INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF A publication of IIETA

HEAT AND TECHNOLOGY

ISSN: 0392-8764
Vol. 34, No. 4, December 2016, pp. 663-670
DOI: 10.18280/ijht.340416
Licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 http://www.iieta.org/Journals/IJHT

Simulation of the Vapor-Liquid Two-Phase Flow of Evaporation and

Condensation

Hongjie Song, Wei Zhang*, Yaqi Li, Zhengwei Yang and Anbo Ming

Xi’an Research Institute of Hi-Tech, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710025, China

Email: zhangweihuaiyu@163.com

ABSTRACT

The heat pipe receiver with integrated high temperature latent thermal energy storage is one of the key
components of Solar Dynamic Space Power System (SDPSS), among which the evaporation and
condensation is the main heat transfer mode, a very complicated two-phase flow. However, research on the
two-phase flow and heat transfer characteristics is an effective way to improve the system efficiency and
reduce the system mass. So a two-dimensional physical model was built and the volume of fluid (VOF)
technique was used to model the interaction between the two phases. The UDF (Users Define Function) was
introduced to handle the mass source terms. In the study, the relationship between superheat, subcooling and
wall heat flux were investigated. In addition, the flow pattern of bubbles in the tube was analyzed. Compared
with the churn bubbles flow, the heat transfer coefficient of the bubbles flow was much higher. Bubble
departure diameter increased as surface subcooling increased. The work in this paper lays a good foundation
for the further research on the heat transfer characteristics of heat pipe receiver with integrated high
temperature latent thermal energy storage.

Keywords: Two-phase flow, VOF, Evaporation, Condensation, Computational fluid dynamic (CFD).

1. INTRODUCTION the evaporation and condensation is significant to improving

As a new type of power generation, SDPSS can meet the
needs of the high power supplies to space stations with the
advantage of high energy conversion efficiency and little
frontal area. However, as the key component of SDPSS, the
receiver with integrated thermal energy storage accounts for
more than one-third of the mass. So reducing the mass of the
receiver with integrated thermal energy storage is significant
to SDPSS. At present, the heat pipe receiver with integrated
high temperature latent thermal energy storage works with
stable temperature and high efficiency during the phase
change. The mass and volume can be reduced by between
33 % and 77 % of previous values [1].
Heat pipes are widely used in the cooling systems for space
electronic equipment and passive cooling systems for the
spent fuel pool of nuclear reactors. Heat pipes offer high
effective thermal conductivities (5000 - 200,000 W.m-1.K-1),
energy-efficiency, light weight, low cost and the flexibility of
many different size and shape options [2-8]. So, it can reduce
the launch cost and the system mass. As the main heat
transfer modes of heat pipe receiver with integrated high
temperature latent thermal energy storage, evaporation and
condensation play very important roles in the heat transfer
process. Despite decades of research, many details of the
evaporation and condensation physical processes are still not
well revealed [9-12]. To reveal the two-phase flow process of
the system efficiency and reducing the cost.
As a complex two-phase flow problem, evaporation and
condensation is a complex physical phenomenon which
involves fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer. The heat
transfer of the two-phase flow may be shown as the sensible
heat exchange with the change of temperature, and also it
may be expressed as the latent heat exchange accompanied
with a phase change. In the process of heating or cooling,
sensible heat exchange is the heat transfer by conduction or
convection due to the temperature difference which does not
change the original phase state as the temperature increases or
decreases. However, the latent heat exchange is the process in
which vapor condenses to liquid with the release of latent
heat or where liquid evaporates to vapor with the absorption
of latent heat, which is accompanied with the phase change
and mass transfer. The nonlinear iterative IMPES scheme
developed by El-Amin et al. [13] was used to solve the
equation and the transport equation of two-phase flow in a
porous medium implicitly, which includes gravity, capillary
forces and Brownian diffusion. The work did not involve
evaporation and condensation.
Researchers have found it to be extremely difficult to
conduct boiling and condensation accurately and effectively
by experimental measurements because of the small spatial
scales and rapid time constants which are involved in the
phase change process. With the rapid development of
computer hardware and numerical algorithms in the last

