1.

The Interference of First Language and Second Language Acquisition

This review was done to reveal the role of second language acquisition and the role of first language on
it. It was found that first language has interference in second language. A lot of factors that cause
interference were considered such as the similarities and differences in the structures of two languages,
background knowledge of the learner, proficiency of learners on second languages, and the structures of
consonant clusters in L1 and L2.If there are similarities in L1 and L2 the learners have less problems in
acquisition of L2 and fewer errors may occur in L2,but if there are no or little similarities of the structure
of first language and second language, learner is faced with a lot of problems in L2 acquisition and it is
not easy for them to learn. The previous studies showed that first language can have a negative or
positive transfer on second languages. Where the structures of two languages are different, negative
transfer occurs, and where the structures of two languages are similar, the positive transfer occurs and
L1 facilitate the L2 acquisition, but as Lord (2008) pointed out, it was found that the acquisition of L2 can
have an effect on L1. He stated when learners learn L2cannot speak their L1 as a native. L1 information is
active by reading or listening in L2 by bilinguals. Mayberry (2007) stated the determining factor in the
success of acquisition of L1 and L2 is the age of L1 acquisition.It is of importance that the effects of age
of L1 acquisition on both L1 and L2 outcome are apparent across levels of linguistic structure, namely,
syntax, phonology, and the lexicon. The results demonstrated that L1 acquisition bestows not only facility
with the linguistic structure of the L1 but also the ability to lean linguistic in the L2. It was found that
many studies were done to find out the interference of L1 in L2, but a very few bodies of research was
done to unearth the interference of L2 in L1. It is therefore suggested that more studies should be
conducted to investigate to what extent the L2 influences L1 or how L2 acquisition can have an effect on
the first language.

2. Metaphoric Competence and Language Proficiency in the Same Boat

Metaphoric competence and language proficiency correlate with each other significantly, that is, L2
learners who enjoy high language proficiency can comprehend and produce metaphors as well. Indeed,
the results of this study are indicative that once L2 learners have reached a reasonable and acceptable
level of L2 proficiency, we can say that they are able to understand and produce metaphorical languages.
Moreover, concerning the findings for the research question, it may be concluded that metaphorical
competence can be used as a factor to determine the general proficiency of the EFL learners. Moreover,
the Oxford dictionary of English idioms (1993) states that the “accurate and appropriate use of English
expressions which are in the broadest sense idiomatic is one distinguishing mark of a native command of
the language and a reliable measure of the proficiency of foreign learners”. The concluding implication
of the conceptual metaphors to L2 learners is the ease of understanding many language phenomena that
are normally hard to understand. For example, English learners find expressions like I’m feeling up, my
spirits rose, and you’re in high spirits, expressions used for expressing feelings and emotions, difficult to
understand since most of them do not know why they are used in this way. Of course, with the help of
conceptual metaphors, teachers can help their students to explore the internal meaning of different
metaphorical expressions and concepts rather than receiving knowledge passively and rote mechanically.

3. The Impact of Native Language Use on Second Language Vocabulary Learning by Saudi EFL Students
There are many benefits of translating equivalents of L2 vocabulary into L1. It’s an easy way to take the
students directly to the core meaning of the word or expression. It also gives a sense of accuracy of the
meaning of L1 equivalents. Retaining the meaning of the word for a long time in the memory is another
advantage of translation method. For adults, it might be more important to understand the meaning of
L2 vocabulary more accurately.” In order to establish a well-understood meaning of L2 vocabulary with
its semantic and linguistic structure may help the learner retain the word in a better way. The findings of
the study may be beneficial in particular to EFL learners and EFL teaching in general. EFL teachers can
make use of the translation method in a proper way to improve deep understanding of L2 vocabulary,
thus, improving a better comprehension of the second language acquisition.

