Lecture 1

Fundamentals of
Welding Metallurgy
 CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Fusion and solid state welding
processes
 Strengthening of materials
 Solidification processes
 INTRODUCTION
• Welding:
– A process of joining two materials at their contacting
surfaces by the application of heat and/or pressure.
• Advantages:
– Portable, permanent, stronger than the parent
materials with a filler metal,
 the most
materials witheconomical
a filler metal,method
the to join in terms
of material usage and fabrication costs.

• Disadvantages:
• Expensive manual labor,
• high energy and dangerous,
• does not allow disassemble and
• can have defects.
 WELDING METALLURGY
• may be defined as:
– the science of joining metals by welding that is related closely
to the field of metallurgy, or
– the science and technology of changes that occur in
metals as a result of being joined by the welding
process.
• It is a special branch of metallurgy
– where reaction times are in the order of minutes, seconds,
fraction of seconds contrary to other branches of metallurgy
– where reactions times are in the order of hours and
• minutes.
Welding metallurgy
– deals with the interaction of different metals being joined and
the interaction of metals with gases and chemicals of all
types.
 WELD.
• A weld is theoretically produced by bringing atoms
on opposing metallic surfaces close enough.
– The act that generates a spontaneous inter-atomic
attractive forces;
– whereby the cloud electrons are shared between atoms
across the interfaces resulting in an ideal weld.
• Unfortunately, real metallic surfaces cannot be
prepared to attain a perfectly smooth contour on
an atomic scale.
– Continuous oxides or other surface films including water
molecules and gases from ambient atmosphere tend to
interfere.
 QUALITY WELDS
• Atomic contacts between the surfaces to be
joined can be achieved by:
– Removing, shielding or dispersing completely
oxides and non-metallic films from the area being
joined.
– reducing consistently the separation distance of
metallic atoms on the proposed joint to an atomic
scale.
• Thus, the quality of a weld depends on
• geometry,
• presence of cracks,
• residual stresses,
• inclusions and
• oxide films.
PRESSURE APPLICATION
• In practice (non-fusion welding) the
pressure may be applied to plastically
deform the contacting surfaces
– in order to create the required intimacy of
contact asperities
• Alternatively, the surfaces may be bridged
by a liquid metal by the process of fusion
welding.
 Physics of Welding
• Coalescing Mechanism: Fusion via high-density energy
• A process plan to determine
– the rate at which welding can be performed,
– the size of the region and
– power density for fusion welding
P
• Powder density (PD): PD 
A
where P = power entering the surface, W; and A = the surface area, mm2
– With too low power density, no melting due to the heat conducted into work
– With too high power density, metal vaporizes in affected regions
– Need to find a practical range of values for heat density.

• For metallurgical reason, less energy and high heat density are
desired.
 Physics of Welding...
• The estimated quantity of heat is given by: U m  KTm
– where K=3.33x10-6
• Heat waste:
– Heat transfer efficiency (f1) between heat source and surface
• Heat problem: Oxyfuel gas welding is inefficient while Arc welding
is relatively efficient.
– Melting efficiency (f2) due to the conduction of a work
material
• Conduction problem: Al and Cu have low f2
• Net Heat Available for Welding is given by: H w  f1 f 2 H
• Balance between energy input and energy for welding is
given by:
• Rate Balance
• Volume rate of metal welded
 Physics of Welding...