663
decades, numerical simulations have become an important l   v  1 (1)
and useful method to investigate this kind of complex
phenomenon [14]. The algorithms of either VOF or level-set The mass transfer model concerning the process of
are considered to be the effective methods to solve the two- evaporating and condensation was built by Lee [27] and was
phase flow by CFD [15-17]. widely used, assuming that the phase change occurred at a
The VOF algorithm was adopted by Yang et al. [9] to constant pressure and at a quasi thermo-equilibrium state, and
simulate flow boiling with R-141B in a horizontal coiled tube. that the mass transfer was mainly determined by the saturate
Compared with the experiment data, the results of the temperature.
simulation showed good agreement. The typical two-phase From Eq(2) and Eq(3), the continuity equations of vapor
flow patterns encountered in a coiled tube are bubbly flow, and liquid are respectively:
churn flow, slug flow, stratified flow and wavy flow.
Sharifi et al. [18] built the two-dimensional physical model
l S
of a heat pipe-assisted latent heat thermal energy storage,  v l   l (2)
using the CFD to simulate the melting and solidification of a t l
phase change material (PCM) held within a vertical
cylindrical enclosure that was integrated with a heat pipe. v S
Parametric studies of the influence of the PCM enclosure  v v  v (3)
height and input/output heat transfer rates were discussed. t v
Kuang et al. [3] simulated the boiling flow in an evaporator
of separate type heat pipe with low heat flux using a VOF Taking the effect of gravity into consideration, the
multiphase flow model. The study on the heat transfer momentum equation is:
coefficient indicated that nucleate boiling is the dominant
mechanism in large pipes at low mass and heat flux, with the 
heat transfer coefficient being less sensitive to the total mass (  v )   (  vv )  p   [ (v  v T )]   g  Fvol (4)
t
flux. Alizadehdakhel et al. [19] simulated the wall
temperature of a two-phase closed thermosyphon as the
Finally, the surface tension can be written in terms of the
different fill ratios and inlet heat flow change by using the
pressure jump across the surface. By introducing the CSF
VOF model, the result of which was widely cited [20,21].
(continuum surface force) model to describe the surface
However, GUO et al. [14] developed the volume of fluid
tension [28], so the force of the surface tension can be
level set (VOSET) method which combined the advantages of
both VOF and level set methods to simulate a one- expressed as Fvol :
dimensional Stefan problem, two-dimensional horizontal film
boiling, and horizontal film boiling of water at near critical  v v kv  v   l l kl  l
pressure. The predicted results in both Nusselt number and Fvol   (5)
0.5( v  l )
flow patterns were agreeable with experimental results
available in the literature.
From the above works in the present paper, it shows that where,  is the surface tension coefficient and the interface
the previous works have mainly focused on the boiling curvature is :
process of evaporation. For further study of the evaporation
and condensation, this paper built the two-dimensional v
kl  kv   ( ) (6)
physical model to study the two-phase flow behavior. The v
VOF model was carried out to explain the process of
evaporation and condensation. Meanwhile, a comparison
between the simulation and experiment has also been The Energy equation is:
presented.

(  h)   (  vh)   (kT )  SE (7)
t
2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The enthalpy h and temperature T is taken as the average
In the present study, the numerical simulation of vapor- quality variable in the VOF model. Where:
liquid two-phase flow and heat transfer mainly contains the
Particle-trajectory model, Two-fluid model and Tracking l l hl   v v hv
technique, among which the Tracking technique can reflect h (8)
the information of the two phases accurately and
 l l   v  v
comprehensively [22]. However, the VOF model has the
advantage that it can track the interface and express physical hl  Cl (T  Tsat ) (9)
definition clearly. So, this paper built the two-dimensional
physical model of evaporation and condensation in the closed
rectangle. hv  Cv (T  Tsat ) (10)
VOF model was proposed by Hirt and Nichols in 1981 [23]
as an effective method to solve the two-phase problem.The To solve the governing equations of the whole
VOF model can well satisfy the mass conservation computational domain, the velocity field is shared by each
requirements [24-26] and the volume fraction  is introduced phase. The volume fraction of  ,  and k of two-phase
in VOF, so the sum of the volume fraction of two-phase is that passed the computational domain determines the
equal to 1, governing equations. In the two-phase flow system, the  ,

664
 and k in each cell is given by the following Eq(11) and
Eq (12), Eq (13) if the volume ratio of a phase is traced:

  l l  v v (11)

  l l  v v (12)

k  l kl  v kv (13)

The heat transfer caused by evaporation and condensation

can be expressed by the source term of the Energy equation,
which is shown by the following formula. When the
temperature of the phase exceeds or falls below the saturation
temperature Tsat , mass with rate S transfers and the amount
of energy SE is absorbed or released.

SE  S H (14) Figure 1.The set of source term

Therefore, proper source terms should be added in the

governing equations to model the vapor-liquid phase change 3. MODEL VALIDATION
phenomenon [29-31]. The mass source term is derived from
the Hertz-Knudsen equation [32, 33]. For the process of The experimental results of Reimann and Grigull [37] were
evaporation, the mass source term is: chosen to validate the model built in the paper. In our
simulation, the heat flux was about 16 W.cm-2 in the case of
T - Tsat
Sl  S v  1l l , T  Tsat (15) 30 K superheat boundary condition which was the same as
Tsat the experiments of Reimann and Grigull [37]. Compared with
the experimental result of Figure 2 (a), the simulation result
During the condensation, the mass source term is: of Figure 2 (b) showed that the bubbles were released
individually and sequentially in the low heat flux scenario
Tsat  T which qualitatively agreed with Figure 2 (a) very well. The
S v  Sl  2 v v , T  Tsat (16) boiling phenomenon and the bubbly distribution near the
Tsat heated wall agreed with the reference very well.

