Nucleic Acids:

Structure and Function

REVIEWER BY GROUP 1:

Group1: Arciaga, Glenn

Dilvianey Elu, Rianto

Naoe, Rose Claire

Punzalan, Mary Fritzdiane

Tario, Ariana Mae


NUCLEIC ACIDS
- They are composed of nucleotides, which
are monomers made of three components: a 5-
carbon sugar, a phosphate group and
a nitrogenous base.
- The hereditary determinants of living organisms
- Present in most living cells either in free state or
bound to proteins as nucleoproteins
- Has two types: DNA and RNA
- If the sugar is a simple ribose, the polymer is
RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is derived
from ribose as deoxyribose, the polymer is
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
HISTORY
Friedrich Miescher
- swiss scientist
- first objective was to isolate white
blood cells from lymph nodes of pus
cell
- Discovered different substance and
called nuclein
- Described nuclein having similar
properties of protein and differ with
phosphate group
Edward Zacharias and Walther Flemming
- Showed that chromosomes composed
of a mixture of protein and nuclein
Oscar Hertwig
- Proposed nuclein to be carrier of
hereditary traits
Richard Altmann
- Discovered that nuclein has acid
properties because of phosphate group
- Changed nuclein to nucleic acid
Hermann Emil Fischer
- Discovered the presence of purine and
pyrimidine bases
- Also invented the fischer projection
Martin Kossel
- Discovered the chemical composition
of nucleic acid from thymus glands and
yeast
- Namely adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil
Phoebus Levene
- Discovered that nucleic acid has
different composition of nucleotide
- Characterized the different forms of
nucleic acid from DNA to RNA
- Discovered the ribose sugar in yeast
- Named deoxyribose sugar, Ribose
sugar that lack one oxygen atom
- Explained that DNA consist of
Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and
thymine
- RNA consist of Adenine, Cytosine,
Guanine and Uracil
Erwin Chargaff
- Found that purine and pyrimidine
content of DNA was equal
- Fixed ratios: same number of A’s as T’s
and same number of C’s and G’s
James Watson and Francis Crick
- Built 3D molecular model of DNA
- They proposed that DNA consisted of a
double helix with two chains having sugar
phosphate on the outside and nitrogen
bases on the inner side

TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID
1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
- It is found in the nucleus of eukaryotes
and in the chloroplasts and mitochondria.
- In prokaryotes, the DNA is free-floating
within the cytoplasm.
- DNA is composed of two side-by-side
chains (“strands”) of nucleotides twisted
into the shape of a double helix.
- The two strands of DNA are antiparallel
- Each strand of nucleotide consist one of
four nitrogen bases:
there are only two types of base
pairs: A·T and G·C.
- The base pairs, which are flat planar
structures, stack on top of one another at
the center of the double helix which adds
to the stability of the DNA molecule by
excluding water molecules from the
spaces between the base pairs.
- The two strands can come apart – a
process known as melting – to form two
single-stranded DNA molecules.

2. RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

- The functions of ribonucleic acid is to
convert genetic information from genes
into amino acid sequences of protein
- In some viruses, RNA contains the
genetic information
- cells do not “understand” the message
DNA conveys, so they need RNA to
transcribe and translate the genetic
information
- RNA is of three types, they are tRNA
(transfer RNA), mRNA (messenger
RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA):
- When a base, is linked to a deoxyribose
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
sugar through a glycosidic bond, the
- has the main role in transcription, or the
structure is a nucleoside
first step in making a protein from a
- The backbone of each
DNA blueprint
strand is a repeating
- made up of nucleotides found in the
phosphate–deoxyribose
nucleus that come together to make a
sugar polymer.
complementary sequence to
- The sugar-phosphate
the DNA found there
bonds in this backbone are
- “rna polymerase”: an enzyme that puts
called phosphodiester bonds.
this strand of rna together
- The two strands are held
- “codon”: three nitrogen bases in the rna
together by hydrogen bonds
sequence that each code for a specific
between the complementary
amino acid that will be linked to other
pairs of bases
amino acids to make protein
 A pairs with T by 2
- the mRNA must first cut out these
hydrogen bonds
sequences, called introns, before it can
 G pairs with C by 3
be coded into a functioning protein. The
hydrogen bonds
parts of mRNA that do code for amino
- Two nucleotides binding together across
acids are called exons
the double helix is called a Watson-
Crick base pair.
- The bases of DNA interact according to
a very straightforward rule, namely, that
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) Nucleoside

- important job: making sure the correct - a nitrogenous base and a 5-carbon sugar
amino acids are put into the polypeptide - a nucleoside plus a phosphate group yields a
chain in the correct order nucleotide.
- It is a highly folded structure that holds
an amino acid on one end and has what
is called an anticodon on the other end
- “anticodon”: a complementary sequence
of the mRNA codon
- ensured to match up with the correct
part of the mRNA and the amino acids
will then be in the right order for the
protein

