ECE 511/L

introducing

Transmission Lines
and Antenna
ANTENNA
Antenna or Aerial

• A structure that is generally a metallic object,

often a wire or group of wires, used to convert
high frequency signals into electromagnetic
waves and vice versa.
• It is an electrical conductor or array of conductors
that radiates signal energy or collects signal
energy.
• A device whose function is to radiate
electromagnetic energy and intercept
electromagnetic radiation
• A passive reciprocal device
Components of Antenna Systems

• The coupler device (coupling coil) connects

the transmitter to the feeder.
• The feeder is a transmission line that carries
energy to the antenna.
• The antenna radiates this energy into space.
ANTENNA PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS
Reciprocity

• Reciprocity—an antenna ability to transfer

energy from the atmosphere to its receiver
with the same efficiency with which it
transfers energy from the transmitter into the
atmosphere
• Antenna characteristics are essentially the
same regardless of whether an antenna is
sending or receiving electromagnetic energy
Radiation Pattern

• This is a polar diagram representing field strength or

power densities at various angular position relative
to an antenna.
• Absolute radiation pattern
– It plotted in terms of field strength or power density.
• Relative radiation pattern
– The field strength and power density is plotted with
respect to the value at a reference point.
Antenna Efficiency
• It is the ratio of the power radiated by the
antenna to the power delivered to the feedpoint.
• The ratio of the radiation resistance to the total
antenna resistance.

Prad Rrad
= =
Pd + Prad Rd + Rrad
Bandwidth and Beamwidth
• Bandwidth • Beamwidth
– It is the range of – It is defined as the
frequency over width, in degrees, of
which an antenna the major lobe
will radiate between the two
effectively or directions in which the
satisfactory. relative radiated
power is equal to one
half its value at the
peak of the lobe.
Directive Gain

• It is defined as the ratio

of the power density in
PD
a particular direction of
one antenna to the D=
average power density PDref
that would be radiated
by the omnidirectional
antenna.
Power Gain
• It is defined as the ratio
PD
between the power G =
radiated by a directional PDref
antenna to the power
radiated by a reference
antenna but the antenna
G = D
efficiency is taken into
acount.
EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power)
• EIRP
– It is defined as the
power radiated by an
antenna in its favored
EIRP = Pt Gt
direction, taking the
gain of the antenna into
account as referenced to
the isotropic radiator.
• A receiving antenna absorbs some of the
energy from radio waves that pass it.
• A larger antenna receives more power than a
smaller antenna (in relation to surface area)
• Receiving antennas are considered to have
gain just as transmitting antennas do
• The power extracted from a receiving antenna
is a function of its physical size and its gain
 Power Transfer in Free Space
• Power Density • Effective Area
PT GT =
PR  2GR
PD = Aeff Aeff =
4 r 2 PD 4
Free Space Attenuation
PR  2GT GR
=
PT 16 2d 2
Free Space Loss
Lfs = 32.44 + 20log d km + 20log fMHz − GT ( dbi ) − GR ( dbi )
Polarization

• It is the orientation or direction in space of

the E field portion of the electromagnetic
wave being radiated by the transmitting
system.
Antenna Types

• Fundamental Antennas
– Hertzian dipole or Elementary Doublet
– Half-Wave Dipole
– Marconi or Quarter-wave Vertical Antenna
– Folded Dipole antenna
– Groundplane antenna
Hertzian Dipole
• An electrically short linear antenna shorter than a
wavelength that when radiating, is assumed to
carry uniform current along its length.
• A theoretical antenna shorter than a wavelength
used as a standard to which all other antenna
characteristics can be compared.
• Short Dipole
– Any dipole that is less than one tenth wavelength long
is considered electrically short
Hertzian Dipole
• Assumed to carry uniform current along its
length
• Gain = 1.5
𝟔𝟎𝝅𝑳𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝑬=
𝝀𝒓
Where:
E = magnitude of field strength, V/m
λ = wavelength, m
L = antenna length, m
I = dipole current, Amp(rms)
r = distance from the dipole, m
Θ = angle of axis of the wire and the point of maximum radiation or
angle between the axis of the antenna and direction of radiation; degree
Isotropic Antenna
• A standard reference • Gain = 1
antenna, radiating • Beamwidth = 360O
equally in all directions,
so that its radiation
pattern is spherical
• omnidirectional
Half-Wave Dipole

• It is the type of
resonant antenna with • Bidirectional
total nominal length of • 73Ω
half-wave at the carrier
frequency.
• Hertz Antenna
Half-Wave Dipole
• Are not found at • Bidirectional
frequencies below • 73Ω (at feedpoint)
2MHz because of the • 2500Ω (at the ends)
physical size needed of
the antenna to • Gain = 2.14 dB
represent a half-wave • Beamwidth = 55 deg
 Marconi Antenna
• The quarter-wave • Omnidirectional
antenna combines with • 36.5Ω
its image to act as an • Gain = 1.74 dBi
exactly the same manner
as the doublet or a
dipole, with the radiator
vertical to the ground
surface.
• Require proper grounding
Antenna Grounding System
• Ground Screen or Earth mat
• Counterpoise
 Ground Screen or Earth Mat

