PHYSICS

Question and Answers Booklet

Learning Material for Physics HS-II Year(EM)
Prepared under the Guidance of our Respectable
Chief Educational Officer-Thiruvallur District

Guided By Mrs.THIRUVALARSELVI
Chief Educational Officer
Thiruvallur District.

Co-ordinators: Mr.R.ANNADURAI
DEO
Ambattur Educational District
&
Mr.P.PALLAVASELVAN
DI
Ambattur Educational District

Teacher’s Team
Mr.S.RAVISHANKAR.,P.G.Asst Mr.C.PALANI., P.G.Asst
SRM.Hr.Sec.School GHSS,
Ambattur Madhavaram
Mr.S.SELVAM.,P.G.Asst Mr.S.L.VIJAI.,P.G.Asst
GGHSS, GGHSS,
Ambattur Ambattur
Mr.S.JAYACHANDRAN.,P.G.Asst
GHSS,
Manali

HS II YEAR/ PHYSICS/LEARNING MATERIAL CEO- THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT

HS II YEAR/ PHYSICS/LEARNING MATERIAL CEO- THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT
 1. Electrostatics
1.2.1 What are the differences between Coulomb
force and gravitational force?
1.2.2. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.
Two electric fields pointing in two different
directions at a single point cannot be possible. So,
electric field lines never intersect
1.2.3. Define ‘Electric dipole’
Two equal and opposite charges separated
by a small distance constitute an electric dipole.
Examples: CO, water, ammonia, HCl
1.2.4. What is the general definition of electric dipole moment?
Dipole moment is equal to product of magnitude of
charge and distance. p=q.2a. Unit : Cm
1.2.5 Define ‘electrostatic potential”.
Work done by an external force to bring a unit
positive charge with constant velocity from infinity
to the point ,is electrostatic potential at that point.
1.2.6. What is an equipotential surface?
All the points of a surface are at same
potential, the surface is called equipotential surface.
1.2.7.What are the properties of an equipotential surface?
1) Work done to move a charge on
equipotential surface is Zero.
2) Electric field is normal to equipotential
surface.
1.2.8. Define ‘electric flux’
Total Number of electric field lines crossing
area Normally, is known as electric flux.
1.2.9.Define ‘capacitance’. Give its unit.
Ratio of charge to the potential difference,
is the capacitance C of a capacitor. unit: Farad
1.2.10. What is corona discharge?
Reduction of total charge of the conductor
near the sharp edge is called action at points or
corona discharge.
1.2.11.State Gauss Law
The total electric flux 𝛟E through a closed surface
isequal to 1/𝜀0 times net charge.
1.2.12. Write down the Applications of capacitors
1. Used in flash camera for releasing energy.
2. Used in heart defibrillator
3. Used in the ignition system of automobile
engines to eliminate sparking.
4. Used to reduce power fluctuations in power
supplies
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1.2.13.Differentiate Polar and Non polar Molecule
1.2.14.During lightning it is always safer to sit inside a bus than
in open ground or under a tree.
1) Electric field inside a bus is zero.
2) Bus provides electrostatic shielding.
3) During lightning, the charges flow through
the body of the conductor to the ground
with no effect on the person inside that bus.
1.3.1. What are the properties of ‘Electric field lines’?
1) Electric field lines start from positive charge
and end at negative charge.
2) Electric field lines never intersect.
3) Tangent of the electric field line gives the
direction of electric field.
4) If electric field is large , electric field lines are
closer. If electric field is less , electric field lines
are apart.
5) Number of electric field lines is proportional to
charge
1.3.2 Explain in detail Coulomb’s law and its aspects.
1.Electrostatic force is directly proportional to the
product of two charges and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between the two charges.
2.Electrostatic force is along the line joining the
two charges.
3.Coulomb’s law is similar as Newton’s law of
gravitation.
4.Electrostatic force is always greater than
gravitational force
5.Electrostatic force depends on nature of the
medium.
6.Coulomb force is true only for point charges.
1.3.3 Derive the expression for resultant capacitance,
when capacitors are connected in parallel.
Voltage across each capacitor is Same.
Each capacitor stores different charges Q1, Q2, Q3
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1.3.4 Derive the expression for resultant capacitance,
when capacitors are connected in series .
Each capacitor stores the same charge Q.
Voltage across each capacitor V1, V2 and V3 are
different.
1.5.1Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its
axial line
An electric dipole is placed along the X-axis. C is a
point at a distance r from O.

1.3.5 Derive an expression for electrostatic potential
due to a point charge.
Work done to move a positive charge from
infinity to a point with constant velocity is the
electric potential at that point.
P is a point at a distance r from the charge q.
Electric potential
at P :
Direction of Electric field is along dipole moment.
1.5.2 Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its
equatorial plane
An electric dipole is placed along the
X-axis. C is a point at a distance r from O on the
equatorial plane.
Vertical compoents E+sinθ and E-sinθ are
equal and opoosite.So,they cancel each other.
Horizontal Components E+Cosθ and E-Cosθ add
together to give resultant Electric field.

1.3.5 Derive an expression for Torque experienced by

an electric dipole in the uniform electric field
An electric dipole of dipole moment p is
placed in a uniform electric field.
The total force acting on
the dipole is zero.
These two forces acting
at different points will
constitute a couple and the
dipole experience a torque.
This torque rotates the
dipole and aligns it with the electric field

The total torque on the dipole

The Direction of Electric field is opposite to dipole

moment.
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1.5.3 Derive an expression for electrostatic potential
due to an electric dipole.
An electric dipole is placed along the X-axis.
P is a point at a distance r from O.
Potential due to +q
1.5.4 Explain in detail the construction and working of
a Van de Graaff generator.
Device produces potential difference of 107 V.
Principle: Electrostatic induction and action at
points.
Uses: used to accelerate positive ions for nuclear
disintegrations.
Construction:
1. A hollow spherical conductor is fixed on the
insulating stand.
2. A pulley B is placed at the center of the hollow
sphere and another pulley C is fixed at the bottom.
3. A belt made up of silk or rubber runs over both
pulleys.
4. The pulley C is run by the electric motor.
5. Two metallic combs E and D are fixed near the
pulleys.
6. The comb D is given potential of 104 V.
7. The upper comb E is connected to the inner sphere.

Potential due to -q

Potential due to
Dipole

Working
1. High electric field near comb D, ionizes the air.
2. Due to action of points, belt gets positive charges
and negative charges are attracted towards the
comb D.
3. When the positive charges reach the comb E, Due
to electrostatic induction , Comb E gets negative
charge and sphere gets positive charge.
4. The positive charges are distributed uniformly on
the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
5. Due to corona discharge , positive charges in the
belt are cancelled and down going belt does not
carry charge.
6. At the bottom, it again gains a large positive
charge.
7. This process continues till sphere produces the
potential difference of 107 V.
8. The leakage of charges can be reduced by enclosing
the machine in a gas filled steel chamber at very
high pressure.

