SECULARISM: SOCIO-LEGAL ASPECTS

A Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the course SOCIOLOGY OF

DEVELOPMENT, 3rd SEMESTER during the Academic Year 2019-2020

SUBMITTED BY:
ABHISHEK SINGH
Roll No. – 1906
B.A. LL.B.(Hons.)

SUBMITTED TO:
Prof. SHAKEEL AHMED
FACULTY OF SOCIOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT

ACADEMIC YEAR- 2019-20

CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, NAYAYA NAGAR,
MEETHAPUR, PATNA-800001

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DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I hereby declare that the work reported in the B.A.LL.B (Hons.) Project Report Entitled
“SECURALISM: SOCIO- LEGAL ASPECTS” submitted at Chanakya National Law University,
Patna is an authentic record of my work carried out under the supervision of Prof. Shakeel Ahmed.
I have not submitted this work elsewhere for any other degree or diploma. I am fully responsible
for the contents of my Project Report.

(Signature of the Candidate)

ABHISHEK SINGH
Chanakya National Law University, Patna

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to thank my faculty of SOCIOLOGY OF DDEVELOPMENT, Prof. Shakeel
Ahmed for providing me an opportunity to make my project on such an interesting topic which is
also a contemporary issue as for now.
Secondly, I would like to thank all my colleagues and friends for helping me out in arranging of
the accumulated collected study material.
Lastly, special thanks to my parents for guiding me in giving the final touch to this project and
helping me out throughout this project.

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 Table of Content

Contents

Acknowledgement ................................................................................... 3

Table of Content ...................................................................................... 4

Introduction ............................................................................................. 5

Research Methodology ............................................................................ 6

History of Concept of Secularism .......................................................... 7

Secularism in the Constitution: Legal Aspect .................................... 10

Field Work ............................................................................................. 16

Conclusion .............................................................................................. 17

Bibliography ........................................................................................... 19

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 Introduction

The English word „secular‟ comes from the Latin „saeculum‟, which means „an age‟ or „the spirit
of an age‟. It has the same meaning as the Greek „aeon‟, which is used in the new testament for
an „age‟ or „era‟. Secularism literally means,

• Secular spirit or tendency, especially a system of political or social philosophy that

rejects all forms of religious faith and worship.
• The view that public education and other matters of civil policy should be conducted
without the introduction of a religious element1.

Secularism in India means equal treatment of all religions by the state. Unlike the Western
concept of secularism which envisions a separation of religion and state, the concept of
secularism in India envisions acceptance of religious laws as binding on the state, and equal
participation of state in different religions2.

With the 42nd Amendment 3of the Constitution of India enacted in 1976, the Preamble to the
Constitution asserted that India is a secular nation. However, neither India's constitution nor its
laws define the relationship between religion and state. The laws implicitly require the state and
its institutions to recognize and accept all religions, enforce religious laws instead of
parliamentary laws, and respect pluralism. India does not have an official state religion. The
people of India have freedom of religion, and the state treats all individuals as equal citizens
regardless of their religion.

1
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/secularism
2
Donald E Smith (2011), India as a Secular State
3
Forty-fourth amendment Bill, 1976 Bill No. 91 of 1976

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Communalism has been one of the most disturbing problems. It has continued to be a threat to
national integration. It is true that traditionally, the Indian society has been non-communal. Since
centuries it has been absorbing and assimilating many religions and cultures. But it was during the
British rule that communalism was used as a tool to divide Indians.

OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the Concept of Secularism.
2. To study the Historical perspective of Secularism.
3. To throw light on statuary provisions for Secularism in India.
4. To find out and analyze the views of common people, political leaders as well as Legal Experts
and Sociologists on various aspects of Secularism.
5. To observe relationship between Secularism and Politics

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This project work is descriptive in nature. The researcher has based his research on non empirical
research and data collected from secondary and electronic sources. It is purely based on data
collected from books, journals, and web sources. Books and other references as guided by faculty
of sociology were primarily helpful for the completion of this project.

SOURCES OF DATA
In order to complete the research study, the researcher will collect the material through various
primary and secondary sources of data.