• It consists of a metal
screen or wire mesh
buried 15-30 cm below
the ground.
• The screen should
extend at least a half
wavelength in every
direction from the
antenna.
Counterpoise
• It means obtaining of radio-frequency
ground or ground plane without the direct
earth-ground connection.
 Folded Dipole

• It is a single antenna • Bidirectional

consisting of two • 288Ω
elements. The first is
fed directly while the
second is coupled
inductively at the
ends.
Multi-Element Arrays

• Driven Array
• Parasitic Array
• Broadside Array
• End-Fire Array
• Phased Array
• Yagi Array
• Log-Periodic Array
Directional HF antennas

Dipole Arrays
• Antenna Array – a radiating system consisting
of individual radiators or elements placed
close together so as to be within each other’s
induction field
– Driven Element
– Parasitic Element
Driven Array
• An array in which all elements are supplied
with power or fed directly from the
transmission line
– The driven element is one supplied with power
from the transmitter usually through a
transmission line.
Parasitic Array
• An array in which one or more elements
obtain power through mutual coupling with
another element in the array.
– A parasitic element is one that obtains power
solely through coupling with another element in
the array.
Two types of Parasitic Elements

• Reflector – a parasitic element longer than the

driven element and close to it reduces signal
strength in its own direction and increases it in
the opposite direction
• Director – A parasitic element shorter than
the driven element one from which it receives
energy; tends to increase radiation in its own
direction.
Broadside Array
• The simplest array consisting of a number of
dipoles of equal size, equally spaced along a
straight line, with all dipoles fed in the same
phase of the source.
• Highly directive bi-directional antenna
– Typical antenna length: 2 to 10/λ’s
– Typical spacing: λ/2 or λ/4
– Number of elements ; dozens
End-Fire Array
• This array has a physical arrangement almost
similar to a broadside array.
• It radiates strongly in the plane of the array,
not at right angles to it.
• unidirerctional
 Phased Array

• This is a group of antennas, connected to one

transmitter or receiver, whose radiation beam
can be adjusted electronically without
physically any moving parts.
 Log Periodic Array

• An array consisting of several dipole elements

of different lengths and relative spacing, fed
from a two wire line which is transposed
between each adjacent pair dipoles.
• Wideband antenna
• unidirectional
 L1 L2 L3
= = = = ......
L2 L3 L4
where L is respective element lengths

=
D1 D2 D3
= = = ..... L1 
D2 D3 D4 = tan
where D represents spacingsbetween elements 2 D1 2
and apex of angle clo sin g them.
D1 is shortest .

Alpha is the angle of the apex of tapered elements and

is typically 30 degrees.
 Yagi Array
• A parasitic array with linear elements.
• It consists mainly of a driven element and one
or more parasitic elements.
• unidirectional
 Helical Antenna
• This is a broadband VHF or UHF antenna that is ideally suited
for applications for which radiating circular rather than
horizontal or vertical polarized electromagnetic waves are
required.
• Helix is spiral
• An example: ¼ wavelength dipole shortened into helix (rubber
ducky) for handheld tranceivers.
• Typically several wavelengths long and used with a ground
plane.
• Circumference is ½ wavelength and the turns are ¼
wavelength apart.
• Application: VHF satellite transmission. (cross polarization)
Helical Antenna Gain

15 NS (D ) 2
GHl =
3 15N
G Hl =
  4
S= D=
4 
 Helical Antenna Beamwidth

52
 Hl =
 D   NS  104
   
       Hl =
 
N
S= D=
4 
Parabolic Antenna
• This provides extremely
high gain and directivity
and are very popular
for microwave radio
and satellite
communication links.
Parabolic Antenna Gain/Beamwidth

 D 
2
70
GP =    =
   D
 = 55% f =
D 2

16 d
f = focal point
D = dish diameter
d = depth from plane at mouth of dish to vertex.
65
Problem

• A transmitter has a power output of 150 W at

a carrier frequency of 325 MHz. it is
connected to an antenna with a gain of 12 dBi.
The receiving antenna is 10 km away and has
a gain of 5 dBi. Calculate the power delivered
to the receiver assuming free space
propagation.
Problem

• For the receive power density of 10uW/m^2

and a receive antenna with a capture area of
0.2 m^2, determine the power received in
dBm.
Problem

• For a 2-m diameter parabolic reflector with

10W power radiated by the feed mechanism
operating at 6GHz with a transmit antenna
efficiency of 55% and an aperture efficiency of
55%, determine the beamwidth.
Problem