• Approximate power densities

 TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES
• Fusion Welding – melting base metals with filler
– Arc Welding (AW) – heating with electric arc
– Resistance welding (RW) – heating with resistance to an
electrical current
– Oxyfuel Welding (OFW) – heating with a mixture of oxygen
and acetylene (oxyfuel gas)
– Other fusion welding include electron beam welding and
laser beam welding
• Solid State Welding – No melting, No fillers
– Diffusion welding (DFW) – solid-state fusion at an elevated
temperature
– Friction welding (FRW) – heating by friction
– Ultrasonic welding (USW) – moderate pressure with
ultrasonic oscillating motion
 1. Fusion Welding Processes

• Each fusion welding process must fulfill a

number of conditions:
– Energy to create joint by fusion
– Mechanism for removing superficial
contamination from joint surfaces
– Avoidance of atmospheric contamination or its
effect, and
– Control of welding metallurgy
 Features of Fusion Welding
• A typical fusion weld joint consists
of fusion zone, weld interface, heat
affected zone and unaffected base
metal zone.
– Fusion zone:
• a mixture of filler metal and base
metal melted together
homogeneously due to convection
as in casting. Epitaxial grain growth
(casting)
– Weld interface
• a narrow boundary immediately
solidified after melting.
– Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
• below melting but has substantial
microstructural change though has
the same chemical composition as
base metal (heat treating)
• usually degradation in mechanical
properties happen
– Unaffected base metal zone (UBMZ)
• high residual stress
 (i) Arc Welding Process
• The coalescence of the metals (base
metals and filler) is achieved by the
heat from electric arc.
• Productivity: Arc time
• Technical issues
– Electrodes – consumable and
nonconsumable electrodes
– Arc Shielding – To shield the arc from
the surrounding gas. Helium and argon
are typically used. Flux does a similar
function.
– Power source – DC for all metals or AC
for typically steels
• Heat loss due to convection,
conduction and radiation
Arc Welding with Consumable Electrodes
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)
– The consumable electrode is coated with
chemicals for flux and shielding (230-
460mm long & 2.5-9.4mm diameter)
– The filler metal must be comparable with
base metals.
– Current: 30-300A and Voltage: 15-45V –
– Cheaper and portable
table than oxyfuel welding
– Less efficient and variation in current due
to the change in length of consumable
electrodes during the process.
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
– Uses a bare consumable electrode
– Floods the arc with a gas depends on the
metal
– No slag build-up and has a higher
deposition rate than SMAW
– Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or CO2 welding
Arc Welding with Consumable Electrodes…
• Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
– Use a continuous consumable tube with
flux and others such as deoxidizer and
alloying elements
– Two types
• Self-shielded – flux has an ingredient for
shielding
• Gas-shielded – external gas
– Produce high quality weld joint
• Electrogas Welding (EGW)
– Flux-cored or bare electrode with external
shield gas and water-cooled molding shoes.
– Used in shipbuilding
• Submerged Arc welding (SAW)
– Shielding is provided by the granular flux
– Large structures
 Arc Welding -Non-Consumable Electrodes
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
– Tungsten (Wolfram) Inert Gas
(TIG) Welding
– With or without a filler metal
– Tungsten melts at 3410°C
– Shielding gas: argon, helium or a
mixture
– All metals (commonly Al and
Stainless steels) in a wide range
of thickness
– Slow and costly but high quality
weld for thin sections
Arc Welding Non-Consumable Electrodes …

• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

– A special form of GTAW but with a constricted
plasma gas to attain a higher temperature.
• Carbon Arc Welding
– Graphite is used as electrode.
• Stud Welding
– For cookware, heat radiation fin.
 (ii) Resistance Welding Process
• In resistance welding
– Heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence.
• Power source: heat generated:
• Types of Resistance Welding Processes
– Resistance spot welding (RSW)
• Electrodes – Cu-based or refractory(Cu+W)
• Rocker-arm
- spot welders
– Resistance seam welding (RSEW)
– Resistance projection welding (RPW)
– Flash welding (FW) -Heating by resistance
• Upset welding – similar to FW but pressed during
H  I 2 Rt
heating and upsetting.
• Percussion welding – similar to FW but shorter
duration
– High-frequency (induction and resistance)
welding
 Resistance Welding…
• It is a process whereby the heat
required for welding is produced
by electrical resistance across
the two components.
• The process does not require:
– consumable electrodes
– shield gases Fig: sequence in the resistance spot welding
– Flux
• It uses the tips of two opposing
solid cylindrical electrodes
• Pressure is applied to the lap
joint until the current is turned
off in order to obtain a strong
weld
 (a) Resistance Spot Welding
• The resistance welding
process which uses the tips of
two opposing solid cylindrical
electrodes
• Pressure is applied to the lap
joint until the current is turned
off in order to obtain a strong
weld
• Surfaces should be clean
– Accurate control and timing of
electric current and pressure are Fig: cross-section of a spot weld
showing the weld nugget and the indentation of the
essential in resistance welding electrode on the sheet surfaces.
The most commonly process of joining sheet-metals
and in automotive-body assembly
Spot Welding cycles
 (b) Resistance Seam Welding
• A modification of spot welding where the electrodes
are replaced by rotating wheels or rollers
• The electrically conducting rollers produce a spot
weld
• This process can produce a continuous seam &
joint that is liquid and gas tight

