RESEARCH

What is research?

Research starts with a

question.
3
• often defined as systematic inquiry about a subject
(systematic - points to the need to examine topics methodically in a step-by-step
procedure )

• A problem-solving activity
– Begins with a question followed by a systematic
search for pertinent information to arrive at an
answer (scientific method)
– Careful, organized, and well-planned investigation
of a problem

4
Paradigms and Methods:
Quantitative
and Qualitative Research
 The “Scientific Method” and
Quantitative Research
• Quantitative researchers use deductive
reasoning to generate hunches that are
tested in the real world.
• They typically move in an orderly and
systematic fashion from the definition of
a problem and the selection of concepts
on which to focus, through the design of
the study and collection of information,
to the solution of the problem.
• Quantitative researchers use
mechanisms designed to control the
study. Control involves imposing
conditions on the research situation so
that biases are minimized and
precision and validity are maximized.
• Quantitative researchers gather
empirical evidence—evidence that is
rooted in objective reality and
gathered directly or indirectly through
the senses. Empirical evidence, then,
consists of observations gathered
through sight, hearing, taste, touch, or
smell.
• The degree to which research findings
can be generalized to individuals other
than those who participated in the
study (referred to as the
generalizability of the research) is a
widely used criterion for assessing the
quality of quantitative studies.
Naturalistic Methods and
Qualitative Research
• Naturalistic methods of inquiry attempt
to deal with the issue of human
complexity by exploring it directly.
• Researchers in the naturalistic tradition
emphasize the inherent complexity of
humans, their ability to shape and create
their own experiences, and the idea that
truth is a composite of realities.
• Naturalistic investigations place a
heavy emphasis on understanding the
human experience as it is lived,
usually through the careful collection
and analysis of qualitative materials
that are narrative and subjective.
• Naturalistic researchers tend to
emphasize the dynamic, holistic, and
individual aspects of human
experience and attempt to capture
those aspects in their entirety, within
the context of those who are
experiencing them.
1. Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

2. Conduct a Review of Related Literature

3. Define the Actual Problem and Objectives

in Clear Specific Terms

14
 4. Formulate the Hypothesis and
Define the Study Variables

5. Construct the Research Design

6. Design the Tools for Data Collection

15
7. Design the Plan for Data Analysis

8. Collect the Data

9. Process the Data

16
 10. Analyze the Data

11. Write the Research Report

12. Disseminate and Utilize the Result

17
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
A. Select topics for research
Criteria for selection
1. Researcher characteristics
• personal interest and inclination
• training
• previous experience

18
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Criteria for selection
2. Nature of topic
• timeliness: internet, literature
• relevance
• avoiding duplication
• applicability/utilizability
• cost- effectiveness
19
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Criteria for selection
3. Feasibility
• availability of subjects
• availability of specific equipments
• necessity for special working
conditions
• degree of sponsorship /
administrative cooperation
20
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Criteria for selection
3. Feasibility (cont)
• hazards, handicaps to be
encountered
• time requirements / duration
• availability of research fund

21
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Criteria for selection
3. Ethical considerations
• risks involved to investigator and
subjects
4. Significance of the study

22
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Sources of research problems
• own experiences, communication with
other people
• assessment of needs and practices
• patterns and trends
• somebody else’s completed research
• investigator’s intellectual and
scientific interests

23
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Sources of research problems (cont’n)
• critical reading of literature
• intellectual curiosity, intuitive hunch
• serendipity
• Making desirable discoveries by accident, by
chance, by luck

24
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Characteristics of a good research
question
F easible
I nteresting
N ovel
E thical
R elevant
25
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
B. Formulate research objectives
“A question well-phrased is a
question half-answered”

• indicates the direction of the

research
- clearly reflects the question that
the researcher wants to answer
26
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives

• can be expressed in the form of a

statement or a question
> To determine the relationship of the
nurses’ level of spirituality and
quality of care rendered to clients
> What is the relationship of nurses’
level of spirituality and quality of care
rendered to clients?
27
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
Formulating objectives
• use action verbs specific enough
to be measured

28
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
General objective
• identifies in general terms what is to
be accomplished by the study

Specific objective
• identifies in specific details on how to
accomplish the research by using
measurable parameters
29
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives
General Objective
• To determine the effectiveness of a nutrition
education program for schoolchildren
Specific Objectives
• To determine and compare the prevalence of
malnutrition among schoolchildren before and
after the nutrition program
• To determine and compare the level of
nutrition knowledge among schoolchildren
before and after the nutrition program 30
1 Identify the Research Problem
and Objectives

Characteristic of Research Objectives

Phased clearly, unambiguously and
specifically
Stated in measurable and operational
terms
S.M.A.R.T.