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Since the researcher is a student of law, she has access to a limited area and knowledge. The
researcher having only a preliminary knowledge of the subject could understand the problem
clearly but was faced with constraints.
However, the researcher only has access to limited amount of work that is available in the library.
The researcher has a restricted access to information and sources for reasons beyond her control.
But the researcher will still attempt to take out the best possible work.

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 History of Concept of Secularism

The pressure of the secular process for the Indian people arises from the unhappy facts of
communal history, religious demography, unfortunate „Ishwarverus Allah‟allergy caused by
agent provocateurs read in the light of the urgent need to end mass poverty and to build a
just social order.

Indian cultural memory goes back to the Indus Valley civilization, a predominantly secular one
in which the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene. The Aryan
civilization, however, drew sustenance from and sought to circumscribe human actions and
aspirations within religion and to inflict on society, brahmanical supremacy. Just listen to Manu:
The world is under the power of God. God is under the power of Mantras.The Mantras are under
the power of Brahmins.” Women were unfree and social stratification had religious sanction.

Then came the Buddha with his great ideals of social equality and universal love producing
ferment on the Indian social scene. He preached: “Go unto all the lands and say that all men are
equal.” Man, not any God, is the arbiter of his own destiny.” The Asoka edict, the high water
mark of religious tolerance, is refreshingly humane. But even when this revolutionary tide of
Buddhism swept over the whole of Asia came the counter-attack from the Brahmins during the
Gupta Age-not so golden as is imagined-because during this period the brahminical social order
was re-established and the caste system reappeared. In later days, Buddhist monks were
massacred under brahminical inspiration evidencing the ancient bond between human blood and
religious bigotry!

Centuries sped by; invasions came and a new and love arrived India in the name of Islam. The
oppressed and lowly arrived were fascinated by the equality offered India in the name of Islam.
The oppressed and the lowly were fascinated by the equality offered by the Muslim culture and
the lowest in the Hindu rungs of society embraced this egalitarian religion. Dr. Kareem, a young
but authentic historian, refutes the theory of forced conversions by Muslim power and attributes
the process to caste oppressor. “The conversion of a Hindu untouchable threw up the glaring
difference between his conditions as a Hindu and as a Muslim. As a Muslim he used it by right
and if any Hindu questioned that right a crowd of the Prophet‟s followers would accompany him
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 to enforce it. It was the force of simple logic which was sending into the pale of Islam thousands
of Hindus”

A blending of Hindu Muslim ideologies took shape in several spheres and there came great seers
like Kabir, Nanak and Tulsidas whose vision embraced and harmonized the diverse religions.
Kabir reasoned with religion, in moving poetry, “if god be within mosque, then to whom does
this world belong? If Rama be within the image then who is there to know what happens
without?” Nanak also proclaimed his creed of culture synthesis: “There is no Hindu or
musclemen but man”. Religion consisted not in mere words. He who looketh all man as equal is
religious. Religion consistent not is wandering to tombs or places of cremation, nor in bathing in
places of pilgrimage.”

In ancient India it was the king's duty to promote dharma. Now the term dharma has a wide
connotation involving law, duty, morality and religion. Thus dharma did not just connote
administration; it also had ecclesiastical overtones .The ancient Hindu State, like today's Indian
State, was tolerant towards all religions, was equidistant from all religions and also generally
gave equal promotion to all religions. But despite all this it could not be called secular as it was
not a non-religious state and the promotion of dharma tied it down to ecclesiastical pursuits
which cannot go into the making of a secular state as per the dictionary meaning of the term.
In promoting dharma, the state in ancient India built temples, granted them large endowments, and
exercised strict super vision over their affairs. As the Hindu kings were tolerant towards all creeds
and frequently aided them all, the foundations of religious tolerance (one of the bases of
secularism) could be said to be indigenous to India.

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 The first generation leaders of the Indian National Congress made sincere efforts to highlight the
growing problems of the Indian masses under British rule. However, their non-confrontationist
attitude towards British authority allowed others to brand them as moderates. Moreover the mass
support base of Indian Nationalism under their leadership remained very narrow. Around this
time, the impatient and activity oriented leaders like Balgangadhar Tilak started utilizing Hindu
religious festivals and processions for preaching nationalist politics. As ideological justification
for use of religion for political ends was already given revival, thinkers like Vivekananda,
Bankim Chandra and Dayanand Saraswati joined this stream and were against communal
politics. This was the time in India when we saw the rational secularists compromising and
supporting Gandhi's religiously oriented nationalism.