4. Exploring the Effects of First Language Influence on Second Language Pragmatic Processes from a
Syntactic Deficit Perspective

This article attempts to demonstrate how a representational deficit in the language faculty might
contribute to non-native-like pragmatic processing in L2 learners. If a certain property is not available at
logical form, a learner might nevertheless access non-linguistic resources, such as the mental
encyclopedia and retrieve an approximation of the form required in the construction of an utterance
aiming for optimal relevance. However, it was suggested that in this case, successful utterance
interpretation=use would be more probabilistic than for native speakers or L2 speakers who have the
relevant feature specified in their grammars: linguistically encoded information is automatically decoded
and pragmatically enriched thereafter. Relying on extra-linguistic resources such as memory to provide
the information, on the other hand, might be less reliable, due to factors such as lapses in concentration.
Furthermore, bearing in mind that the task was a controlled experiment providing contexts to prompt
the provision of present perfect forms, future research involving an analysis of naturalistic discourse
would provide better insight into L2 learners’ interpretation of the present perfect in ad hoc contexts. It
would allow theresearcher to explore L2 learners’ ability to recover the explicatures intended by the
speaker and identify potential present perfect contexts to show how successful L2 speakers are in
producing forms that facilitate the recovery of intended present perfect interpretations.

5. The Role of the First Language in Child Second Language Acquisition of Articles

The analyses revealed that the children in both L1 groups acquired the definite article before the
indefinite article. L1 background had no significant influence on the acquisition sequence and accuracy.
This finding indicates that there are similarities across child L1, child L2, and adult L2 acquisition of
English articles. While there was very limited evidence for an effect of L1 background on rate of
acquisition, there was a significant difference in the number of article omissions as errors between the
L1 groups. Speakers of languages considered null articles to be an option in the contexts where the
target was a definite or an indefinite article. The [+article] group appeared to have transferred the
knowledge of articles from their L1s, because article omissions were very few. The difference in the error
patterns in the [+article] and the [–article] groups shows an L1 effect, in accordance with the FT/FA
account. After the second round, i.e. average 16 months of exposure, the [–article] group caught up with
the [+article] group by reducing the number of omissions in definite and indefinite contexts to less than
5% in round 5, which supports the Full Access part of the FT/FA account because this account is focused
on the initial state of L2 acquisition. In contrast to the predictions of the FT/FA account, the error
distribution in both groups cannot be fully accounted for in terms of the FH. In [+definite] contexts, the
overuse was found in the [–article] group, as predicted by the FH Ionin et al., (2004). However, in this [–
article] group, two errors were predominant, the overuse of the and article omission. It is not clear how
the FH would accommodate both findings, since it makes no predictions with regard to article omissions
in [–article] L1 learners. Moreover, the overuse was also found in the [+article] group, which cannot be
explained by the FH since fluctuation is predicted only in [–article] L1 learners. In conclusion, we found
that child L2 acquisition had features in common with both L1 and adult L2 acquisition. The general
sequence of the acquisition of the English articles (the before a) appears to be the same in L1 and L2
acquisition. Apart from the acquisition sequence, the common aspect in L1, child L2 and adult L2
acquisition appears to be the overuse of the in indefinite contexts. Since direct L1 transfer is unlikely to
be the reason for the overuse in either L1 or L2, the explanation for this error may lie elsewhere, for
instance in article semantics. There have been some semantics-based proposals for why learners have
more difficulty with the than with a, the main idea being that definite articles are less complex
semantically and also more frequent. For example, Huebner (1985) simply explains difficulty with a by
the fact that the need to refer to indefinite nouns is very low.

6. The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language Learning

Where learners have little opportunity to meet and use the L2 outside the classroom, it is very important
that L2 use is maximised in the classroom. One obvious way to do this is carry out classroom
management in the L2, English. Classroom management involves things like telling the class what to do
(take out your books, turn to page 7), controlling behaviour (be quiet), explaining activities (get into
pairs). This requires a little bit of careful thought by the teacher so that the vocabulary and structures
used in the language of classroom management are also generally useful. The L1 can have a small role to
play in preparing the learners for such tasks to make sure that the material they are working with is truly
familiar. This preparation can involve helping learners recall L1 stories and information that they then
work with in the L2, or getting learners to use the L1 to discuss and become very familiar with L2 input,
such as newspaper articles, TV news reports, short factual texts, that is then used as the basis for L2
fluency tasks. Teachers need to show respect for the learners' L1 and need to avoid doing things that
make the L1 seem inferior to English. At the same time, it is the English teacher's job to help learners
develop their proficiency in English. Thus, a balanced approach is needed which sees a role for the L1 but
also recognises the importance of maximising L2 use in the classroom.

