home charging;
vehicles can be plugged in and begin each day with a full charge, assuming
the home charging station can charge quickly enough. An overnight charge of
8 hours using a 120-volt AC outlet will provide around 40 miles of range,
while a 240-volt AC outlet will provide approximately 180 miles.[145]
Charging an electric vehicle using public charging stations takes longer than
refueling a fossil fuel vehicle. The speed at which a vehicle can recharge
depends on the charging station's charging speed and the vehicle's own
capacity to receive a charge. Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate
very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can
refill the vehicle's battery to 80% in 15 minutes.[146]. Vehicles and charging
stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as an hour to refill a
battery to 80%. As with a mobile phone, the final 20% takes longer because
the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it.
Some companies have been experimenting with battery swapping to
substantially reduce the effective time to recharge.[147]
Electric vehicle charging plugs are not yet universal throughout the world.
Europe uses the CCS standard, while CHAdeMO is used in Japan, and a
GB/T standard is used in China. The United States has no de facto standard,
with a mix of CCS, Tesla Superchargers, and CHAdeMO charging stations.
However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other
types of charging stations with the use of plug adapters.[148]

BYD e6 is able to recharge to 80% in 15 minutes

Hybrid vehicles[edit]
Further information: Hybrid vehicle
 The BMW i3 has an optional gasoline-powered range extender engine
Some electric vehicles include small gasoline engines to extend their range in
an emergency. These are considered a type of hybrid vehicle.
Lifespan[edit]
Main article: Rechargeable battery § Lifespan and cycle stability
As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over
long periods of time, especially if they are frequently overcharged, however,
this may take at least several years before being noticeable.[149]
However, Nissan stated in 2015 that thus far only 0.01 percent of batteries
had to be replaced because of failures or problems, and then only because of
externally inflicted damage. The vehicles that had already covered more than
200,000 km (124,274 mi), have no problems with the battery.[150]
Future[edit]
Autonomous park-and-charge
Volkswagen, in collaboration with six partners, is developing an EU research
project that is focused on automating the parking and charging of electric
vehicles. The objective of this project is to develop a smart car system that
allows for autonomous driving in designated areas (e.g. valet parking, park
and ride) and can offer advanced driver support in urban environments.[151]
Tesla has shown interest in making an arm that automatically charges their
vehicles.[152]
Other methods of energy storage
Experimental supercapacitors and flywheel energy storage devices offer
comparable storage capacity, faster charging, and lower volatility. They have
the potential to overtake batteries as the preferred rechargeable storage for
EVs.[153][154] The FIA included their use in its sporting regulations of energy
systems for Formula One race vehicles in 2007 (for supercapacitors) and
2009 (for flywheel energy storage devices).
Solar cars
Main article: Solar vehicle
Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct
solar energy, usually, through photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar
panels that convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy, usually used
to charge a battery.

Electric vehicle charging patents[edit]

Qualcomm, Hyundai, Ford, and Mitsubishi are the top patent holders of the
close to 800 electric vehicle charging patents filed between 2014 and 2017.[155]
A majority of patents on electric vehicle charging were filed in Japan between
2014 and 2017. It is followed by the US and then by China.[156]