31
2 Conduct a Review of Related
Literature

–Not a patchwork
–Critical assessment
•What is known?
•What is not known?
•How strong is the evidence?
32
2 Conduct a Review of Related
Literature
Activities undertaken in review of lit
1. Research about previous studies done
related to the topic of interest
• Who have conducted similar researches
• Research designs utilized
• Study results
• Gaps in the knowledge
• Problems encountered
33
2 Conduct a Review of Related
Literature
Activities undertaken in review of lit
1. To establish theoretical or conceptual
framework for the research based on
results of previous studies
2. Integration / critique of previous
researches done
3. Build bridges between related topics
4. Draw overall conclusions
34
2 Conduct a Review of Related
Literature
SOURCES of Review of Related
Literature
Journals
Statistical reports
Indexes
Publications of Abstracts
Databases 35
2 Conduct a Review of Related
Literature

Use GOOGLE SCHOLAR

as tool for accumulating
research literature as it
uses multiple format in
citations.
36
3 Define the Actual Problem and
Objectives in Clear Specific Terms
Make them more specific or limit the scope!!

To determine the effect of the Master Trainer’s Course

on the capabilities of the participants to plan,
implement and evaluate health training programs
they have conducted in the field

37
4 Formulate the Hypothesis and
Define the Study Variables

Hypothesis – a proposition or statement

about the relationship of variables being
investigated

Variables – independent, dependent,

control
Independent variable
- Presumed to cause, influence or stimulate
the outcome 38
4 Formulate the Hypothesis and
Define the Study Variables
Dependent variable
- the output, outcome or response variable
Control Variable
- produces changes which may be mistaken to be
the effect of the independent variables being
considered
- controlled, held constant or randomized so the
effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated
for all conditions
- also called confounders or covariates 39
4 Formulate the Hypothesis and
Define the Study Variables

Conceptual Framework – shows the

relationships of the different variables
being studied

Example:
obesity hypertension
age

40
5 Construct the Research Design

– “Plan of attack”
– Includes subject selection, sample size,
control and manipulation of variables,
outcome evaluation, instrumentation,
plan of analysis
– Consider the objectives, feasibility,
economy and efficiency, ethics
– Important to achieve internal and
external validity
41
5 Construct the Research Design

INTERNAL validity
- extent to which the investigator is able to
control the different biases that may affect
the study to be able to measure what he
really intends to measure

EXTERNAL validity
- extent to which the investigator is able to
generalize the results of the study
42
5 Construct the Research Design

1. Non-intervention studies

• Exploratory study
• Descriptive study
• Analytical Study (cross-sectional,
case-control, cohort)

43
5 Construct the Research Design

2. Intervention studies
• Experimental
• Quasi-experimental
• Before-After study

44
6 Design the Data Collection Tools
Data Collection
Data Collection Tools
Techniques
Using available Checklist, data-compilation
information forms
Observing Eyes and other senses, pen and
paper, watch, scales,
microscopes, data coll’n form
Interviewing Interview schedule, checklist,
questionnaire, tape recorder
Administering written Questionnaire
questionnaires

*Pre-testing of Questionnaire
45
7 Design the Plan for
Data Analysis

• should be done before data collection

• construct dummy tables to help you
conceptualize how data is going to be
organized and presented after collection

46
8 Collect the Data

Use of tools earlier developed

Permission to collect data
Administrative concerns
Meeting with community leaders

Social preparation: proper orientation

of population to the study prior to data
collection
Training of data collectors
47
8 Collect the Data
Use of SURVEY
MONKEY as tool
for online data
gathering.

48
9 Data Processing

Phases of Data Processing

1. Editing of data collection forms
• for completeness
• legibility of entries
• consistency of responses

49
9 Data Processing

Phases of Data Processing

2. Coding and encoding of responses
• precoding of difficult information
• coding the data in analyzable form
• encoding the data in the computer

50
10 Analyze the Data

Involves quantification,
description and
determination of
relationships of variables

Statistics play an important

role

51
10 Analyze the Data

Two methods of statistical data analysis

1. Descriptive statistics

• Frequency distributions
• Mean, median, std deviation, range
• graphical presentations

52
10 Analyze the Data

2. Inferential statistics
a. estimation of parameters
b. hypothesis testing
• tests for means (t-test, ANOVA)
• tests for proportions (chi-square)
• tests for associations (Prevalence
ratios, Odds Ratios, Relative Risks)
• Regression (linear, logistic)

53
10 Analyze the Data

Use of a data analysis

software (i.e. SPSS) to
expedite or facilitate data
analysis and to avoid errors
in manual computations.

54
11 Write the Research Report

organized presentation of activities

and findings
make conclusions: answer the
research question and objectives
follow basic principles of technical
report writing (form and style)

55
12 Disseminate & Utilize the Results
Dissemination
• publication in scientific journals
• news releases
• presentation in scientific meetings
Utilization
• basis for determining changes as a
result of intervention
• information-based decision-making
56
Thank you very much!
 To be presented per group:
• Research Title:
_________________________________
_________________________________
• Problem Statement:
1) ______________________________
2) ______________________________
3) ______________________________