India which we see today has been there since ancient times. But then it had been only a
geographical entity, because it was divided into a large number of princely states. There were
cultural similarities in those states, but it was not one united and integrated nation like it is today.
It was for the first time during the British rule that India became administratively united. The
British rulers annexed several princely states and established indirect rule on others. India
became one geographical entity, but the feeling and sentiments of nationhood was not present
among the people. The major strategy of the British rulers was based on „divide and rule‟. They
promoted communal division, especially among Hindus and Muslims. Their neglect of economic
development of the people created many divides in the country. It was during the national
freedom movement that the feelings and sentiments of nationhood emerged and the need for
national integration was realized. During that movement people belonging to different regions,
, cultures, communities, castes and creeds joined hands to drive out the British power from the soil of India.
Especially under the banner of the Indian National Congress, established in 1885 people from all the
sections came together and compelled the British rulers to quit India. Since the British rulers had adopted
the policy of „divide and rule‟, the freedom movement was focused on forging unity in the people of the
country.
The leaders of the movement laid emphasis on equality, liberty, secularism, socio-economic development.
When India became independent all these formed the main objectives of the new nation.

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 Secularism in the Constitution: Legal Aspect

As we have seen above, various provisions of the Constitution ensure India to be a secular State.
The Indian constitution through its Preamble and particularly through its chapters on
Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles has created a secular state based on the principle of
equality and non-discrimination. Along with the principles of social and economic democracy,
secularism has been held to be one of the „Basic Structures‟ of Indian Constitution. It has been
reflected in the Constitution primarily as a value in the sense that it extends support to our plural
society. Secularism aims at promoting cohesion among different communities living in India.

The Constituent Assembly declined to declare India secular although the stamp of secularism is
impressed on the Republic by the various Articles of the Constitution which mandate the State to
observe equality regardless of caste and religion, to respect freedom of faith including practice
and propagation of religion and to guarantee to minorities the right‟ to establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice. The practice and propagation of religion and the founding
and running of religious and charitable institutions are guaranteed rights but they are subject to
public order, morality and health.‟

In another sense, our Constitution has overtones of anti-secularism. Article 48 suggests

prohibition on of cow slaughter and, as interpreted by highest court, the cow-not the bull or the
buffalo though- enjoys a near-fundamental right to life even if humans, In consequence, lose the
meat the nourishes life! Article30(1) ensures the right of religious groups to run even technical
colleges with State aid but enjoying‟ untouchable‟ administrative autonomy. What nexus religion
has with engineering, medicine or other secular education social scientists cannot easily guses
but that is the law of the Constitution. This is a sensitive issue where statesmanship must secure
secularity.

Another anti-secular danger lurks in Articles15(4) and 16(4) which enable reservation of posts
and special provision for the advancement of backward classes- an impeccable instrument for
democratic leveling up- But the mischief lies in political governments, suffering from communal
myopia, which confuse between class and caste. The Supreme Court has illumined the concept of

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 „backward class‟.

Consciousness of caste can be abolished only by confusion of blood which inter-communal

marriages may produce provided no conversion of either spouse takes place. Communal
harmony is so precious and communal disturbances so disastrous that a secular vigilance
commission- and not the policeman only- should undertake special responsibility for promotion
of amity and prevention of flare-ups.

Article 28 of the constitution prohibits religious instructions in any educational institution wholly
maintained out of state funds; all these highlight the secular character of education and
circumvention of this under any pretext, even by so-called minorities, should be put down by the
state.

Positive freedom of religion: Religion and Individual

One of the basic civil liberties of an individual is the liberty of his mind and his conscience.
Preservation of liberty of the mind, conscience and thought being the greatest liberty alone can
make possible and meaningful other liberties. If the mind and conscience of human is in chain,

all the other liberties would become meaningless. A free mind and a free conscience, therefore is
the essential, integral and indispensable foundation of all other civil liberties.
The Constitution of India, being the supreme law of the nation recognizes the religious liberty of both the
individuals as well as associations of individual united by common beliefs, practices & discipline. The
individual and collective aspects of freedom of religion can be summarized in this order:

Individual Freedom of Religion- The Constitution of India recognizes the freedom to profess,
practice and propagate the religion under Article 25. Part (1) of Article 25 secures to every
freedom of conscience: and the right to (i) profess religion; (ii) practice religion; and (iii)
propagate religion. The term „religion‟ has not defined in the constitution but the meaning given
by the Supreme Court of India to the religion can be referred here, the Supreme Court in
Commissioner, H.R.E. Vs. L.T. Swammiar5 held:

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Religion is a matter of faith with individuals or communities and it is not necessarily theistic. A
religion has its basis in a system of beliefs or doctrines, which are regarded by those who profess
that religion as conducive to their spiritual well-being. A religion may not only lay down a code
of ethnical rules for its followers to accept, it might prescribe rituals and observances,
ceremonies and modes of worship, which are regarded as integral parts of religion and these
forms and observance might extend even to matters of food and dress.

The freedom of religion guaranteed under Indian constitution is not confined to its citizens but
extends to „all persons including aliens.‟ This point, was underlined by the Supreme Court in
RatiLalPanchand Vs. State of Bombay6 as it is very important because substantial number of
foreign Christian missionaries in India were engaged at that time in propagating their faith
among the adherents of other religions.

The Constitution thus declares that every person has a fundamental right not only to hold
whatever religious belief commend themselves to his judgement, but also to express his
beliefs in such overt acts, as are prescribed by his religion and propagate its tenets among
others. The exercise of this right is, however subject to „public order, morality and public
health.‟ Here the constitution succinctly expresses the limitations on religious liberty that
has been evolved by judicial pronouncements in the United States and Australia. In fact, the
framers of the Indian constitution attempted to establish a delicate balance between
„essential interference and
impartial interference‟ on the part of the state. They kept in consideration the possibilities of
arising out of circumstances in which the government may have to impose restraints on the
freedoms of individuals in collective interests.

5
AIR 1954 SC 282
6
(1953) 55 BOMLR 86

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 Accordingly Article 25 (2) provides broad sweeping power of interference to the state in
religious matters. This Article imposes drastic limitations on the rights guaranteed under Article
25(1) and reflects the peculiar needs of Indian society. It is important to mention here that law
providing for the very extensive supervision by the state about temple administration has been
enacted by virtue of this provision. Here it would not be out place to state that the extensive
modification Hindu personal law (marriage, divorce, adoption, succession etc.) has been effected
by legislation based on the provision permitting measures of social welfare and social reform.
There is an interesting case on the validity of the Bombay Prevention of Hindu Bigamous
Marriages Act of 19467, where the validity was upheld by the Bombay High Court. Chief Justice
Chagla (Muslim, later appointed as Indian Ambassador to US) delivered his judgement as
follows: it is only with very considerable hesitation that I would like to speak bout Hindu
religion, but it is rather difficult to accept the proposition that polygamy is an integral part of
Hindu religion. It is perfectly true that Hindu religion recognizes the necessity of a son for
religious efficacy and spiritual salvation. That same religion also recognizes the institution of
adoption. Therefore the Hindu religion provides for the continuation of the line of a Hindu male
within the framework of monogamy.

The learned judge went on to argue, that even assuming that polygamy is a recognized institution
according to Hindu religious practice, the right of the state to enact this legislation could not be
disputed. The enforcement of monogamy among Hindu is a measure of social reform which the
state is empowered to legislate by Article 25 (2) (b) „notwithstanding the fact that it may
interfere with the right of a citizen freely to profess, practice and propagate religion.

Collective Freedom of Religion- Religious denominations as well as individuals have certain

important rights spelt out under Article 26. The term „religious denomination‟ has not been
defined under the Constitution.

7
1955 28 ITR 341 Patna. Bombay Prevention of Hindu Bigamous Marriages Act, 1946

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The Hon‟ble Supreme Court has accepted the definition given in Oxford dictionary, that defines as
„a collection of individuals classed together under the same name a religious sect of body having a
common faith and organization and designated by a
distinctive name.‟ The Supreme Court in number of cases held that Arya Smaj, Anandmarga,
Vaishanave, The followers of Madhawacharya and other religious teachers, though not separate
religions, yet these are separate religious denomination and enjoys the protection under Article
26 of the Constitution.