The phase transformation rate of the vapor and liquid

phase is respectively 1 and 2 . The basis for setting the
variables 1 and 2 is the temperature of the calculated grid
that contains the phase interface which is constant at
saturation temperature. So the proper value of 1 and 2 is
key to the source term. According to the work of
Alizadehdakhel [19], Lee [27], Wu [34] and Schepper et
al.[35], both 1 and 2 was set to 0.1. However, in Yang [9]
and Fang [36], 1 and 2 was set to 100. Excessively large
values of 1 and 2 can cause a numerical convergence
problem, while too small values lead to a significant deviation
between the interfacial temperature and the saturation
temperature. So 1 and 2 was set to 0.1 in this paper, UDF
(a) (b)
was introduced to couple with the source term.
The process of the source term is shown in Figure 1. The Figure 2. Comparison results between the experiment result
VOF model was adapted to handle two-phases: one phase (a) and present simulation results (b)
was in the non-saturation, that is, in the superheated or
subcooling state, and the other was in the saturation that is in
saturation state. So to set the SE and S , the first step was to 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
define the saturation temperature. For evaporation, it happens
when the temperature of liquid is higher than the saturation The model is shown in Figure 3. And the computational
temperature. Otherwise, the liquid is in a subcooling state. As domain was a two-dimensional closed rectangle, the upper of
mentioned above, the condensation happens when the vapor which was filled with air and the lower, with water. The tube
temperature is lower than the saturation temperature. was in vacuum and the droplets dropped by gravity.
Otherwise, the vapor is in a superheated state. At the same
time, the evaporation and condensation process is
accompanied by energy being absorbed and released.

665
4.1 Physical model and initial conditions Isao and Mamoru [38] showed that if the non-dimensional
diameter of the model dc is larger than 40, the slug bubble
can no longer sustain itself, and the bubbly flow and churn
flow can be more common. The Eq(17) can be expressed
from the Taylor wavelength theory and the non-dimensional
hydrodynamic diameter. In the paper, dc was estimated to be
99 which is much bigger than 40. The numerical results show
good agreement with the theory.

d
dc  (17)
 / g

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of model

To the regular model, a quad mesh was adopted in the

model which improved the solving efficiency and the
meshing. About 40,000 grids were meshed and the time step
was set to 0.001 s. The Finite Volume Method (FVM) was
used to discrete the governing equations. The geometric
reconstruction scheme used a piecewise-linear approach to
solve the volume fraction continuity equation. This was the
most accurate method and is applicable for general
unstructured meshes in FLUENT. To couple the pressure and
velocity, the SIMPLE algorithm was introduced. The upwind
scheme of the first order was adopted to discrete the Figure 4. Two-phase distribution in evaporation and
momentum and energy equations. When the residual mass, condensation
energy and velocity was less than 0.0001, it can be
considered that the numerical calculation converges. The
simulation test indicated that a good convergence was
reached if the under-relaxation factors were used at values:
0.3 (pressure), 1 (density), 1 (body force), 0.7 (momentum),
volume fraction (0.2) and 1 (energy).
The primary phase was water and the secondary phase was
vapor. The saturation temperature was 373 K. Other
properties are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Properties of liquid and vapor

liquid Vapor
kl 0.6 kv 0.0261
Cl 4182 Cv 2014
ρl 998.2 ρv 0.5542
μl 0.001 μv 1.34×10-5
h 2.418×108

4.2 Characteristics analysis of evaporation and

condensation
In the evaporation section, the two-phase boiling flow
contained bubbly flow, slug flow, churn flow and annular
flow which are shown in Figure 4. The bubbles emerged on
the heat wall from small to large, which were then forced to
move irregularly by the buoyancy force, the surface tension
and convection. The conclusion derived from the result of the
Figure 5. The flow character of Boiling
The churn flow and bubbly flow are shown in Figure 5
which were accompanied by the shape change of the bubbly
flow. This is because the shape of bubbly flow was mainly
affected by the Reynolds Number and Bond Number under a
certain density and viscosity ratio of vapor to liquid. However,