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1.3.6 Obtain the expression for capacitance for a 2.2.2 Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility.
parallel plate capacitor. Drift velocity Mobility
Average velocity Magnitude of the drift
Consider a capacitor with two parallel plates
acquired by the electrons velocity per unit
each of cross-sectional area A and separated by a in an Electric field. Electric field.
distance Vectot Quantity Scalar Quantity
Unit: ms-1 m2V-1s-1
2.2.3 What are ohmic and non ohmic devices?
Ohmic Devices Non Ohmic Devices
Materials or devices that Materials or devices that
obey Ohm’s law do not obey Ohm’s law
A Graph of I against V is A Graph of I against V
linear(Straight Line) is non-linear

2.2.4 Define electrical resistivity.

Resistance of a conductor of unit length and
unit area of cross section is known as electrical
resistivity ρ of a material.
Unit: ohm-metre (Ω m).
2.2.5 Define temperature coefficient of resistance.
Ratio of increase in resistivity per degree
rise in temperature to its resistivity at To .
Unit : per 0C.
1.3.7 Obtain the expression for energy density of a
2.2.6 What is superconductivity?
Parallel plate capacitor
Ability of certain materials to conduct at Zero
Capacitor stores charge and energy. To
resistance with persistent current is called
store the charge, work is done by the battery. This
superconductivity.
work done is stored as electrostatic potential
2.2.7 What is electric power and electric energy?
energy in the capacitor.
Work done in storing Electrical power P is the rate at which the
electrical potential energy is used. Unit: watt
Small charge dQ by a
potential V Electric energy is the product of electric
Power and Time. Unit: Watt hour
2.2.8. Define current density.
Current per unit area of cross section of the
conductor is the current density (J). Unit: A m2
Total Work done in
2.2.9 State ohm’s Law
storing charge Q
Current is directly proportional to voltage.
2.2.10. Derive the expression for power P=VI in
electrical circuit.

2.2.11. Write down the expressions for electrical

power.

2.2.12. State Kirchhoff’s current rule.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
2.2.1Why current is a scalar?
Current has both magnitude and direction .But
the direction of current does not obey vector laws
of addition .So, Current is a scalar quantity.
Algebraic sum of the currents at any
junction of a circuit is zero.
2.2.13. State Kirchhoff’s voltage rule. In a
closed circuit the algebraic sum of the
products of the current and resistance is
equal to the algebraic sum of emf in the
circuit.

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2.2.14. Is the direction of current along the direction 2.5.1. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in
of flow of electrons? Wheatstone’s bridge.
No, Electrons flow from negative potential I1 – IG – I3 = 0
to positive potential. But the direction of I2 + IG – I4 = 0
conventional current is taken from Positive I1P + IGG – I2R = 0
potential to negative potential. I1P + I3Q – I4S – I2R = 0
2.2.15 Is battery a source of electrons? IG = 0
No, Battery is a source of electrical energy,
due to which these electrons in the conducting wire
flow in a particular direction.
2.2.16. Why touching a electrical connection with the 2.5.2. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and
wet skin is always dangerous. parallel resistor network.
Resistance of dry skin is high around 500 k Ω. i)Three Resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3
But when the skin is wet, the resistance decreases to connected in series with a battery of voltage V.
around 1000 Ω. While touching electric components Same Current passes through each Resistor.
with wet hand, due to low resistance, large current Voltage across each resistor V1, V2 and V3 are
flows in our body which is dangerous. different.
2.2.17.What is the use of Fuse Wire
Fuse wire is connected in series in a circuit to
protect the electric devices from the heat developed,
when a very large current passes through it. It has low
melting point material. It melts and breaks the
circuit if current exceeds a certain value.
2.2.18. State the principle of potentiometer. V = V1 + V2 + V3 V = I.RS
The emf of the cell is directly proportional V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
to the balancing length. V = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
2.2.19. State Joule’s law of heating.
Heat is directly proportional to
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
1. square of the current
resistances
2. resistance of the circuit and
ii)Three Resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3
3. time of flow of current.
connected in Parallel with a battery of voltage V.
2.2.20. What is Seebeck effect?
Voltage across each Resistor is Same.
In a closed circuit made of two dissimilar
Different Current flowing through each resistors are
metals, when the junctions are maintained at
I1, I2 and I3.
different temperatures an emf is developed.
2.2.21 What is Thomson effect? I = I1 + I2 + I3
If two points in a conductor are at different
temperatures, the density of electrons at these points
will different. Due to difference in electron density,
the potential difference is created between these
points.
2.2.22. What is Peltier effect?
When current is passed through a
thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction and
absorbed at the other junction.
2.2.23. State the applications of Seebeck effect.
1.Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric
generators, to convert waste heat into electricity. 2.5.3.Explain the determination of unknown resistance
2.Used in automobiles for increasing fuel efficiency. using meter bridge.
3.Used in thermocouples to measure the Meter bridge consists of one meter manganin
temperature difference. wire AB connected between copper strips. Unknown
resistance P is connected in gap G1 and a Known
resistance Q is connected in gap G2. A jockey is
connected to the central terminal E through a
galvanometer (G) and a high resistance (HR).
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A Lechlanche cell and a key (K) are connected across 2.5.6 Explain the determination of the internal
the ends of the bridge wire. resistance of a cell using potentiometer.
The jockey is adjusted on the wire so that
the galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the
point be J. The lengths AJ and JB of the bridge wire
now replace the resistance R and S of the
Wheatstone’s bridge.

Connections are given as in the circuit to determine

the internal resistance of a cell,.
With K2 open, no current flows in resistor R, so it
becomes open circuit. Let CJ = l1 is the balancing
length for the emf,
2.5.4. How the emf of two cells are compared When key K2 is closed, current flows in resistor R, so
using potentiometer? it becomes closed circuit.
To compare the emf of two cells, connections Total Resistance = R + r
are given as in the circuit. The first cell whose emf is
ξ1 is included in the circuit and Balancing length l1 is
found. Next, the Second cell whose emf is ξ2 is
included in the circuit and Balancing length l2 is
found.

l2 be the balancing length for this potential

difference.

2.5.5 Explain the determination of the internal

resistance of a cell using voltmeter.
The emf of cell ξ is measured by connecting a
high resistance voltmeter across it in a open circuit.
The voltmeter reading gives the emf of the cell.
External resistance R is included in the circuit
and current I flows in the circuit. The potential
difference across R is equal to the potential difference
acro ss the cell (V).
2.5.7 Describe the microscopic model of current
and obtain general form of Ohm’s law
A is the area of cross section of a conductor, E is
the applied electric field. n is the number of free
electrons per unit volume. vd is the drift velocity of
the free electrons.
distance dx moved
by electron in time dt
Number of electrons in a small
volume of length dx