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

- the main building block of ribosomes, it

has a very large and important role in
translation
- It basically holds the single stranded
mRNA in place so the tRNA can match
up its anticodon with the mRNA codon
that codes for a specific amino acid
- Three sites (A, p And e): hold and direct
the tRNA to the correct spot and
facilitate the peptide bonding of the
amino acids and then release the tRNA
so they can recharge and be used again

STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACID 1. Primary Structure

- Consists of a linear sequence of
Nucleic acid structure nucleotides that are linked together
by phosphodiester bonds.
- Nucleic acid structure is often divided into four - It is this linear sequence of nucleotides
different levels: primary, secondary, tertiary that make up the Primary structure
and quaternary. of DNA or RNA. Nucleotides consist of
Nucleotides 3 components:

- are organic molecules that serve as 1.) Nitrogenous base

the monomer units for forming the nucleic
acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a) Purines
and ribonucleic acid (RNA). - A purine is a heterocyclic
- are the building blocks of nucleic acids; they are aromatic organic compound,
composed of three subunit molecules: consisting of a pyrimidine ring
a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon fused to an imidazole ring.
sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least 1. Adenine
one phosphate group. They are also known 2. Guanine
as phosphate nucleotides.
 - Pyramidines
- Pyrimidine is a heterocyclic
aromatic organic compound
similar to benzene and pyridine,
containing two nitrogen atoms
at positions 1 and 3 of the six-
member ring. It is isomeric with
two other forms of diazine.
1. Cytosine
2. Thymine (present
in DNA only)
3. Uracil (present
in RNA only)
2.) 5-carbon sugar which is
called deoxyribose (found in DNA)
and ribose (found in RNA).
- Purines - glycosidic bond
between their 9' nitrogen and
the 9' - OH group of the sugar
molecule.
- Pyramidines - they form
glycosidic bond between 1'
nitrogen and the 9' -OH of the
deoxyribose.
3.) One or more phosphate groups.
- Purine and pyrimidine bases
forms a bond with the sugar
molecule between one of its
negatively charged oxygen
groups and the 5' -OH of
the sugar. Nucleotides forms
phosphodiester linkages
between the 5' and 3' carbon
atoms, these form the nucleic
acids.
Complementary Sequence
2. Secondary structure
- Secondary structure is the set of
interactions between bases, i.e., which
parts of strands are bound to each other.
In DNA double helix, the two strands of
- The secondary structure is responsible
for the shape that the nucleic acid
assumes.
- Purines consist of a double ring
structure, a six membered and five
membered ring containing nitrogen. The
pyrimidines are Cytosine and Thymine.
It has a single ringed structure, six
membered ring containing nitrogen.
- A purine base always pairs with a
pyrimidine base. DNA's secondary
structure is predominantly determined
by base-pairing of the two
polynucleotide strands wrapped around
each other to form a double helix. There
is also a major groove and a minor
groove on the double helix.
3. Tertiary Structure
- Tertiary structure refers to the locations
of the atoms in three-dimensional space,
taking into consideration geometrical
and steric constraints. It is a higher order
than the secondary structure, in which
large-scale folding in a linear polymer
occurs and the entire chain is folded into
a specific 3-dimensional shape. There
are 4 areas in which the structural forms
of DNA can differ.
 1. Handedness - right or left
 2. Length of the helix turn
 3. Number of base pairs per turn
 4. Difference in size between
the major and minor grooves.
 4. Quaternary Structure  RNA directs synthesis of proteins.
- Quaternary structure is the higher-level  m-RNA takes genetic message from RNA.
of organization of the nucleic acids.
 t-RNA transfers activated amino acid, to the
- This structure refers to the interactions
site of protein synthesis.
of the nucleic acids with the other
molecules.  r-RNA are mostly present in the ribosome,
- The most commonly seen organization and responsible for stability of m-RNA.
is the form of chromatin which shows
To make it more clear, the figure below will tell us
interaction with small proteins histones.
the general process and function of nucleic acid

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACID

 The main function of nucleic acid is to store
and transfer genetic information
 To use the genetic information to direct the
synthesis of new protein.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Function: storage of the genetic information

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

Function: To transfer the genetic information from

nucleus to cytoplasm for protein synthesis.

 DNA controls the synthesis of RNA in the

cell.
 The genetic information is transmitted from
DNA to the protein synthesizers in the cell.

 RNA also directs the production of new

protein by transmitting genetic information
to the protein building structures.

 The function of the nitrogenous base

sequences in the DNA backbone determines
the proteins being synthesized.

The main biological function of a nitrogenous base

is to bond nucleic acids together.

 The function of the double helix of the DNA

is that no disorders occur in the genetic
information if it is lost or damaged.