7. A Brief Study of English Language Proficiency: Employability

One who acquires good proficiency in English can work at an advanced level in an English speaking
environment, easily understand almost everything heard or read, summarise information from various
sources of spoken and written forms, and also can express oneself spontaneously, very confidently and
accurately. In conclusion, it is very clear that English language plays an eminent role in globalised
context. It is widely acknowledged as a valuable life and employability. English proficiency is a key factor
for employment success and advancement as English language is the window to the world and it is
widely accepted as the formal medium of communication.
8. The Effects of English Language Proficiency on Adjustment to University Life

Students admit to having difficulties with English even as seniors, but are pleased with their proficiency,
comfortable interacting in English, feel their English has improved, and are close to obtaining a degree.
Faculty members are satisfied with students’ English skills, although they recognize further improvement
is possible. The findings support the literature related to the English language challenges such as
reluctance to participate, lack of confidence in English skills, encountering unfamiliar vocabulary, and
difficulty with written communication; however, overall, English proficiency weaknesses do not appear to
negatively affect teaching and learning. The facts that students are instrumentally oriented toward
English language development, faculty feel students’ skills are adequate, and English weaknesses do not
affect course grades suggest that if increased English skills are deemed important to the student
experience at this institution, this needs to be communicated clearly and strategies identified for
providing the needed motivation and support. Measurements of students’ actual English language skills
are also important to broaden self-reported information. Some evidence exists that the critical mass of
international students at this university was a potential hindrance to English language development and
intercultural understanding, as students were able to stay in their own linguistic and cultural groups if
they chose to do so. The students acknowledged the wisdom of moving outside their own cultural and
linguistic groups to improve their English and expand their intercultural experiences, yet they expressed
some difficulty in doing so. Intercultural learning appeared to be largely incidental and perhaps
attributable to the small campus and classes. Formalized intercultural education programs would help
students gain greater benefit from the diverse environment.

9. Interference of First Language in the Acquisition of Second Language

The main subject of the present paper is to review the functioning or the role that the first language (L1)
plays on the functioning of a second language (L2). The conclusion after reviewing the above mentioned
studies is that the first language interferes in the acquisition of the second language and it is applicable
universally. Cross cultural studies also showed that Asian students (Chinese, Indian and Korean) felt more
difficulty in English phonological awareness tasks than native English speaking students. The reason
behind this could be various like:

1. While learning second language (L2) alphabetical shapes and structures of first language (L1) would
create interference;