Total charge in a small

volume of length dx

Current flowing in the

Dividing 2 by 1 Conductor

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Current
Density
This equation is called microscopic form of ohm’s
law.
2.5.8 Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from
its microscopic form and discuss its limitation.
l is the length and A is cross sectional area of a
wire. V is the potential difference applied across the
wire. E is the net electric field in the wire.
By microscopic form of ohm’s law
Where
This is the macroscopic form of ohm’s law. This law
cannot be applied for Non-Ohmic Materials.
3.Magnetism and Magnetic effects of
electric current
3.2.1. State Coulomb’s inverse law in magnetism.
Force of attraction or repulsion between
two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the
product of their pole strengths and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
3.2.2. State Ampere’s circuital law.
Line integral of magnetic field over a closed
loop is equal to μ0 times net current enclosed by
the loop.
3.2.3. Define magnetic dipole moment.
Product of pole strength and magnetic length
of a magnet. Unit: Am2
3.2.4. What is magnetic susceptibility?
Ratio of the Intensity of magnetisation
induced to the magnetising field.
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3.2.5. What is meant by hysteresis?
Phenomenon of lagging of magnetic
induction behind the magnetising field is called
hysteresis.
3.2.6.State Right hand thumb rule
Current carrying conductor is taken in right
hand such that the thumb points in the direction of
current , then the fingers encircling the wire shows
the direction of the magnetic field lines produced.
3.2.7. Define magnetic flux.
Number of magnetic field lines crossing per
unit area is called magnetic flux.
Unit:weber
3.2.8.State Tangent law
When a magnetic needle is suspended in two
perpendicular magnetic fields, it will come to rest
in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.
3.2.9. Define Declination
The angle between magnetic meridian and
geographical meridian is called the magnetic
declination (D).
3.2.10.Define Dip
The angle between Earth’s total magnetic
field and the horizontal direction in the magnetic
meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I)
3.2.11.Define Curie Temperature
The temperature at which ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic is known as Curie
temperature.
3.2.12.Why Steel and Alnico are used to make
Permanent magnets?
Steel and Alnico have high retentivity, high
coercivity and high permeability. So they are
suitable for making permanent magnets.
3.2.13.Why Soft iron and Mumetal are used to make
Electro magnets?
Soft iron and Mumetal have high initial
permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity and
thin hysteresis loop with smaller area. So, they are
used to make electromagnets.
3.2.14.Why Soft iron is used to make Core of the
transformer
Soft iron has high initial permeability, large
magnetic induction and thin hysteresis loop with
smaller area.
3.2.15.How a galvanometer is converted into an ammeter.
By connecting a low resistance in parallel
with the galvanometer
3.2.16. How a galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter.
By connecting high resistance Rh in series
with galvanometer.
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3.2.17.How to increase Current sensitivity of a
Galvanometer
1) by increasing the number of turns N
2) by increasing the magnetic induction B
3) by increasing the area of the coil A
4) by decreasing the couple per unit twist of the
suspension wire .
3.2.18.Why Phosphor - bronze wire is used as the
suspension wire in a galvanometer
Phosphor - bronze wire has very small couple per
unit twist.

3.3.1. Write the Properties of Magnetic field lines

1) Magnetic field lines are continuous closed curves.
2) The tangent to the magnetic field lines gives the
direction of magnetic field at any point.
3) Magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
4) When the magnetic field is strong, magnetic field
lines are crowded and when the magnetic field is
weak, magnetic field lines are apart.
3.3.2.Write the Properties of magnet
1) A Suspended bar magnet will always point
along the north-south direction. 3.5.2 Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the
2) The attractive force of a magnet is equatorial line of a bar magnet.
maximum near the end of the bar magnet. qm is the pole strength and 2l is the magnetic
3) When a magnet is broken into pieces, each length of a magnet NS. C is a point at a distance r
piece is a magnet. from centre of magnet on the equatorial line.
4) Poles of a magnet have equal pole strength.
5) The ratio of magnetic length and
geometrical length is 5/6.
3.3.3.Compare the properties Of Dia,Para and ferro
Magnetic materials

3.5.1 Calculate the magnetic induction at a point on

the axial line of a bar magnet.
qm is the pole strength and 2l is the magnetic
length of a magnet NS. C is a point at a distance r
from centre of magnet on the axial line.

