Prince Bryle E.

Villasis BSECE 2

CONDUCTIVE CLAY

A clay is a stiff, sticky fine-grained earth that can be moulded when wet, and is dried

and baked to make bricks, pottery, and ceramics. (Lexico, 2019)

Clay is one of the most satisfying materials to work with. It consists of millions of tiny

plate-shaped particles. Water enables these particles to slide over each other without breaking.

When a clay body is about 22% water it is easily moulded. Man has used clay throughout the

centuries to produce both functional and decorative wares. (Walker Ceramics, 2019)

Clay can be molded, heated and made into anything you want when mixed with water,

making it a very useful material because it hydrophilic. However, clay doesn’t conduct

electricity. Graphene is conductive but it’s hydrophobic. MXenes are essentially conductive

clays, which testing showed renders them excellent electrodes for supercapacitors and

potentially batteries. The hydrophilicity allows us to use aqueous electrolytes. From an

environmental point of view, being able to work with water is a huge advantage, especially

manufacturing-wise. It is also less expensive than using non-aqueous electrolytes. The clay-

like characteristics also allow us to roll it with a rolling pin and slice it up like dough to produce

electrode in minutes rather than waiting several days. This material also holds together well.

Most materials are conductive enough and don’t hold together enough. With graphite you have

to add a conductive binder and glue that will prevent the material from flaking. (Barsoum,

M.W., 2014)

In the race to find materials of ever increasing thinness, surface area and conductivity

to make better performing battery electrodes, a lump of clay might have just taken the lead.

Drexel University’s College of Engineering’s materials scientists invented the clay, which is

both highly conductive and can easily be molded into various shapes and sizes. It represents a
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repulsion from the rather complicated and costly processing currently used to make materials

for lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors and toward one that looks a bit like rolling out

cookie dough with products that are even sweeter from an energy storage standpoint. (Drexel

NOW, 2014)

The clay, which already exhibits conductivity on par with that of metals, can be turned

into a film usable in an electrode simply by rolling or pressing it. Both the physical properties

of the clay, consisting of two-dimensional titanium carbide particles, as well as its performance

characteristics, seem to make it an exceptionally viable candidate for use in energy storage

devices like batteries and supercapacitors. The procedure to make the clay also uses much safer,

readily available ingredients than the ones we used to produce MXene electrodes in the past.

(Gogotsi, Y., 2014)

MAX phase is a fluoride salt mixed with hydrochloric acid to etch aluminum out of a

titanium-based, layered ceramic material. These two ingredients, which are household names

in chemistry class and are also much safer to handle than hydrofluoric acid, reduced the MAX

phase to a pile of black particles. To stop the reaction and remove any residual chemicals,

washed the material in water. (Ghidiu, M., 2014)

Classification

Ceramic clays are classified into five classes; earthenware clays, stoneware clays, ball

clays, fire clays and porcelain clays. The three most commonly used ceramic clays are

earthenware clay bodies, mid-fire stoneware clay bodies, and high-fire stoneware clay bodies.

All three are available commercially in moist, ready-to-use form. Clay bodies can also be

produced by mixing dry clays and additives with water to create your own desired clay body.

(EnvironMolds LLC, 2017)

Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

Structure

Clays were used as a template to produce graphene-like layers from sugar, a natural

renewable resource. Raman spectroscopy showed that the synthesis with five times more sugar

than clays produced multilayered graphene better ordered than when starting with a lower

proportion of sugar. At 6.5 MPa, the clay graphene-like nanostructured materials are as

conductive as commercially available graphene. The scanning electron microscopy images of

conductive clay with higher sugar content featured more uniform structure with higher

porosity. The thermal conductivity increased with higher initial sugar content. (Boussaboun,

Z., Azizi, S, et.al., 2017)

Mechanical Properties

Consistency and strength of cohesive and non-cohesive soils are very different. In

general, higher clay contents in a soil cause higher plasticity, greater shrinkage and swell

potential, higher compressibility and lower shear strength. Most mechanical properties of clays

depend on the type and content of clay minerals, the interactions between the clay mineral

particles and pore water, as well as on the sedimentary and consolidation history. Damages on

clay-containing buildings can occur at a long time after construction because of volume

changes due to swelling or shrinkage processes or very slow but extensive settlement. Another

important characteristic of clays is the very low hydraulic conductivity as well as gas

permeability. The soil mechanical behaviour of some problematic clays like expansive or

swelling soils, quick clays and black shales are described in detail.