2. In schools, teachers might not appropriately make them do practices or exercises in the Acquiring
(L2)vlanguage;

3. Medium of instruction and communication in schools or colleges are mostly held in first language.
Therefore, they do not get enough exposure to acquiring language. Monolingual and bilingual students
were compared with respect to grammar awareness, reading comprehension and phonological
awareness skills. The result showed that monolinguals students were better in English receptive
vocabulary, reading comprehension and writing fluency. Nevertheless, in English grammar awareness,
phonological awareness, expressive vocabulary, vocabulary density and writing quality both the groups
were equivalent. This showed that bilinguals despite being proficient in two languages (L1 and L2) do not
completely excel the monolinguals in reading-writing related skills. After analyzing the primary variables
in a broader way, they proved their contribution in bilingual students’ academic and career success
(Ransdell, 2003). India is a country where different languages are spoken in different regions. In Punjab
people speak Punjabi, in West Bengal Bengali, Tamil Nadu Tamil, etc. Thus it is known as a multilinguistic
state. But Hindi is considered as a national language of India so every citizen knows it. In this way most of
the people here are multilinguals (knowing more than two languages). We see this in terms of cognitive
functioning knowing more than one or two languages work as an overload to a mind. The experience or
knowledge, which a person has about his mother language (L1), would definitely be going to interfere in
the learning of second language (L2). Various theories and studies have been conducted to show that
there is a number of lexical space or box(es) in the mind in which the words of the particular language
gets stored separately and the mind uses them according to situation or requirements. For example if we
talk about Assamese language, there is no such letter or sound like “s” whereas in both Hindi as well as
English this letter is present. This would create confusion to the mind of an individual who knows these
three languages. The errors he would show in the form of delays he would make while reading, writing
or speaking; misplacing of letters; lack of clearance in speech or grammar, etc. This could lead to more
extreme level if a person tries to learn second language in or after late childhood. Then further studies
have been conducted with FMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and ERP (Event Related
Potential) tools to locate the brain regions or area, which are involved in language functioning such as
reading, writing, speaking, recalling names, picture recognition, etc. However, as we know that “practice
makes perfect” so there are various trainings and techniques with the help of which an individual
undergoes training to learn se-cond language in a successful manner and can speak fluently in both
languages. One aim of this review study is to know about the difficulties and obstructions that an
individual faces while learning the second or a foreign language. This early identification would help in
coordinating appropriate intervention programs in learning second language without any errors. In
addition to this, brain imaging techniques are like a blessing to language research as we can recognize a
brain region responsible for a particular language functioning. At last finding an individual performing
poor he is provided training by giving an appropriate task.

10. Native Language Interference in Learning a Second Language: Exploratory Case Studies of Native
Language Interference with Target Language Usage

The major concern of this paper has been with the observable features of interference of L1 on L2 and
what its effects are on the syntactic structure of a written task of a second language learner. The learners
have used some L1 structures to produce appropriate responses in L2, producing semantically
acceptable texts. Subsequently, the learners have also used L1 structures interchangeably with L2
structures, producing inappropriate L2 responses, indicating an interference of L1 on L2. These
structures are used to make them understood and reflect the way they arrive at a certain usage at a
specific point (Faerch & Kasper, 1983). These structures do not reflect failure in any way but are a means
to increase their resources in order to realise their communicative intentions. In using the L1 structures,
the learners have taken some risks that include guessing of a more or less informed kind. They have
attempted to use invented or borrowed items, all more or less approximated to the rules of L2 structure
as far as their knowledge of L2 allows. When the learners experience gaps in their L2 syntactical
structures, they adjust the form of their L2 written responses by using syntactical items which are part of
their L1. The analysis of the learners' writing revealed the extent to which their L2 responses are affected
by their L1, the procedures used to express concepts for which L2 syntax is unknown and the extent to
which and the manner in which L1 syntax interferes with L2 (Bialystok, 1990). The L2 errors made are
traceable to the learners' L1 and we can conclude that there is definite interference of L1 on L2 as
indicated in the analysis of the eight syntactical areas discussed. The four learners relate L2 syntax to
what they already know about language. The most salient facts they possess about language are those of
L1. In the process of attempting to relate L2 to L1, they speculate about the similarity or difference
between L2 and L1. The result is a subsumption of L2 under known categories in L1 competence and
hence a translation process has taken place. Where the structures of L1 and L2 are similar, the learner'
lack of understanding its use in L1 is also reflected as an error in L2. The use of L1 structures as a
principle of fundamental language organisation and processing has immediate serviceability for these
learners. The learners bring the form and meaning of both L1 and L2 into closer alignment and thus
render usable a complex portion of L2 syntax that would otherwise be for the time being, inaccessible to
them. The prior disposition of L1 has affected the L2 responses. Blum-Kulka and Levenston (1983)
contend that all second language learners begin by assuming that for every word in L1 there is a single
translation equivalent in L2. The assumption of word-for-word translation equivalence or 'thinking in the
mother tongue (L1)' is the only way a learner can begin to communicate in a second language. This has
been clearly indicated in this study where the second language learners have adopted their L1 structures
to help them in their L2 texts. These learners will not attain mastery of the target language as long as the
process of translation equivalence is in place. Blum-Kulka and Levenston assert that mastery of the
second language involves the gradual abandonment of the translation equivalence, the internalisation of
the syntactical structures in L2 independently of the L1 equivalent, and the ability to 'think in the second
language'. These learners have accumulated structural entities of L2 but demonstrate difficulty in
organising this knowledge into appropriate, coherent structures. There is a significant gap between the
accumulation and organisation of this knowledge. When writing in the target language, these learners
rely on their native language structures to produce a response, as shown in this study. As the structures
of L1 and L2 have differences, there has been a relatively high frequency of errors occurring in the target
language, thus indicating an interference of the native language on the target language, as expected.