Fig : Seam-Welding Process in which rotating rolls act as electrode; overlapping spots in a seam weld;
roll spot weld; and resistance-welded gasoline tank
 (c) Resistance Projection Welding
• A weld is developed
by introducing high
electrical resistance
at a joint by
embossing one or
more projections on
the surface to be
welded

• Weld nuggets are

similar to spot
welding

Fig: Resistance projection welding; welded bracket ; projection

welding of nuts threaded hosses and stack
 …
• The pressure exerted by electrodes
compress the projections:
– Nuts and bolts can be welded to sheet and plate
by this process
– Metal baskets, oven grills, and shopping carts can
be made by RPW
 (d) Flash Welding
• The welding heat is generated from the arc as
the ends of the two members contacts
– An axial force is applied at a controlled rate
– Weld is formed in plastic deformation

Fig : Flash-welding process for end-to –end welding of solid rods or tubular parts;
typical parts made by flash welding
 Stud Welding
• Small part or a threaded rod or hanger serves as a
electrode
• Also called as Stud arc welding
• Prevent oxidation to concentrate the heat generation
• Portable stud-welding is also available

Fig: The sequence of operation in stud welding: used for welding bars threaded rods and
various fasteners onto metal plates
 (iii) Oxyfueld Gas Welding Processes
• Oxyfuel gas weldings (OFW) – Use
various fuels mixed with oxygen
• Oxyacetylene welding – A mixture
of acetylene and oxygen
– Total heat: 55x106 J/m3
– Acetylene: odorless but commercial
acetylene has a garlic order.
– Unstable at 1atm thus dissolved in
acetone.
• Other gases
– MAPP (Dow), Hydrogen, Propylene,
Propane and Natural gas
(iv) Other Fusion Welding Processes
• Electroslag Welding
– Is similar to electrogas welding but has no arc
• Thermit (from Thermite™) Welding, dated 1900
– A fusion welding process that uses a mixture of Al
powder and iron oxide in 1:3 ratio for exothermic
2500°C)
reaction (reaching 2500 C)
– Used in railroad, repair cracks in ingot and large
frame and shaft.
(v) High Energy Beam Welding Processes
• Electron Beam Welding
– Has high-velocity, narrow-beam electron converting into heat to
produce a fusion weld in a vacuum
– Can weld from foil to plate as thick as 150mm
– Has very small heat effected zone
– Its power density PD is given by PD  f1 EI
• Laser Beam welding A
– A high-power laser beam heat source produce a fusion weld
without a filler material
– Due to the high density energy on a small focused area, it has
narrow and deep penetration capability
– Pulsed beam for spot-weld thin samples
– Continuous beam for deep weld and thick sample – e.g.:
Gillette Sensor razor
 2. Solid State Welding Processes
• Process of joining parts without fusion at the
interface
– No liquid or molten phase is present at the joint
when two surfaces are brought together under
pressure
• For strong bond, both surfaces must be clean
without:
– oxide films
– residues metalworking
– fluids adsorbed layers
– of gas other
– contaminants……
 Features of Solid State Welding