Thermal Properties
Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

The thermal conductivity of clay, which is the property of a material that indicates its

ability to conduct heat, is mostly controlled by water content. Although, obviously, the type of

clay is also important. For average clay, the thermal conductivity is 0.25 W/m K for no

moisture, about 1.0 W/m K for 10% clay moisture (% by volume), 1.25 W/m K at 14%, 1.67

W/m K at 30% and about 2.0 W/m K at 50 %. Clay with low thermal conductivity can serve

many purposes such as: making clay oven for baking and drying, a good insulator between two

metal surfaces where heat is to be conserved within a certain area and heat loss by conduction

is to be prevented.

Advantages of Clay

Versatile. Clay building materials can be used for a variety of applications. They can

be used for walls, façades and roofs as well as for gardens, terraces and open spaces. Clay tiles

and bricks can be used almost anywhere and for all architectural styles, whether for the

construction of single family houses or apartment blocks, office or public buildings.

(Wienerberger Worldwide, 2019)

Energy-efficient. Owing to their excellent insulation properties and their heat storage

capacity clay building materials help to reduce the energy consumption of buildings.

(Wienerberger Worldwide, 2019)

Durable. Clay building materials are robust, stable and, as a result, especially durable;

their lifespan is more than 100 years. Brick buildings, which have lasted for centuries, can be

discovered all around the world. Buildings made of clay tiles and bricks are weather-resistant,

earthquake-proof and fire-resistant. (Wienerberger Worldwide, 2019)

Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

Aesthetic. Clay bricks and tiles are aesthetic and versatile. Thanks to a wide range of

available colours, shapes and surfaces, the number of possible designs and variations is almost

unlimited. The colour spectrum ranges from super white to classic red to coal-black. Available

variants include rough, smooth and glazed surfaces, elongated and wide formats. Roof tiles and

facing bricks as well as pavers can be perfectly coordinated with one another. (Wienerberger

Worldwide, 2019)

Economic. A solid building envelope made of brick can be constructed quickly and

flexibly, and this saves both time and money. Wind and weather, heat and frost are not able to

damage clay building materials. As a result, maintenance and service costs are low. Owing to

their favourable insulation properties, clay building materials also help to save energy costs.

(Wienerberger Worldwide, 2019)

Natural. Clay blocks, facing bricks and clay roof tiles as well as pavers are

particularly sustainable and natural building materials because they consist of the natural raw

materials clay and water. Bricks and tiles are absolutely free of pollutants and allergens and

thus especially compatible with humans and nature. (Wienerberger Worldwide, 2019)

Stable in value. Even after many years, buildings made of clay building materials

retain their value - or it even increases. Owing to their durability, stability and special living

quality, brick buildings and apartments are in great demand and achieve high resale values.

Furthermore, bricks and tiles are easy-to-clean and low-maintenance. (Wienerberger

Worldwide, 2019)

Disadvatages
Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

 Self-important, clay brick masonry wall material by weight than other weight is

relatively large, so that the structure needs to withstand greater weight, construction

cost increases.

 Poor sound insulation, sound propagation to clay due to its porosity is small, there is no

sound isolation, sound decibel decrease is small, and other masonry materials such as

now adopted more concrete aerated block its large porosity, noise effect is obvious.

 Environmental damage to large, due mainly clay soil excavation by sintering, and

therefore damage to soil and vegetation damage, resulting in soil erosion, bad

environment has been severely damaged.

Recent Research

The Electrical Resistivity Characteristics of Compacted Clays

One area where the electrical resistivity of soil is of paramount importance is in the

interpretation of results from electrical resistivity ground surveys (e.g. Griffiths & King, 196.5;

Tomlinson, 1969; Higginbottom, 1976). Other areas of rele-vance include applications to non-

destructive testing of concrete piles (McCarter, Whittington & Forde, 1979; McCarter, Forde

& Whitting- ton, 1981; McCarter, 1981); the grounding characteristics of transmission tower

foundations; electro-osmotic draining and consolidations of clays (e.g. Casagrande, 1949;

Bjerrum, Mourn & Eide, 1967; Butterfield & Johnston. 1980) and measurement of soil

liquefaction (Erchul & Gularte, 1982). This Technical Note describes work carried out on the

electrical resistivity characteristics of a clay-water electrolyte system. The samples were tested

over a range of consistency indices and at varying degrees of compaction.

It has already been explained that soils may have identical moisture contents but different

degrees of compaction or saturation. It is apparent that the air-void ratio in the soil structure
Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

will have a definite influence on the electrical resistivity of the soil, and to take account of

changes in both moisture content and degree of saturation, the Author used the fractional

volume of water in the soil sample as the controlling parameter.