11. The Use of First Language in the Second-Language Classroom: A Support for Second Language
Acquisition

This study focused on the importance that the first language has during the second language acquisition
process. Nowadays, bilingualism is a key factor in becoming a successful professional, and thus,
bilingualism has become the main component in education. Many theories debate the way in which a
second language should be taught. This study was conducted at an immersion international school in
Bogotá, and the results demonstrated and supported Cummins’ theory: the development of the first
language during the first year of immersion school benefits the second language acquisition process. In
fact, the theory suggests that even if the two languages are visually different, they do operate through
the same processing system. In all learning situations, previous knowledge is a starting point for
acquiring a new language (Cummins, 2000). However, even if there were no main differences in
students’ understanding between the two activities, it was demonstrated by teachers’ opinions that
students with a more developed mother tongue and with more concrete concepts seem to transfer their
experiences to the new language, making the second language acquisition process easier. Moreover,
throughout this study, Krashen’s theory about the stages of second language acquisition was also
supported. In fact, it was evident in the study that students had limited receptive vocabulary during the
first stage of language acquisition (Krashen, 2003). However, despite the limitations of vocabulary,
students were able to understand and follow a story during a read-aloud activity. These results
demonstrate the importance of teaching techniques such as visual aids, the pace of the reading, and the
use of body language. In fact, the teacher used the same strategies during both activities, which
facilitated and ensured students’ understanding. This study demonstrates the importance of developing
the mother tongue during the first year of immersion school. Students who have strong first language
skills are able to acquire the second language more easily due to language transfer. Having Spanish and
English teachers work in parallel ways is a key factor in ensuring complete second language acquisition
and, thus, cognitive development. However, to collect data for this study, two lesson plans were applied
with a reading activity. It would be interesting to continue this study with a lesson where concepts are
taught. In fact, it would be interesting to see if language transfer is evident in this lesson, comparing a
lesson in English without the Spanish background. Furthermore, this study was conducted in a short
period of time; the data was collected in less than six months, which can interfere with the results of the
study. It would be interesting to deepen these findings with a longitudinal study, in which students are
observed during more than one year of school in order to be able to reach more conclusive results.
Moreover, it would be interesting to compare students that were exposed to the new curriculum with
more Spanish hours per week in kindergarten, and those who had received fewer hours of Spanish
during their first year of school. This paper demonstrated the importance of developing the first
language in the second language classroom. The mother tongue could be used as support for the second
language acquisition process, which makes the learning process easier for students and teachers.

12. The Role of First Language in the Second-language Reading Process

As this overview of cross-language transfer research indicates, most of the current research in
crosslinguistic influence is carried out in the area of second-language acquisition, especially in
acquisition of syntactic constructs. More research on the effects of LI on L2 reading is needed especially
in the initial word recognition stages. To systematically study cross-language transfer in L2 reading, we
proposed an approach based on a component skills analysis (cf. Carr & Levy, 1990). Isolating the
components of the reading process and investigating the nature of cross-language transfer within each
component is essential for us to truly understand cross-language transfer in L2, particularly, and bilingual
cognitive processing, generally.