The right under Article 26(a) is a group right and is available to every religious denomination.
Clause (b) of Article 26 guarantees to every religious denomination the right to manage its own
affairs in matters of religion. The expression „matters of religion‟ includes „religious practices,
rites and ceremonies essential for the practicing of religion.‟ An important case that involved the
right of a religious denomination to manage its own affairs in matters of religion was
VenkataramanaDevaru Vs. State of Mysore 8. In this matter, Venkatramana temple was
belonging to the Gowda Saraswath Brahman Community. The Madras Temple Entry
Authorization Act, supported by Article 25(2)(b) of the Constitution, threw open all Hindu
public temples in the state to Harijans. The trustees of this denominational temple refused
admission to Harijans on the ground that the caste of the prospective worshipper was a relevant
matter of religion according to scriptural authority, and that under Article 26(b) of the
Constitution they had the right to manage their own affairs in matters of religion. The Supreme
Court admitted that this was a matter of religion, but when it faces conflict with Article 25(2) (b),

it approved a compromise arrangement heavily weighted in favour of rights of Harijans and a

token concession to the right of a religious denomination to exercise internal autonomy.
Further Article 26 (c) and (d) recognize the right of a religious denomination to own, acquire and
administer movable and immovable property in accordance with law. However it was held in Surya
Pal Singh Vs. State of U.P.

8
1958 AIR 255

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that this guarantee did not imply that such property was not liable to compulsory acquisition
under the U.P. Abolition of Zamindari Act. Similarly in Orissa, land reforms resulted in the
expropriation of a village and surrounding agricultural land dedicated to the maintenance of a
Hindu deity. Since compensation was paid, the High Court held that there was only a change in
the form of the property.

Article 30 deals with another aspect of collective freedom of religion:

(1) All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.

(2) The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any
educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether
based on religion or language.

The object behind Article 29&30 is the recognition and preservation of the different types of
people, with diverse languages and different beliefs, which constitute the essence of secularism
in India.

So are personal laws a part of religion or does the State have the power to regulate them through
legislation? Without making any value judgment and going strictly by the law as it stands today,
the answer to this is in the affirmative or in other words, the state does have the power to regulate
personal laws.

Thus, on summarizing the legal provisions for Secularism we will find that following articles
will be mentioned:

Article 15 & 16Article 25, Article 26, Article 29, Article 3010
And we will also find mention of article 44 which talks about Uniform Civil code. That is
uniformity of laws for every citizen of India, irrespective of their religion, caste, creed,
geography etc.

9
1975 AIR 1083 ACT: Uttar Pradesh Zamindari Abolition
10
Part iii of Indian Constitution

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 Field Work

While exploring this topic in the fields, Since I belong to Ayodhya, so I will start researching
from Ayodhya only. Ayodhya has a horrifying past relating to the communal violence, which
shows us both the impact of politics and practicality of the concept of secularism.

Researcher’s Findings:

After doing all this, what I came to learn is quite disturbing for anyone who has secular heart,
who puts people before religion, who worships his nation rather than religion or at the least who
pays respect to every religion.

Citing the example of Ayodhya itself, I found that even today Muslim people give proofs and
justifications to support their claim and actions and Hindu people give pointe to support their
course of action. That means their biased views are ruling their minds and hearts even today.
They could not reach to a secular solution of the problem. So if any further issue regarding that
takes place, then everyone will again fight because of their non-secular ideas.

Role of political parties: It is not like the protest leading to violence and much more was
confined to the common people only. Slogan “Ram lala hum jayenge, mandirwahibanayenge.”
was given by some Hindu party only. The laws are there also. The provisions made in
constitution are applicable to Ayodhya also. But it has been to just a theory by the people with
the help of cheap politicians.

Further from the views of the people researcher interviewed, researcher found that, people
though supporting diversity, want to place their religion first. That is, they can accept other
religions but only when others accept their religion as supreme. This mind set of associating
superiority with the religion is harmful for the development of any community, society and
nation at large. And this is the need of the time to work upon this issue and to make the concept
of secularism a practical one. Secularism has to come out of the books of law and it has to be a
part of everyone‟s way of living!