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3.5.3Find the magnetic induction due to a long straight
conductor using Ampere’s circuital law.
I is the current flowing in the wire .an
Amperian loop in the form of a circular shape at a
distance r from the centre of the conductor.
By Ampère’s law
Angle between magnetic field vector and line element
is zero.
Due to the symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic
field is uniform
3.5.4Derive an expression for Force on a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
dl is the length of small segment of wire, of length Principle: When a charged particle moves in a
l, with cross- sectional area A.
Relation between current I and drift velocity vd .
average force experienced
by electron in the wire is
Total Number of Electrons
in current element
Total force Experienced
by current Element
In magnitude,
If the conductor is placed along the direction of the
magnetic field F=0
If the conductor is placed perpendicular to the
magnetic field,F=BIl
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3.5.5Deduce the relation for Magnetic field produced
along the axis of the current carrying circular coil
I is the current flowing in a circular loop of
radius R with centre O.P is a point at a distance z on
the axis from O. Two diametrically opposite current
elements each of length dl are at C and D of the coil.
Magnetic filed dB at P is split
into Horizontal (dB cos θ )
and Vertical components
(dB sin θ ).
Horizontal components
cancels each other but the
vertical components alone adds up to givetotal
magnetic field at the point P.
3.5.6 Discuss the working of cyclotron in detail.
magnetic field, it experiences Lorentz force.
Construction
Two semi-circular metal containers called
Dees are kept in an evacuated chamber. By using
an electromagnet, a magnetic field acts normal to
the plane of the Dees. Source S which ejects the
charge to be accelerated, is placed at the center of the
gap between the Dees. Dees are connected to high
frequency alternating potential difference.
Working
Positively charged Ion ejected from source S is
accelerated towards a negative potential Dee-1 at
that time. Inside the Dees Due to magnetic field, ion
moves in circular path.
After one semi-circular path of ion, the polarities
of the Dees are reversed.ion is now accelerated
towards Dee-2 with a greater velocity.
Lorentz centripetal
force =force of the Ion
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3.5.7Deduce the relation for the magnetic induction at a point
due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current
I is the current flowing in the wire NM. Let P be
the point at a distance a from point O. l be the
distance of current element of length dl.
For a an infinitely long straight wire
4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND
ALTERNATING CURRENT
4.2.1State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
First law : Whenever magnetic flux linked with a
closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the
circuit.
Second law: The magnitude of induced emf is equal
to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
4.2.2 State Lenz’s law.
Direction of the induced current will oppose
the cause that produces it.
4.2.3State Fleming’s right hand rule.
The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right
hand are in mutually perpendicular directions.
If the index finger points the direction of the
magnetic field and the thumb points the direction of
motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will
point the direction of the induced current.
4.2.4 Mention the ways of producing induced emf.
1) By changing the magnetic field B
2) By changing the area A of the coil and
3) By changing the orientation θ of the coil with
magnetic field
4.2.5What for an inductor is used? Give some
examples.
Inductor is a device used to store energy in a
magnetic field when an electric current flows
through it. Example: Coils, Solenoids and Toroids.
4.2.6Give the Application of eddy currents
1.Induction stove 2.Eddy current brake
3.Eddy current testing 4.Electromagnetic damping
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4.2.7 List out the advantages of stationary armature-
rotating field system of AC generator.
1) Current flows directly from the stator
without the use of contact brushes.
2) Easy to Insulate armature winding.
3) Number of slip rings is reduced.
4) Armature windings can be built strongly to
prevent damage.
4.2.8How will you define RMS value of an alternating
current?
Value of the steady current which produces
the same amount of heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing in a same circuit
for the same time is known as RMS value of an
alternating current.
4.2.9What are phasors?
A rotating vector which rotates about the
origin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant
angular velocity ω to represent a sinusoidal
alternating voltage is called Phasor.
4.2.10What do you mean by resonant frequency?
The frequency at which resonance takes
place so that impedance is minimum and current is
maximum is called resonant frequency.
4.2.11How will you define Q-factor?
Ratio of voltage across L or C to the applied
voltage is called Quality or Q-factor
4.2.12What is meant by wattles current?
If the power consumed by current in an AC
circuit is zero then that current is called wattles
current
4.2.13What are the Advantages of AC over DC
1) AC can be produced cheaper than DC.
2) AC transmission loss is small compared to DC
transmission.
3) AC can easily be converted into DC with the help
of rectifier
4.2.14What are the disadvantages of AC over DC
1) Alternating voltages cannot be used for
charging of batteries, electroplating, electric
traction etc.
2) At high voltages, AC is more dangerous to
work than DC.
4.2.15 What do you understand by self-inductance of
a coil? Give its physical significance.
Self-Inductance of a coil opposes the change
in current flowing in it and tries to maintain the
original current. Inductance in a circuit plays the role
of inertia and moment of inertia in mechanical
motion.
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4.3.1.Derive an equation for Self inductance(L) of a
solenoid
l is the length, A is the cross-sectional area and n is
the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid. i is
the current passing through the solenoid
But
But
Inductance depends on the geometry of the
solenoid and the medium present inside it.
4.3.2. How much energy is stored in an inductor of 4.3.4 Mention the various energy losses in a
inductance L while establishing the current in it? transformer.
Whenever current is changing in the inductor
circuit, the inductance opposes the change in current.
work is done by some external agency to change the
current. This work done is stored as magnetic
potential energy.
Induced emf:
work done in moving
a charge dq in a time dt
But,
4.3.3.Derive an equation for Mutual inductance
between two long co-axial solenoids
l is the length, A1,A2 is the cross-sectional
area and n1,n2 is the number of turns per unit length
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of the two long solenoids 1 and 2. i1 is the current
passing through the solenoid 1.
M2 is the Mutual inductance of solenoid 2 with
respect to solenoid 1.
Flux leakage: Energy is lost when the magnetic
lines of primary coil are not completely linked with
secondary coil. This flux leakage is minimized by
winding coils one over the other.
Copper loss :Energy is lost due to Joule heating,
when an electric current flows through Transformer
windings, This copper loss is minimized by using
thick wires.
Core loss or Iron loss:
1)Energy is lost in the form of heat, when
transformer core is magnetized and demagnetized
repeatedly by the alternating voltage. Hysteresis loss
is minimized by making transformer core using
silicon steel.
2)Energy is lost in the form of heat,when eddy
currents are induced due to Alternating magnetic
flux in the core. Eddy current loss is minimized by
using laminated transformer core.
4.3.7.*How will you induce an emf by changing the
area enclosed by the coil?
Metal rod of length l moves left with a
velocity v on a rectangular metal frame. Metal frame
is placed in a normal magnetic field.
As the rod moves from AB to DC in a time dt, the
area and the magnetic flux through the loop
decreases. So, an emf is induced in the loop.
Page | 11
Change in Magnetic : d𝜙B= B x Area ABCD
Flux in time dt
4.5.1* Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil
in a magnetic field over one rotation induces an
alternating emf of one cycle.
A Rectangular coil of N turns is rotated with a
angular velocity ω in magnetic field B about an axis
perpendicular to B.
When plane of coil is perpendicular to B, magnetic
flux is maximum.𝜙m=BA.
When plane of coil is inclined to B, magnetic flux
linkage is
Induced emf :
Induced emf varies as sine function of the time angle
ωt so it is called sinusoidal emf or alternating emf.
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4.5.2* Explain the working of a single-phase AC
generator with necessary diagram.
In a single phase AC generator, a single
armature generates a single-phase alternating emf.
Principle :Electromagnetic Induction
Stator: Rectangular conducting loop PQRS.
Rotor: 2 salient electromagnetic poles.
Working
The loop PQRS is stationary. Field magnet is
rotated in clockwise direction.
Initially magnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane of the loop PQRS. The induced emf between
P and S is zero.(point O)
When field magnet rotates through 90°,the magnetic
field is parallel to the plane of the loop PQRS. The
induced emf between P and S is maximum. By
using Fleming’s right hand rule, induced current
flows along PQRS.(point A)
When field magnet rotates through 180°,the magnetic
field is again perpendicular to PQRS and the
induced emf between P and S is zero. (point B)
When field magnet rotates through 270°,the magnetic
field is again parallel to the plane of the loop
PQRS. The induced emf between P and S is
maximum but reversed. Induced current flows
along SRQP. (point C)
When field magnet completes 360°,the induced emf
becomes zero. (point D)
Frequency of the induced emf depends on the
speed at which the field magnet rotates.
4.5.4 Derive an expression for phase angle between
the applied voltage and current in a series RLC circuit.
A resistor of resistance R, a inductor of inductance L
and a capacitor of capacitance C are connected in
series across an alternating voltage. i is the resulting
circuit current.
voltage across R (VR) is in phase with i,
voltage across L (VL) leads i by π/2 and
voltage across C (VC) lags i by π/2.
Page | 12
 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
5.2.1.What is displacement current?
Current which comes into play in the region in which
the electric field and the electric flux are changing
with time.

5.3.2.What is meant by Fraunhofer lines?

Dark lines in the solar spectrum are known as
Fraunhofer lines. Fraunhofer lines helps in identifying
elements present in the Sun’s atmosphere
5.3.3 What are the uses of (a) microwave(b) X-ray (c)
radio waves (d) visiblespectrum

phase angle between

applied voltage υ :
and current i is

4.5.5. *Explain the construction and working of

transformer.
Principle : Mutual induction between two coils.
Construction:Two coils are wound over the same
core but insulated. The core is laminated and is
made of silicon steel.
5.5.1Write down the properties of electromagnetic
Input alternating voltage is applied to the
waves.
primary coil P and output alternating voltage is drawn
1) Electromagnetic waves are produced by
out from secondary coil S. The core and coils are kept
in a container for better insulation and cooling accelerated charge.
2) Electromagnetic waves do not need any medium
purpose.
for propagation.
Working: When alternating voltage is fed to
3) Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
primary coil, an alternating magnetic flux is set up
Electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of
in the laminated core. So, emf is induced in both
light in vacuum or free space
primary and secondary coils For both primary and
4) Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric
secondary coils, rate of change of magnetic flux
field or magnetic field.
per each turn is same..
5) Electromagnetic waves can show interference,
diffraction andpolarisation.
6) Electromagnetic waves carries energy,momentum
and angular momentum.
7) Energy density of
electromagnetic
wave
8) Momentum of
electromagnetic wave
Ratio of the useful output power to the input
power is Efficiency of a transformer.