666
the Reynolds Number and Bond Number changed during the Figure 7 shows the temperature distribution in 1.5s, it can
bubbly flow rise. At the beginning, the bubbly flow was be seen that the greatest temperature difference was up to 24
accelerating, but as the bubbles moved, the deformation of K. Compared with the liquid and vapor flow in Figure 5, the
bubbles disturbed the molecule of bubbles which lash the temperature distribution was closely related to the liquid and
bubble film. When the deformation and incline of circular vapor flow. That is because the local temperature difference
bubbles occurred, an uneven force was applied on the bubbly is influenced by local heat transfer coefficient in the bubble
upper and lower surface and the bubbly flow began to rise to motion and the intensity of convection heat transfer
similar levels as resonance. determines the temperature distribution. The temperature of
During the rising process of bubbles, the steam condensed the bubbly flow region was 20 K higher than the churn flow
into small water droplets on the cooling wall. Affected by region in Figure 7. So it can be considered that the heat
surface tension and gravity, the small water droplets moved transfer coefficient of the bubbly flow is higher than that of
and integrated into larger droplets. When the droplets were the churn flow.
large enough, they were affected by gravity, as shown in
Figure 6 (a). During the process of falling, the shape of the
droplet changed owing to the influence of Reynolds Number
and Weber Number. Figure 6 (b) shows the phenomenon
whereby the droplets fall on the surface of the liquid. It can
be seen that the droplets changed shape to ellipses as they
were close to the liquid surface. The reason for this is that the
velocity of the droplets reached a maximum when the
droplets fell to the liquid surface.

Figure 7. The temperature vectors and contour plots

4.3 The influence of superheat on the evaporation and

vapor distribution
(a)
Under constant pressure condition, Tsu  T  Tsat . The
relationship of superheat and wall heat flux are shown in
Figure 8 (a). There was little wall heat flux difference of
initial temperature and this little difference of wall heat flux
in the curve was observed until the superheat increased to 20
K. In the process, natural convection was the main heat
transfer mode, but the wall heat flux increased rapidly as the
superheat increased from 20 - 38 K. At this time, nucleate
boiling happened as the wall superheat increased. After
reaching 38 K, the wall heat flux decreased as the wall
superheat increased. This was all because higher wall
superheat is generally associated with larger primary bubbles
which causes the liquid to rewet the surface and results in
higher wall heat transfer after the bubbles move on the
surface or depart.
Under constant pressure conditions, the surface subcooling
was Tsub  Tsat  T . The bubble departure diameter of the
dispersed phase played a key role in the two-phase flow and
heat transfer process and has a close relationship with the
surface subcooling. Previously, the relationship between the
surface subcooling and the bubble departure diameter was
(b) obtained from the experimental data [39-42] and empirical
formula [43]. In this study, it can be seen from the numerical
Figure 6. The formation process of droplets(a)and the falling calculation that bubble departure diameter increased as
droplets(b) surface subcooling increased. Bubble departure diameter

667
became larger when it was closer to the fluid downstream in
the heating direction.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. (a) The relationship between superheat and wall
heat flux (b) Bubble departure diameter and surface
subcooling wall heat flux
(a)
(b)
Figure 9. The relationship between vapor volume fraction
and liquid fraction as the distance from heating wall
Figure 9 shows the curves of how the vapor volume
fraction and liquid volume fraction changed with the heat
668
wall and cold wall. It is clear that the vapor volume fraction
of 0.4 mm was higher than 1 mm in Figure 9(a). The main
reason was that the bigger superheat was closer to the heat
wall as shown in Figure 9(a). The peak of the curve in Figure
9(b) presents the big droplets during condensation which
changed with time. The surface tension of liquid droplets
made the droplet fusion increase. When the droplets were big
enough, they fell. The droplets emerged in two vertices of the
rectangle due to the surface tension and then they moved
along the wall.
From the above discussion, although the wall heat flux
increased as the wall superheat increased, the wall heat flux
decreased as wall superheat increased after a point. When the
wall superheat is certain, the initial temperature increased as
the wall heat flux increased.
5. CONCLUSION
Numerical simulations using VOF model and Finite
Volume Method were conducted to investigate the two-phase
phenomenon of evaporation and condensation in a closed
rectangle. The temperature distribution, bubbly flow and two-
phase flow were analyzed and discussed and the relationship
between the wall heat flux and superheat was discussed. The
following conclusions were obtained. Compared with the
churn flow, the heat transfer coefficient of bubbly flow is
much higher. Due to the variation of the Reynolds Number
and Bond Number during the bubbles rise, the bubbles rise
with a movement similar to resonance and they change shape.
Higher wall superheat is generally associated with larger
primary bubbles which cause the liquid to rewet the surface
and result in higher wall heat transfer after the bubbles move
on the surface or depart.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research work described in this paper was supported
by the National Science Foundation of China under Grant nos.
51335006 and 51505486.
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