13. The Effect of Teaching Collocations on English Language Proficiency

It was found that the experimental group who experienced learning vocabulary through collocation
teaching and concordance using did better on language proficiency test at the end of the course.
Therefore, it can be concluded that although teaching vocabulary affects language proficiency, the level
of this effectiveness depends on teaching techniques (here traditional vs. collocations). The better
performance from the part of experimental group can be ascribed to the inclusion of collocation
teaching and concordances consultation (Mudraya, 2008). This supports the fact suggests that teaching
should be based on the idea that language production is the piecing together of ready-made units
appropriate for a particular situation. Comprehension of such units is dependent on knowing the
patterns to predict in different situations. Instruction, therefore, should centre on these patterns and the
ways they can be pieced together, along with the ways they vary and the situations in which they occur
(Nattinger, 1980). This idealized situation is interwoven in lexical approach techniques. According to this
approach, to attain the collocation pattern of the words learners should consult concordances and
collocation dictionaries. Concordancing technology can provide researchers, teachers, and students with
a rich tapestry of examples of specific linguistic elements embedded in a variety of rhetorical contexts.
Concordancing can also help the user to construct meanings and usage patterns based on sentences or
pieces of discourse collected from published or transcribed texts (Kolln, 2007). Moreover, it is found that,
concordances make it possible for learner to study syntactic and l lexical items in authentic rhetorical
contexts and can facilitate what Kolln (2007) calls “the marriage of grammar and rhetoric”, which
emphasizes how grammatical choice is influenced by rhetorical context; social constructive views of
learning that emphasize the ability of learners to construct meaning for themselves.

14. Congruence Between Language Proficiency and Communicative Abilities

The study showed that the university students viewed language proficiency as an essential element but
not the only element of communicative ability. While a low level of language proficiency can hamper
communicative ability, good proficiency does not automatically bring about good communicative ability.
Past a certain threshold of language proficiency, good communication skills include the ability to speak
with confidence and in an interactive and knowledgeable manner with other people. On the other hand,
a poor communicator is not confident, does not have conversational skills, and is reticent. The students
in this study are of the view that communicative ability affects their chances of employability but
excellent communication skills are not necessary in some locations, job types and job situations. They
feel that technical skills can compensate for the lack of communication skills. Our contention is that lack
of language proficiency does not mean that the speaker cannot develop communicative ability in the
language. The findings suggest that lack of communication skills can be addressed by teaching strategies
to make conversation (including turn-taking and responding to others) as well as communication
strategies. With this, less proficient speakers would have more confidence to communicate in the
language and develop the persona of a good communicator they aspire towards. However, these
observations would need to be verified in other studies.

15. Automated Language Essay Scoring Systems: A Literature Review

In language tests, test-takers are usually required to write an essay about a given topic. Human-raters
score these essays based on specific scoring rubrics or schemes. It occurs that the score of an essay
scored by different human-raters vary substantially because human scoring is subjective. As the process
of human scoring takes much time, effort, and are not always as objective as required, there is a need for
an automated essay scoring system that reduces cost, time and determines an accurate and reliable
score. The purpose of this paper is to review the AES systems literature pertaining to scoring extended-
response items in language writing exams. Using Google Scholar, EBSCO and ERIC, we searched the
terms ‘‘AES’’, ‘‘Automated Essay Scoring’’, ‘‘Automated Essay Grading’’, or ‘‘Automatic Essay’’ for essays
written in English language. AES systems which score objective or restricted-response items are excluded
from the current research.

16. Formative Assessment of English Language Proficiency in the Science Classroom

According to the vision of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), science and engineering are
language intensive and offer both opportunities and challenges for all students, especially English
learners (ELs), who are developing language and disciplinary knowledge and practices simultaneously
Lee, Quinn, and Valdés (2013). As students engage in three-dimensional learning to make sense of
phenomena and build their science understanding over time, they grow in their ability to use language
and other meaning-making resources such as symbols. To support ELs of varying levels of English
proficiency, the teacher must gather information about student learning that can be used to advance
students’ language proficiency in science. Formative assessment can be a powerful means for gathering
such information and using it to provide ongoing and contingent support. This article focuses on
formative assessment of language proficiency in the context of NGSS-aligned science instruction.

17. Relative Second Language Proficiency and the Giving and Receiving of Written Peer Feedback

In sum, language proficiency of peers who participate in peer feedback activities does appear to
influence the quantity and type of feedback provided and incorporated. Moreover, perceptions of a
peer's writing abilities may also influence this feedback and whether or not it is utilized. According to
Villamil & De Guerrero (2006), while it is no simple task for teachers to predict how perceived differences
in proficiency, as well as confidence and other factors, will influence the dyadic interactions and the
process of peer feedback, close monitoring and variation of pairings in subsequent sessions, to allow for
various types of feedback and interactions. In addition, teachers should be aware that proficiency
differences, especially those that are most obvious, may lead to different patterns of feedback.