HS/ II-YEAR/PHYSICS /Learning Material CEO-THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT Page | 13

5.5.2What is emission spectra?Give their types.
Emission spectra 5.5.4Write down Maxwell equations in integral form.
Spectrum obtained from self luminous source directly I.First equation is Gauss’s law. It relates the net
is called emission spectrum. Each source has its own electric flux to net electric charge enclosed in a
characteristic emission spectrum.Emission spectrais surface.
classified into 3 types
II.Surface integral of magnetic field over aclosed
1.Continuous emission spectra
surface is zero.
Contains wavelengths of all visiblecolours from
violet to red.
III.Faraday’s law ofelectromagnetic induction states
Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, incandescent Line integralof the electric field is equal to the rate
solids, liquids are continuous spectra. of change ofmagnetic flux around any closed path.
2.Line emission spectrum
Contains sharp lines of definite wavelengths. Such
spectra arise when atoms of elements are excited. III.Ampere – Maxwell’s law relates the magnetic
Reveals the characters of the element.Different for field around any closed path to the conduction
different elements current and displacement current through that
Spectrum of atomic hydrogen, helium. path.
3.Band emission spectrum
Contains closely spaced overlapping spectral lines
forming bands and separated by dark spaces.Such
spectra arise when the molecules are excited
spectrum has a sharp edge at one end and fades out at
the other end.
Band spectrum is the characteristic of the molecule
hence, the structure of the molecules can be studied
using their band spectra.
Spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia gas in the
discharge tube etc.

5.5.3. What is absorption spectra?. Give their types.

Absorption spectra
Spectrum obtained from light, after passing through a
medium or an absorbing substance is called
absorption spectrum.Each substance has its own
characteristic emission spectrum.Absorption spectra is
classified into 3 types
Continuous absorption spectrum
Whenwhite light passes through a blue glass plate,
it absorbs all coloursexcept blue. This is an example
of continuous absorption spectrum.
Line absorption spectrum
When white light from carbon arc, passes through
sodium vapour, sodium absorbs only two yellow
wavelength.Continuous spectrum with two dark lines
in the yellow region of sodium vapour is obtained.

Band absorption spectrum

If Dark bands on continuous bright background is
obtained it is called Band absorption spectrum. This
type of band is also obtained when the white light is
passed through the iodine vapour, or through diluted
solution of blood or through chlorophyll or through
solutions of organic and inorganic compounds

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 6.Optics
6.2.1 What are the two conditions for total internal
reflection ?
1. light must travel from denser to rarer
medium,
2. angle of incidence in the denser medium
must be greater than critical angle (i>ic).
6.2.2Explain the reason for glittering of diamond.
The critical angle of diamond is 24.4°.So the
angle of many cut faces can be from 24.4°to 90°.So light
entering the diamond is total internally reflected from
the many cut faces before getting out. So diamond glitters.
6.2.3Why does sky appear blue?
By Rayleigh’s scattering ,violet colour which
has the shortest wavelength gets much scattered
during day time. As our eyes are more sensitive to
next scattered blue colour than violet colour the sky
appears blue during day time
6.2.4What is the reason for reddish appearance of sky
during sunset and sunrise?
During sunrise and sunset, the light from sun
travels a greater distance. By Rayleigh’s scattering
,violet colour which has the shortest wavelength
gets much scattered away and the red light of
longer wavelength reaches our eye. This is the
reason for the reddish appearance of sky during
sunrise and sunset.
6.2.5Why do clouds appear white?
Clouds contains large amount of dust and
water droplets, which have size a greater than the
wavelength λ of light. In clouds all the colours get
equally scattered not depending on wavelength. So
clouds appear white.
6.2.6 How are rainbows formed?
Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of
sunlight through droplets of water during rainy
days.
6.2.7 Why do stars twinkle?
Stars appear twinkling because of the refraction of
light by movement of the atmospheric layers with
varying refractive indices, which is clearly seen in
the night sky.
6.2.8State Brewster’s law.
Tangent of the polarising angle of a
transparent medium is equal to its refractive index
6.2.9State Malus’ law.
Transmitted Light intensity I from the
analyser is directly proportional to square of the
cosine of the angle θ between the transmission axis of
polariser and analyser.
6.2.10What is dispersion? Dispersion is splitting of
white light into its constituent colours.
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6.2.11What is myopia? What is its remedy?
A person suffering from nearsightedness
or myopia cannot see distant objects clearly.
Wearing concave lens is its remedy
6.2.12What is hypermetropia? What is its remedy?
A person suffering from farsightedness
or hypermetropia cannot clearly see near objects
close to the eye.Wearing convex lens is its remedy
6.2.13.What is a stigmatism? What is its remedy?
Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions
equally well. Wearing cylindrical lenses is its
remedy
6.2.14What is principle of reversibility?
Light will travel the same path if its
direction of travel is reversed.
6.2.15 What is mirage?
Optical illusioned image of the object formed
down on hot area, by the upward bending of light
rays due to different refractive index of air layers
on hot region is called Mirage.
6.2.16 What is looming?
Optical illusioned image of the object formed
up on hot area, by the downward bending of light
rays due to different refractive index of air layers on
cold regions is called Looming.
6.2.17What is Snell’s window?
The restricted illuminated circular area
formed by refraction of light entering water is
called Snell’s window.
6.2.18What is Rayleigh’s scattering?
Intensity of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely
proportional to fourth power of wavelength.
6.2.19Give the differences between interference and diffraction
6.2.20Give the differences between Fresnel and fraunhofer diffraction
6.2.21 Define Optic Axis
Inside the crystal there is a particular
direction in which both the rays travel with same
velocity. This direction is called optic axis.
6.2.22 Derive the relation between f and R for a spherical
mirror.
Twice the focal length f is equal to the radius of
curvature R. 2f=R
Page | 15
 6.2.23What are techniques for producing polsarisation
Polarisation can be produced by
1)Selective Absorption 2)Reflection
3)Double Refraction 4)Polarisation by scattering.
6.2.24State the laws of reflection.
1. Incident ray, Reflected ray and Normal are coplanar.
2. The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r.
6.2.25What is optical path?
Optical path is the distance d' travelled by
light in vacuum for the same time as it travels a
distance d in the medium. d’=nd
6.3.1 Give the characteristics of image formed by a
plane mirror.
1.The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual,
erect, and laterally inverted.
2.The size of the image and object are same.
3.The distance of object and image from the mirror
are same.
6.3.2. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a
spherical mirror?
1.Object must be placed on left side of mirror.
2.All the distances are measured from the pole of
the mirror.
3. Right side distances to the pole are taken as positive.
4.Left side distances to the pole are taken as negative.
5. Upward perpendicular Heights are taken as positive.
6. Downward perpendicular Heights are taken as negative.
6.3.3State and prove Brewster’s law
Tangent of the polarising angle is equal to its
refractive index of a medium.
6.3.4Explain the construction and working Nicol prism
Nicol prism produces polarized light by
Double refraction. Double refracting calcite
crystal ABCD with its length three times its
breadth is used. It is cut into two halves along the
diagonal so that their face angles are 72o and 108o.
The two halves are joined by a transparent cement
canada balsam.
HS/ II-YEAR/PHYSICS /Learning Material
Unpolarised light is incident on the face AC of the
Nicol prism. Double refraction takes place and the
ray is split into ordinary and extraordinary rays.
The ordinary ray is total internally reflected at
the canada balsam layer and is stopped coming
from the opposite face. The extraordinary ray
which is plane polarized,is transmitted through
the crystal
6.3.5 State and Prove Malus’ law
Transmitted light intensity I from the analyser is
directly proportional to the square of the cosine of
the angle θ between the transmission axis of polariser
and analyser.
Let I0 be the intensity and a be the amplitude of the
light transmitted by the polariser. acosθ and asinθ are
the parallel and perpendicular components of
amplitude a. Only (acosθ) component will be
transmitted by the analyser.
The intensity of light transmitted from the analyser is
proportional to the square of the component of the
amplitude transmitted by the analyser.
6.3.5What are Uses of polaroids
1.Polaroids are used to avoid glare.
2.Polaroids are used in holography.
3.Polaroids are used in liquid crystal display (LCD).
4.Polaroids are used to improve colour contrast in old oil paintings.
5.Polaroids are used as window glasses to control the
intensity of incoming light.
6.Polarised laser beam acts as needle to read/write in
compact discs (CDs).
6.3.6. Obtain the equation for critical angle.
The angle of incidence in the denser
medium for which the refracted ray graces the
boundary is called critical angle ic.
For air (rarer) n2 =1 and
Denser Medium n1=n
The critical angle ic depends on the refractive index of
the medium.
CEO-THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT Page | 16
 6.5.1.*Obtain the equation for bandwidth in
Young’s double slit experiment.
d is the distance between the double slits S1 and S2.
λ is the wavelength of coherent sources. D is the
distance of screen and double slits.