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 Conclusion

Despite the constitutional provisions and safeguards it is unfortunate that all Indians are yet to be
truly secular. We have to experience communal riots at regular intervals. Even a very
insignificant reason leads to communal tension and violence. But secularism is essential not
simply for maintaining communal harmony and peace, but for the very existence of our nation. If
you look around yourself, you may find that your friends, classmates, neighbours or nearby
residents believe and practice religions that are different from your religion. They belong to
various castes. How can you interact with them and be a good friend, classmate or neighbour, if
you do not respect their religion and they do not do the same. We all know that India has a plural
society.It is therefore essential that all the people develop respect towards one another
andpractice peaceful co-existence.

Is India a Secular State??

Looking at the various constitutional provisions, the answer is „Yes‟. The ideals of secular state
have clearly been embodied under the Indian Constitution and the provisions are being
implemented in substantial measure. But the circumstances after independence have posed a
challenge before secularism of India for a number of times. Sometimes it is also alleged that by
Uniform Civil Code, the existence of minorities in India is in danger or it is an assault on the
identity of minorities. India being still a traditional society that contains not one, but many
traditions owing their origin in part to the different religions that exist here. While India carries
with it many traditions it has managed to retain the secular character of its polity, while in many
countries especially from the third world, a secular authority has crumbled in face of conflicting
traditions. But people of India should not forget the dream of framers of the constitution and the
ancient philosophy of „Sarva Dharma Sambhavah‟.

It is a matter of great concern that secularism is struggling for survival in our country now.
The anti-thesis of secularism is communalism, which is gaining momentum in our society at
an alarming pace. The mixing of religion with politics and the dangerous growth of communal
parties pose a major threat of the secular framework of our country. India is a secular state

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and yet communalism continues to shape its policies. Frequent occurrences of violence in the
name of religion give fatal blows to the very existence of secularism. There have been reports
that some state governments were partisan and were instrumental in aggravating communal
violence. Such shocking incidents would undoubtedly affect the secular credentials of our
country. The divorce of politics from religion is the need of the hour and unless this task is
expeditiously accomplished, secularism is bound to have its last breath in our country. The
constitution of India does not clearly and explicitly and hence there is hardly any remedy if the
state acts in a non-secular way.

The Indian concept of secularism is full of contradictions and therefore, is unable to

provide a clear, un-ambiguous guidelines either to the individual or to the state. As a
consequence, the religious values continue to dominate the day-to-day affairs and in the
process generate tension because of plurality of religious views. In such circumstances, it is
imperative that serious attention is paid to revive secularism and curb communalism. A secular
state in India is not only necessary from the point but since India is a land of the great diversities
and infinite varieties. It is a country with at least 18 major languages and over 400 important
dialects. It is a land that has given rise to four of the world‟s major religions. It is home to the
world‟s second largest Muslim population. It welcomed Christianity long before Europe
embraced it. India has always offered refuge to people fleeing from religious persecution. It is a
society with over 4,000 ethnic communities or castes or endogamous groups. India is thus a
multi-religious, multi-linguistic, multi-ethnic and multi-regional civilization without a parallel.
Therefore, secularism is the only way out where every religion and religious community will get
the needed space to survive and respect each other.

So the researcher wants to conclude that his hypothesis proved to be true regarding confined
nature of Secularism to a mere concept. It is not practical; the reason behind this is the negative
politics. And the impact of all this is that people are unable to assimilate the concept of
Secularism in their minds and hearts which is the vital most demand of the hour !!

“Unity and secularism should be the motto of the government and its people. We can't afford
divisive polity and mindset in India.”

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 Bibliography

Books and Websites:

⚫ Constitution of India

⚫ Audi Robert „The Separation of Church and State and the Obligations of

Citizenship‟. Philosophy and Public Affairs, Vol 18, No 3 (Summer, 1989)

⚫ Bhargava Rajeev, Secularism and Its Critics, (Oxford University Press, Delhi,

1998)

⚫ Secularization of Indian Mind- Devi V. Indra

⚫ The Crisis of Secularism in India - Duke University Press "Indian Secularism in

Practice," - Paul R. Brass

⚫ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularism_in_India

⚫ http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/ct.htm

⚫ http://mariawirthblog.wordpress.com/2014/05/02/indian-secularism-is-not-secular/

⚫ http://pragati.nationalinterest.in/2013/05/what-is-indian-secularism/

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