• Calculate the helical antenna power gain in dB

for a beamwidth of 10 degrees
Problem

• A certain antenna has a gain of 4.5 dBd. Find

the gain with respect to an isotropic radiator.
Problem

• The ERP of a transmitting station is specified

as 17 W in a given direction. Express the EIRP
in dBm.
Problem

• A helical antenna with 8 turns is to be

constructed for a frequency of 1.2 GHz.
Calculate the antenna gain in dBi and antenna
beamwidth.
WAVEGUIDES
Waveguides

• Hollow conductive tubes where

electromagnetic waves can propagate within
the interior of it.
• Thought as a high pass filter
Advantages

• Easier to fabricate than coaxial line

• Better power handling capability (10x as much
as coaxial line)
• Lower power loss
• Higher operating frequency (can be used up to
325 GHz)
Waveguide Terminologies

• Cut-off Frequency, fc
– It is the minimum frequency of operation of the
waveguide
• Cut-off Wavelength, λc
– It is the maximum wavelength of operation of the
waveguide.
– Wavelength of the cut-off frequency
Waveguide Terminologies

• Phase velocity
– The apparent velocity in the direction parallel to a
conducting surface such as walls of the waveguide
– Velocity with which the wave changes phase.
𝒄
𝑽𝒑 =
𝟐
𝒇𝒄
𝟏−
𝒇
Where:
fc = cut-off frequency
f = frequency of operation
Waveguide Terminologies

• Group Velocity, Vg
– Velocity of group of waves
– Velocity with which information signals of any kind are
propagated.
– Actual speed of the wave
𝟐
𝒇𝒄
𝑽𝒑 = 𝒄 𝟏 −
𝒇
Where:
fc = cut-off frequency
f = frequency of operation
Waveguide Terminologies

• Guide wavelength
– Actual wavelength of the wave on the guide

𝝀𝒐
𝝀𝒈 =
𝟐
𝒇𝒄
𝟏−
𝒇
• Where:
fc = cut-off frequency
f = frequency of operation
λ𝑜 = free-space wavelength
Waveguide Terminologies

• Relationship between Group and Phase

Velocities

2
𝑉𝑔 × 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑐

𝑉𝑝 = 𝑓 × λ𝑔
Where:
λ𝑔 = guide wavelength
f = frequency of operation
Waveguide Terminologies

• Guide Characteristic impedance, Zg

𝒁𝒐 𝟑𝟕𝟕
𝒁𝒈 = =
𝟐 𝟐
𝒇𝒄 𝒇𝒄
𝟏− 𝟏−
𝒇 𝒇

• Where:
Zo = free-space impedance
f = frequency of operation
fc = cut-off frequency
Mode Designation

• Transverse Electric (TE)

– Electric Field is at right angles to direction of
travel. A part of the magnetic field is parallel to
the length axis
• Transverse Magnetic (TM)
– Magnetic field is at right angles to the direction of
travel and has no portion parallel to the length
axiz
Dominant Mode

• Most “natural” mode

• It is desired because it allows for the smallest
possible waveguide (in terms of size) for a
given frequency of operation.
Types of Waveguides

• Rectangular Waveguides
– Mode of Numbering System:
– TEmn
– TMmn
m = number of half-wave patterns in “a”
dimension
n = number of half-wave patterns in “b”
dimension
Rectangular Waveguides

• Dominant Mode – TE10

– In dominant mode, a = 2b. Its cut-off wavelength
is 𝝀𝒄 = 𝟐𝐚
– Cut-off wavelength of any rectangular waveguide

𝟐
𝝀𝒄 =
𝒎 𝟐 𝒏 𝟐
+
𝒂 𝒃
Types of Waveguides

• Circular Waveguides
– Mode of Numbering System:
– TEmn
– TMmn
m = number of half-wave patterns around the
circumference
n = number of half-wave patterns across the
diameter
Circular Waveguides

• Dominant Mode – TE11

Cut-off Wavelength
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝝀𝒄 =
𝒌𝒓
Where:
kr = solution to Bessel function equation
= 1.84 for dominant mode; 𝝀𝒄 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟐𝒓
r = internal radius of waveguide
Circular Waveguides

• Typical operating frequency, f:

𝒇𝒄
𝒇=
𝟎. 𝟕
SEATWORK

• Determine the input impedance, SWR, and the reflection

coefficient for a transmission line 1.45λ long with a
characteristic impedance of Zo = 50Ω and a load
impedance of ZL = (27.5 + j15)Ω
• Determine the reflection coefficient, SWR, characteristic
impedance of a quarter-wave transformer, and the
distance the transformer must be placed to match a 75-
ohm transmission line to a load ZL = (120 – j195)Ω
• A microwave radio-link operated at frequency of
9800MHz has a separation distance of 70km between
antennas. A 5-meter obstruction 32km from the receiver
is present. Determine the minimum height of the
antenna.