6.5.3 What is dispersion? Obtain the equation for

dispersive power of a medium.
Dispersion is splitting of white light into its
constituent colours. Let δV, δR are the angles of
deviation for violet and red light. Let nV and nR are the
refractive indices for the violet and red light
respectively.

Above Formulas given distance of nth bright and

nth dark fringe from centre O.
For small angled prism of angle100, D = δ

6.5.2* Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine

speed of light.
Light from source S falls on a partially silvered glass
plate G kept at an angle of 45o to the incident light.
Light then passes through one cut of a rotating
toothed-wheel with N teeth and N cuts of equal
widths. white light enters the prism, the deviation is different
When wheel is not rotating, light travels a long for different colours. Thus, the refractive index is also
distance d, about 8 km, gets reflected from a mirror different for different colours
and passes through the same cut and reach the eyes of
the observer.
Working: The wheel is rotated with high angular
speed ω,until light passing through one cut would Angular separation between the two extreme colours
completely be blocked by the adjacent tooth. So the (violet and red) is called angular dispersion
observer cannot see the image of source.
Expression for speed of light: Ɵ is Angle of One teeth
or One cut at the centre of wheel. Dispersive power (ω) is defined as the ratio of the
angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the
deviation for any mean colour.
NƟ + NƟ = 2π
2NƟ = 2π
Dispersive power (ω) depends on material of prism
and not on angle of prism

HS/ II-YEAR/PHYSICS /Learning Material CEO-THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT Page | 17

6.5.4* Derive the mirror equation and the equation for
lateral magnification.
First paraxial light BD from the object AB gets
reflected on the concave mirror at D and passes
through the focus F.
Second light ray BP incident at the pole P is reflected
along PB´.
The third light ray BC passing through centre of
curvature C, gets reflected back along the same path.
The three reflected rays intersect at the point where a
real, inverted image A’B’ is formed.
From 1 & 2
Object Distance from Pole = PA = -u
Image Distance from Pole = PA’= -v
Focus Distane from Pole = PF= -f
Dividing by v
This is Mirror Equation
Lateral Magnification (m)
HS/ II-YEAR/PHYSICS /Learning Material CEO-THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT
6.5.5* Obtain lens maker’s formula and mention its
significance.
A thin lens of refractive index n2 is placed
between two medium of same refractive index n1. Let
R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature of two spherical
surfaces 1 and 2 respectively.
Using the ray from object O, after refraction,
Surface 1 forms image at I'. But the image at I' acts as
object for surface 2. So surface 2 bends the ray and
forms final Image at I.
refraction at a spherical surface 1 when light moves
from medium of refractive index n1 to n2 is
Refraction at a spherical surface 2 when light moves
from medium of refractive index n2 to n1 is
When object distance u is Infinity, image distance v is
equal to focal length f
u = ∞, v = 𝑓
If n2 = n and for air n1=1
This equation is called the lens maker’s formula,
because it tells the lens manufactures what
curvature is needed to make a lens of desired focal
length f with a material of particular refractive
index n.
Page | 18
6.5.6Derive the equation for angle of deviation
produced by a prism and thus obtain the equation for
refractive index of material of the prism.
PQ is the incident ray QR is the refracted ray and RS
is the emergent ray
i1 and r1 are angles of incidence and refraction at the
first face AB. i2 and r2 are angles of incidence and
refraction at the first face AC.
The angle between the incident ray PQ and the
emergent ray RS is called the angle of deviation d.
Angle of deviation decreases with increase in angle of
incidence and reaches a minimum value and then
continues to increase.
Incident ray and emergent ray are symmetrical
Refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to its base of
the prism.
7. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
7.2.1 Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.
Minimum energy needed for an electron to
escape from the metal surface is called work
function of that metal. Unit:electron volt (eV).
7.2.2. What is photoelectric effect?
Ejection of electrons from a metal plate
when electromagnetic radiation of suitable
frequency fall on metal is called photoelectric effect
7.2.3. Give the definition of intensity of light and its unit.
Intensity of light is equal to number of same
energy photons incident per unit area per unit
time. unit : Wm–2.
7.2.4. How will you define threshold frequency?
Minimum frequency above
photoelectrons are emitted is called the threshold
frequency.
HS/ II-YEAR/PHYSICS /Learning Material
7.2.5What is a photo cell? Mention the different types of photocells.
Device which converts light energy into electrical
energy is called Photo electric cell. Its Types are
1. Photo emissive cell
2. Photo voltaic cell
3. Photo conductive cell.
7.2.6. State de Broglie hypothesis.
Waves are associated with all moving
elementary particles like electrons, protons,
neutrons.
7.2.7. Why we do not see the wave properties of a
baseball?
Wave nature of matter is applicable for
microscopic atomic level but really negligible for the
macroscopic baseball.
7.2.8. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy.
Which one has greater de Broglie wavelength. Justify.
De Broglie wavelength is inversely
proportional to squareroot of mass. Mass of
electron is lesser than mass of proton. So Electron
has Greater De Broglie wavelength.
7.2.9 An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic energy. How
are the de Broglie wavelengths associated with them related?
Mass of electron is lesser than mass of alpha
particle. So Electron has Greater De Broglie
wavelength than Alpha particle.
7.2.10What are types of Electron emission
1)Thermionic Emission 2) Field Electric Emission
3)Photo Electris Emission 4) Secondary Emission
7.2.11Define Stopping potential
Minimum Negative Potential given to Anode to stop
Most Energetic Electron is called Stopping potential.
7.2.12 What are the applications of X-rays
1. X-rays are used to detect fractures
2. X-rays are used to cure skin diseases, tumours
3. X-rays are used to check for flaws in welded joints.
4. X-ray diffraction is used to study the structure of atoms
and molecules in crystals.
7.2.13Differentiate Continuous and Characteristic Xray Spectra
which
CEO-THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT Page | 19
7.3.1 List out the laws of photoelectric effect.
1.Minimum frequency above which photoelectrons
are emitted is called the threshold frequency.
2. Instantaneous Process .There is no time gap between
incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons.
3.Number of photoelectrons and Saturation
current emitted is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light.
4.Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is
directly proportional to the frequency of incident
light but does not depend on Intensity of
Incident Light
7.3.2What are the uses of Photoelectric Cells
1. Photo cells are used as switches and sensors.
2. Street lights are Automatically turned on when it
gets dark using photocells.
3. Sounds are reproduced in motion pictures using
Photocells.
4. Athlete’s speed is measured using photocells.
5. Light intensity can be measured using
Photocells.
7.3.3 Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength
7.3.4 Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength
for electron
An electron of mass m is accelerated through a
potential difference of V volt. The kinetic energy
acquired by the electron is given by
de Broglie wavelength of the electron is
7.3.5 Write the Characteristics of photons
1. Energy of photons of frequency ν: E=hυ
2. Photons travel with the velocity of light and its
momentum is p=hν/c
3. Photons are electrically neutral, Photons are
unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
4. When a photon interacts with matter,the total
energy, total linear momentum and angular
momentum of photon are conserved. Number of
photons may not be conserved
5. Energy of a photon is determined by the
frequency of the radiation and not by its
intensity.
HS/ II-YEAR/PHYSICS /Learning Material CEO-THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT
7.5.1.Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equation
When a photon of energy hν is incident on a
metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a single
electron and the electron is ejected.
From the law of conservation of energy,
At threshold frequency ν0,
the photo electrons are
ejected with zero kinetic
energy
This is Einstein Photoelectric
Equation
If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions, then it
is emitted with maximum kinetic energy Kmax.
7.5.2 Give the construction and working of photo emissive cell.
Two metallic electrodes a cathode
and an anode are fixed in an
evacuated glass or quartz bulb.
Semi-cylindrical cathode C is coated
with a photo sensitive material.
The anode A is a thin rod or wire.
A potential difference is applied
between the anode and
the cathode through a galvanometer.
Working:
When light falls on cathode , electrons emitted
are attracted by anode. Current is measured by the
galvanometer. For a given cathode, the current
depends on intensity to incident radiation and the
potential difference between anode and cathode.
7.5.3Explain the working of Electron Microscope
Principle : Wave nature of electron
Working:
1.Electrostatic or magnetic
lenses are used for focussing
electron beam.
2.Electron beam is made
divergent or convergent by
either electric or magnetic fields.
3.Electrons emitted from the source
are accelerated by high potentials.
4.The beam is made parallel by
magnetic condenser lens.
5.When the beam passes through
the sample and the beam carries
the image of the sample.
Page | 20
6.Magnified image is obtained on
the screen by magnetic objective lens and magnetic
projector lens system.
Electron microscopes are used in all branches of
science.
7.5.4.Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment
which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons.