18. The Effect of Language Proficiency on L2 English Learners’ Processing of Morphologically Complex
Words: Evidence from Masked Transposed Letter Priming

Adopting a masked transposed letter priming paradigm, the present study investigated the influence of
L2 proficiency on the processing of all the three types of English MCWs. The results demonstrated that
language proficiency had a critical bearing on the general MCW processing mechanisms, while
morphological types remained on a par in producing the concrete priming effects. Specifically, the high
proficiency learners followed the Post-lexical Model in general, but the low proficiency learners
presented a relatively blurred pattern due to their lack of clear whole-word memory and all-round
processing efficiency. Different morphological types caused gradable priming effects with the
compounds being at the top of the continuum. The present study does shed some new light onto the
issue of L2 English learners’ MCW processing by delving into the exact influence of language proficiency
and expanding the scope into all the three types of MCWs. Of course, it should be borne in mind that
further studies are needed to cover a wider range of bilingual backgrounds and morphological
(ir)regularities before the conclusion can be confidently generalized.
19. Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics and the Teaching of Foreign Languages

Within applied linguistics, SLA research is an interdisciplinary field that mediates between the theory and
practice of language study. Indeed, it might be called a theory of the practice of language acquisition and
use. The theory of language study makes explicit or implicit claims as to how

languages can or should be taught in classrooms. The practice of language study reveals models of action
that serve to confirm or disconfirm the theory. Present efforts to validate applied linguistics and, in
particular, its subfield SLA as the site of professional and intellectual focus on different aspects of the
language learning and teaching enterprise in FL departments: applied linguistics has the potential to play
a unifying role in a traditional departmental structure that still too often remains, to borrow a phrase
coined by Daniel Coste.

20. 'Grasping the Nettle': Aspects of Grammar in the Mother Tongue and Foreign Languages

The relationship between syllabuses and research in L1 and FLs is problematic, as we have seen. The NLS,
whilst it underwent some limited trials, could have been tested much more fully before its introduction;
and it is noteworthy that the research-based rationale for it was commissioned only after the NLS itself
had been launched. In the case of FLs, the theory and research which determine the structure and
content of syllabuses are far from explicit, a fact which may tend to weaken them. Presumably, political
calculations shaped these decisions, but here claims that teaching is an 'evidence-based profession look
unconvincing. In documents that shape much of what takes place in language classrooms, the failures to
engage satisfactorily with theory and research may be associated with other matters of concern. The
NLS imposes a centrally devised, highly detailed programme on primary LI education; and in secondary
FLs there is an evident conflict between the specification of knowledge of language features in Subject
Criteria and the comparative marginalisation of grammar in the National Curriculum. A tendency to 'one-
size-fits-all' prescriptivism in the first case and to conceptual incoherence in the second might be
tempered if proper account were taken of theory, research and the views of classroom practitioners. In
this paper it is argued that the NLS places excessive emphasis on decontextualised language study, and
then a case is adumbrated for EGI in FLs and for some use of grammar rules in particular. There is no
contradiction in adopting these two positions. Grammar rules, as statements of linguistic regularities, are
potentially of use in the classroom and it surely makes little sense either to exaggerate their value or to
forgo their use altogether. There would seem to be a sound case for EGI, including grammar rules, in
both L1 and FL teaching, within certain constraints. Finally, a word about the relationship between
general statements - such as syllabuses or research conclusions or the present discussion - and individual
teachers. Any discussion of a topic such as EGI must proceed at a general level and not be restricted to
the specific circumstances of a given classroom, for if it were restricted in that way its wider applicability
might not be clear. Yet generalisations should also be capable of being checked against classroom
experience to see what they mean in concrete terms and whether what they mean is valid. It is the
individual teacher who tests out the value of any general statement, about EGI for instance, against the
particular circumstances of FL study in his or her own classroom.