Resistivity or fractional volume of water relationships have been established for two different

clays over a practical range of moisture contents, and a unique relationship exists between these

parameters for each clay. The resistivity of a clay is a function of moisture content and degree

of saturation. At a particular moisture content, an increase in the degree of saturation (or a

decrease in the air-void ratio) will mean a decrease in resistivity. (McCarter, W. J., 2014)

Series-Parallel Structure-oriented Electrical Conductivity Model of Saturated Clays

A new series-parallel model for electrical conductivity of saturated clays that considers

particles structure orientation is presented in this study. The new model introduces a simple

approach to consider the effect of surface conductivity of clay particles on the electrical

conductivity of saturated clays. The proposed approach considers the clay particle and its

surrounding diffuse double layer, as a single unit called an effective clay particle, and assigns

it an isotropic apparent electrical conductivity that can be determined using a simple

experimental method. Therefore, the saturated clay can be considered as a two-phase material

(binary mixture) namely, free pore water and effective clay particles. Considering the clay

particles structure orientation, the proposed electrical conductivity model in this study

geometrically configures the components of two-phase saturated clays in a series-parallel form

to determine the electrical conductivity of clay. The proposed electrical conductivity model

uses one parameter that can be determined experimentally and it reflects the anisotropic

condition of the clay fabric. The validity of the proposed model is verified by comparing its

results with the experimental results of three different clay types reconstituted at different dry
Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

density levels and particles structure orientations. The comparison shows the accuracy of the

proposed model in predicting the electrical conductivity of saturated clays. (Boradbridge, P.,

Hasan, M.F., et.al., 2018)

Applications

Construction Industry. Clays and bricks are used as construction raw materials. Clay

minerals in the natural lime rock or in the clay orshale mixed the limestone would contribute

SiO2, Al2O3 and possibly Fe, alkalis, and alkaline earths depending on the identity of clay

minerals for the manufacture of Portland cement. Kaolinite is best suitable for the manufacture

of white Portland cement.

Fertilizers. Phlogopite, illite, and glauconite clays are used as agromineral additive to

enhance soil fertility for crop production because of their high content of potassium. Also, clays

are used as diluents in chemical fertilizers to provide the optimum relative concentration of the

elements

Pesticides. Clays composed of montmorillonites and kaolinites are used in pesticide

preparations as diluents to enhance the even dispersion of the toxicant and the retention of the

pesticide by plants.

Environmental Issues

Clay is abundant and the clay-based minerals are derived from versatile raw materials

from a small to a wide range of composites which make it suitable for environmental

applications and purposes. Nanostructured hybrid materials resulting from ion exchange to

covalent bonding explain organoclays’ preparation and its feasible environmentally friendly

use, like removal of pollutants and pesticides formulations. Although there is improvement in
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the use of clay minerals and hybrid materials based on clay minerals and organic molecules

for the removal of pollutants, several problems remain unsolved. (Geology, Ecology, and

Landscapes, 2017)

Economic Issues

Clay business is very lucrative in the community and serves as the main source of

livelihood. It could also imply that the lucrative nature of clay business has affected the level

of education in the area as people might engage in clay business at the expense of schooling.

Seven (7) respondents constituting 17.5% admitted that the clay business served as an

additional income to their livelihood. It suggests that these people knew the consequential

effects of clay harvesting and as such would not like to take clay business as their main

source of income. The remaining two (2) forming 5.0% of the respondents could not state as

either main or additional source of income. It supposes that they could be assisting others in
Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

harvesting clay without knowing its effects on the environment. (Asante-Kyei, K., Addae. A,

2016)

Societal Issues

Clay is a very important material in geotechnical engineering, because it is often

observed in geotechnical engineering practice. Generally, this soil type has numerous

problems due to its low strength, high compressibility and high level of volumetric changes.

Clay needs to be improved before it can be used in road construction, dams, slurry walls,

airports and waste landfills. Improved gradation, a reduction in plasticity and swelling

potential, as well as an increase in strength and workability, generally improve the stability of

clay. (Ural, N., 2018)

Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

Majority of the people engaged in the clay business did not pay taxes either to the

assembly or the community. This could affect the assembly’s revenue generation and

developmental projects in the Abonko township. Again, it suggested that the indigenes of

Abonko did not benefit from most of the clay business activity; and that it was only those

who engaged in the mining of clay business that enjoyed the benefits or their booty at the

detriment of the people of Abonko. (Asante-Kyei, K., Addae. A, 2016)

Prince Bryle E. Villasis BSECE 2

References:

ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials), ASTM D5298-16, Standard Test

Method for Measurement of Soil Potential (Suction) Using Filter Paper,

ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2016,

http://www.astm.org.

https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/clay

http://walkerceramics.com.au/products/clays/

https://www.artmolds.com/clay-types

https://egsp.lyellcollection.org/content/21/1/13

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5228/a069c401a7d3601cb51b3a5a39e5ea53b4a9.pdf

https://www.intechopen.com/books/current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-

industrial-and-medical-applications/the-importance-of-clay-in-geotechnical-engineering

https://drexel.edu/now/archive/2014/November/MXene-clay/