TERMS
Anti-parallel - Refers to the orientations of the two
single strands that compose a double-stranded DNA
helix. Strands are oriented such that one strand's 5' end is
directly across from the other strand's 3' end.
Complementary - Term used to refer to the natural
pairing of the nitrogen bases within DNA and RNA. In
DNA, cytosine pairs with guanine and adenine with
thymine. In RNA, the thymine is replaced with uracil,
which pairs with adenine. Each member of these pairs
are said to be a "complements" of the other.
Deoxyribose - A five-membered sugar ring that lacks a
hydroxyl group at one position, and is the sugar group
for DNA.
Double-stranded helix - A common structural motif of
DNA. Two linear strands of single-stranded DNA fold
into a helical shape stabilized internally by hydrogen
bonds between complementary base pairs.
Ester bond - In DNA, refers to the oxygen-carbon
linkage between the triphosphate group and the 5' carbon
of the ribose sugar group in a single DNA or RNA
nucleotide.
Glycosidic Bond - In DNA, refers to the nitrogen-
carbon linkage between the 9' nitrogen of purine bases or
1' nitrogen of pyrimidine bases and the 1' carbon of the
sugar group.
Helical Twist - The angular rotation needed to get
from one nucleotide to another in helical structures.
Hydrogen Bonding - Weak, noncovalent linkages
between a donor and an acceptor which, when lined up
next to each other, have favorable electrostatic
interactions. Provide small amount of stability to DNA
and RNA helices. Provide specificity of the interactions
between polynucleotide strands.
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor - A group with at least one
free lone pair of electrons. In DNA and RNA, common
acceptor groups include: carbonyls, hydroxyls, and
tertiary amines.
Hydrogen Bond Donor - A group with a free
hydrogen group. In DNA and RNA, common donors
include secondary amines and hydroxyl groups.
Major groove - In a helix, refers to the larger of the
unequal grooves that are formed as a result of the
double-helical structure of DNA. As a result of the
patterns of hydrogen bonding between complementary
bases of DNA, the sugar groups stick out at 120 degree
angles from each other instead of 180. The major groove
is generated by the larger angular distance between
sugars.
Minor groove - In a helix, refers to the smaller of the
unequal grooves that are formed as a result of the
double-helical structure of DNA. As a result of the
patterns of hydrogen bonding between complementary
bases of DNA, the sugar groups stick out at 120 degree
angles from each other instead of 180. The minor groove
is generated by the smaller angular distance between
sugars.
Nitrogen Base - One of three components of a
nucleotide, nitrogen bases come in two general types:
purines and pyrimidines. Of the four nitrogen bases,
adenine and guanine are purines, while cytosine and
thymine are pyrimidines. Through hydrogen bonding,
base pairs link in a complementary nature: adenine with
thymine and guanine with cytosine, forming the double-
stranded helix of DNA. In RNA, thymine is replaced by
uracil.
Nucleic Acid - A chain of nucleotides joined together
by phosphodiester bonds. Both DNA and RNA are
nucleic acids.
Nucleotide - A five-membered sugar group with a
purine or pyrimidine nitrogen base group attached to its
1' carbon via a glycosidic bond and one or more
phosphate groups attached to its 5' carbon via an ester
bond.
Phosphate Backbone - Refers to the structural
organization of the DNA double-helix in which the
pyrimidine and purine basic groups face the interior
while the phosphate groups line the exterior of the helix.
The phosphate backbone carries a negative charge.
Phosphate Group - One of three components of a
nucleotide, comprised of a central phosphorous
surrounded by four oxygens. The phosphate links to the
sugar group, carries a negative charge because of the
chemical interaction between phosphorous and oxygen,
and forms the exterior of the phosphate backbone.
Phosphodiester linkage - In a polynucleotide, refers to
the bond between the 3' hydroxyl of a sugar group in a
nucleotide and a phosphate group attached to the 5'
carbon of another sugar group.

Pitch - In a helix, refers to the vertical distance traveled

in one full turn (360 degrees of twist).

Primary Structure - In DNA and RNA, refers to the

linear sequence of base pairs or amino acids in a
polynucleotide chain.

Purine - One of two categories of nitrogen base ring

compounds found in DNA and RNA. A purine is a nine-
membered double ring composed of one five-membered
joined to a six membered ring containing four nitrogens.
See pyrimidine.

Pyrimidine - One of two categories of nitrogen base

ring compounds found in DNA and RNA. A six-
membered ring containing two nitrogens. See purine.

Ribose - The sugar group of RNA, a five-membered

sugar ring containing one oxygen and four carbons with
one additional carbon attached to the 4' carbon in the
ring and hydroxyl groups attached to the 1', 2', 3', and 5'
carbons. See deoxyribose.

Right Hand Rule - A trick used to quickly determine

the "handedness" or orientation of a helix. In a right-
handed helix, if one extends his or her right hand and
traces with fingers along the backbone of the helix, the
hand and thumb move upwards.

Rise - In a helix, the vertical distance traveled when

moving from one base pair to the adjacent base pair.

Secondary Structure - In DNA and RNA, the local

folding patterns of a polynucleotide based on
complementary base-pairing. Common motifs include
alpha helices and bet-pleated sheets.

Sugar Group - One of three components of a

nucleotide, a five-ringed carbon sugar, either ribose or
deoxyribose in form. The sugar group bonds to the
nitrogen base and to the phosphate group.

Tertiary Structure - In DNA and RNA, the complex

three-dimensional form of a polynucleotide.