• Features of Solid state welding process

 Solid State Bonding
• The diffusion (transfer) of atoms across an
interface is facilitated by heat:
– friction
– electrical-resistance
– Induction
• Pressure:
– The higher the pressure, the stronger the interface
– May combine pressure & resistance heating
• Relative interfacial movements
• – create clean surfaces
• – even small amplitudes improve bond
strength
 (i) Cold Welding
• Pressure is applied to the
work pieces through dies
or rolls leading to
– Plastic deformation
• At least on of the mating
parts must be ductile.
• Surfaces are prepared by
pre-cleaning
• Best bond strength occurs
with two similar materials
 (ii) Ultrasonic Welding

• A versatile and reliable

process of joining metals
where
– surfaces to be joined are
subjected to a static forces
and oscillating shearing
force
• Produces a strong, solid-
state bond
(a) The lateral vibration of the tool tip cause plastic
• Applied for a wide range deformation and bonding at the interface of the
of metals incl. dissimilar work piece
b)Ultrasonic some welding using a roller
(bimetal strips)
(iv) Friction Welding
 Inertia Friction Welding

• This is a modification of Friction Welding

– The necessary energy is supplied by the kinetic
energy of a rotating flywheel
 Linear Friction Welding

• Parts are joined by a linear reciprocating motion

• In this application, one part is moved across the
face of the other part using a balanced
reciprocating mechanism.
– Parts do not have to be circular or tubular
– Process suitable for welding square or rectangular parts.
– Metals or plastics
 WELD QUALITY
• Residual Stress and Distortion
– Welding fixtures, Heat sink,Tack welding, control
weld condition, Preheating, Stress-relief heat
treatment, Proper design
• Welding Defects
– Cracks, Cavities, Solid Inclusions, Incomplete
Fusion
– Imperfect shape, Miscellaneous Defects such as
arc strike and excessive spatter.
 Evaluation of Weld Defects
• Visual Inspection
– Most widely used welding inspection,- Dimensional, warpage,
crack
– Limitations:
• Only surface defects are detectable – Internal defects cannot be
discovered – Welding inspector must also determine if additional tests
are warranted
• Nondestructive
– Dye- and fluorescent-penetrant - detecting small defects open to
surface
– Magnetic particle testing - iron filings sprinkled on surface reveal
subsurface defects by distorting magnetic field
– Ultrasonic - high frequency sound waves directed through
specimen, so discontinuities detected by losses in sound
transmission
– Radiograph - x-rays or gamma radiation to provide photographic
film record of any internal flaws
 Evaluation of Weld Defects…

Destructive – mechanical & metallurgical tests

WELD JOINTS
 GRAIN STRUCTURE

(a) (b)

Fig : Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note that the grains in the solidified weld metal are
perpendicular to the surface of the base metal. In a good weld, the solidification line at the center in the
deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, which develops uniform strength in the weld bead.
SOLIDIFICATION OF WELD METAL
• Solidification begins with formation of columnar
grains which is similar to casting
• Grains relatively long and form parallel to the heat
flow
• Grain structure and size depend on the specific alloy
• Weld metal has a cast structure because it has
cooled slowly, it has grain structure
• Results depends on alloys ,composition and thermal
cycling to which the joint is subjected.
• Pre-heating is important for metals having high
thermal conductivity
 Weld Beads

(a) (b)

Fig : (a) Weld bead (on a cold-rolled nickel strip) produced by a laser beam. (b) Microhardness profile across
the weld bead. Note the lower hardness of the weld bead compared to the base metal.
 Heat Affected Zone
• Heat effected zone is within the metal itself
• Properties depend on
• Rate of heat input and cooling
• Temperature to which the zone was raised
• Original grain size ,Grain orientation , Degree of prior
cold work
• The
cold strength
work and hardness depend partly on how
original strength and hardness of the base metal was
developed prior to the welding
• Heat applied during welding Recrystallises elongated
grains of cold worked base metal