HS/ II-YEAR/PHYSICS /Learning Material CEO-THIRUVALLUR DISTRICT Page | 21

 XII PHYSICS Minimum Learning Material Units 8 to 11
UNIT 8 – ATOMIC PHYSICS & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Atomic Physics
1. Write the properties of cathode rays. (3)
 They have energy and momentum
 They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields
 They are negatively charged particles
 When they fall on materials, heat is produced
 They affect photographic plates
 They ionize the gases
 They travel with 1/10th speed of light
2. Explain the J.J. Thomson’s method for determination of specific charge of electron. (5)
Construction
 High vacuum pump is used; electrons emitted from cathode, pass through a small hole and
accelerated by potential difference
 Then they pass through perpendicular electric and magnetic fields (E and B); finally they strike a
fluorescent screen at O
(i) To find the velocity of cathode rays:
 When the electric force equals the magnetic force, they reach the point O on the screen

(+) E

FE
O
FB B
( —)

𝐸
 i.e., eE = Bev, therefore, v = 𝐵
(ii) To find the specific charge (e/m):
 The kinetic energy gained by the electron when it reaches the anode is equal to the potential energy
acquired at the cathode. According to conservation of energy,
1 𝑒 𝑣2
eV = m𝑣 2 . ⟹ = .
2 𝑚 2𝑉
𝐸 𝑒 𝐸2
Sub. v = 𝐵 in this equation, we get = = 1.7 × 1011 C·kg –1
𝑚 2𝑉𝐵2
3. Explain the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to determine the charge of the electron. (5)
Principle
By changing the electric field suitably, the motion of the oil drop can be controlled
Construction
 Electric field is created when a high p.d. is applied between the two circular metal plates kept at a
small distance
 Glycerine or oil is sprayed through a small hole on top plate; the entire apparatus is surrounded by
glass wall
 When oil drops fall by gravity, they become charged due to friction or passing of X-rays; they can
be seen by a microscope
(a) To find the radius of the oil drop
The oil drop is accelerated downwards in the absence of electric field. It attains a constant velocity due
to the viscous force of air. This is called terminal velocity
Absence of electric field [Fig. (a)]
4
Gravitational force 𝐹𝑔 = mg = π𝑟 3 ρg.
3
4
Upward buoyant force 𝐹𝑏 = π𝑟 3 σg.
3

Viscous force 𝐹𝑣 = 6πηrv.

4
Net downward force = (𝐹𝑔 – 𝐹𝑏 ) = π𝑟 3 (ρ – σ)g.
3
When terminal velocity is attained,
Net downward force = Viscous force Fig. (a) Absence of electric field
4
i.e., π𝑟 3 (ρ – σ)g = 6πηrv. Fig. (b) In the presence of electric field
3
From the formula for radius r can be found,
1
9𝜂𝑣 2
r=[ ]
2(𝜌–𝜎)𝑔
(b) To find the charge
When an electric field is set up, it experiences an upward electric force (qE) – [Fig. (b)] i.e., 𝐹𝑒 = qE.
When the electric field is adjusted and oil drop is kept stationary, then 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐹𝑔 .
4 4
qE + π𝑟 3 σg = π𝑟 3 ρg. From this, the charge q can be found.
3 3
1
4 3 18𝜋 𝜂3𝑣3 2
i.e., q = 3𝐸π𝑟 (ρ – σ)g. (or) q = [2(𝜌–𝜎)𝑔] .
𝐸

From these, the charge of the electron is found to be e = 1.6 × 10–19 C.

4. Write a note on Thomson atom model (Watermelon model). (3)
 Atoms are homogenous positive spheres in which negative electrons are
embedded (as seeds in a watermelon)
 Total positive charge is equal to the total negative charge
Drawbacks
 The atom has no stable equilibrium (Earnshaw’s theorem)
 It failed to explain the origin of spectral lines of atoms
5. Write notes on the results of Rutherford experiment. (2)
Results of Rutherford’s (gold foil) alpha-scattering experiment:
 Most of the alpha particles are undeflected
 Some of them are deflected through a small angle
 A few of them are deflected by more than 90𝑜
 Very few of them are reflected back by 180𝑜
6. What is meant by distance of closest approach? (2)
The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the alpha particle just before it gets
reflected back through 180° is called distance of closest approach
7. Define impact parameter. (2)
Impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance between the centre of the gold nucleus
and the direction of velocity vector of alpha particle when it is at a large distance.
8. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford atom model. (2)
Rutherford atom model
 It fails to explain the distribution of electrons
 It fails to explain the stability of the atom (accelerated charges emit electromagnetic waves and
hence should lose energy)
 According to this model, the spectra should be continuous; but actually the spectra are line.
9. Write the postulates of Bohr atom model. (3)
 Coulomb force provides the centripetal force necessary for revolution of electrons
 When the electrons revolve in certain, permitted stationary orbits, they do not radiate energy; the
𝑛ℎ
angular momentum of electrons in these stationary orbits l = .
2𝜋
 An electron can jump from one orbit to another orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose
energy is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE) between the two orbits ΔE = 𝐸𝑓 – 𝐸𝑖 = hν.
10. Derive the expression for the orbital radius or velocity of electrons using Bohr’s atom
model. (5)
Consider an electron revolving around a nucleus with an orbit of radius
𝑟𝑛 . Let +Ze be the charge of the nucleus and –e be the charge of
electron.
According to Coulomb’s law,

1 𝑍𝑒 2
Fcoul = – 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛 2
This force acts as the centripetal force. Therefore,

𝑚𝑣𝑛 2
Fcent= – 𝑟̂
𝑟𝑛

1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣𝑛 2
2
= .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑛

Therefore,

ℎ
According to Bohr’s theory, angular momentum m𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = l2𝜋 .

or, Here, This is called Bohr radius.

Also,
 From this, velocity of electrons

11. Derive the expression for the energy of an electron in nth orbit. (3)
Electrostatic potential energy of an electron in nth orbit is

Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit is,

𝐾𝑛

From this, 𝑈𝑛 = – 2 𝐾𝑛
Total energy of the electron in the nth orbit 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛 + 𝐾𝑛

13.6
or 𝐸𝑛 = – eV
𝑛2

12. What is meant by excitation energy and excitation potential? (2)

The energy required to excite an electron from lower energy state to any higher energy state is
known as excitation energy; excitation energy per unit charge is called excitation potential.
13. What is meant by ionization energy and ionization potential? (2)
The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the ground state is known as
ionization energy; ionization energy per unit charge is called ionization potential.
14. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom. (5)
Equation for wave number of spectral lines:

(a) Lyman series:

Putting n = 1 and m = 2,3,4....... in the above equation, we get Lyman series. The lines are in
ultraviolet region.

(b) Balmer series:

Putting n = 2 and m = 3,4, 5....... in the above equation, we get Balmer series. The lines are in
visible region.

(c) Paschen series:

Putting n = 3 and m = 4,5,6....... in the above equation, we get Paschen series. The lines are in
near infrared region.
 (d) Brackett series:
Putting n = 4 and m = 5,6,7....... in the above equation, we get Brackett series. The lines are in
mid infrared region.

(e) Pfund series:

Putting n = 5 and m = 6,7,8....... in the above equation, we get Pfund series. The lines are in
far infrared region.

15. Write the drawbacks of Bohr atom model. (3)

 It is not valid for other complex atoms
 It cannot explain the fine structure of hydrogen spectrum
 It cannot explain the intensity variations of lines
 It cannot explain the distribution of electrons

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1.What is Isotopes? Give an example
Atoms of same element having same atomic numbers (Z) but different mass number A.
1 2 3
Ex: 1𝐻 , 1𝐻 , 1𝐻

2.What is Isobars? Give an example.

Atoms of different elements having same mass number A but different atomic number Z.
14 14
Ex: 6𝐶 , 7𝑁

3.What is Isotones? Give an example.

Atoms of different elements having same neutron number
14 16
Ex: 6𝐶 , 8𝑂

4.Write the general notation of nucleus of element X, what each term denotes.
Notation zXA
X – Symbol of element
A – Mass number
Z – Atomic number
5.What is mass defect?
The difference between the total mass of the nucleons and the actual mass of nucleus.
(Or)
∆𝑚 = mass of nucleons – actual mass of nucleus
6.Define Binding energy. Give its expression.
In the formation of nucleus, the mass that disappear is converted into an equivalent amount of energy called
binding energy. BE = (∆𝑚)C2
7.What is meant by radioactivity?
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of high penetrating radiation such as α,β and γ by an element is
called radioactivity.
8.Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay.
𝛼 ⇒ ZXA ⟶ 2He4 + Z-2YA-4
𝛽 − ⇒ ZXA ⟶ -1e
O
+ Z+1Y
A
+𝛾̅
𝛽 + ⇒ ZXA ⟶ +1e
O
+ Z-1Y
A
+𝛾
𝛾 ⇒ ZXA* ⟶ ZXA + 𝛾
9.What is half-life of nucleus? Give the expression.
The time required for the number of atoms initially present to reduce one half of the initial amount. T =
0.6931
𝜆

10.What is mean by life of nucleus? Give the expression.

The ratio of integration of life times of all nuclei to the total number of initial nuclei.
0.6931
τ= 𝜆

11.What is meant by activity or decay rate? Give its unit.

The number of nuclei decayed per second is called activity.
Unit: becquerel(Bq)
12.Define curie
1 curie = 3.7x 1010 decay/second = activity of one gram of radium.
13.What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton.
Proton – two up quarks + one down quarks
Neutron – one up quark + two down quarks
14.Explain the variation of average binding energy with mass number by graph and discuss the future.
The energy required to remove single nucleon from a nucleus is known as Binding energy per unit mass.
DIAGRAM
Features
̅̅̅̅ reaches the maximum value of 8.8 MeV for Fe56
*𝐵𝐸
*Between A=40 to 120 average ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐸 is about 8.5 MeV
̅̅̅̅ reduces and becomes unstable and radioactive ( 𝐵𝐸
*For higher A 𝐵𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ of U238 7.6 MeV)

*When two lighter nuclei A < 28, combine to form big nucleus and release energy known as fusion. It is the
principle of Hydrogen bomb.
*When heavier nucleus splits into the lighter nuclei and release energy known as fission. It is the principle
of atom bomb.
15.Explain in detail the nuclear force
The attractive force which holds the nucleons together inside the nucleus known as Nucleus force.
Properties:
• Short range force
• Strongest force in nature
• Attractive force
• Charge independent, same for p-p, n-n, and p-n pair
Does not act an electron, hence it does not alter the chemical properties of the atom.
16.Explain the law of radioactivity
The rate of disintegration at any instant is directly proportional to number of undecayed nuclei
present in the sample at that instant.
𝑑𝑁
αN
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= - λN
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= -λ dt
𝑁
𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝑡
∫𝑁𝑜 = -λ ∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑁
ln 𝑁0 = - λt

N = N0 e – λt
Number of atoms is decreasing exponentially
GRAPH
17.Discuss the properties of neutron and its role in beta decay.
Properties:
• Zero charge
• Antiparticle – anti neutrino
• Very tiny mass
• Have very weak interactive with matter
• Very difficult to detect
Role in beta decay
It carries the missing energy and momentum in B decay, Hence the conservation of momentum and
energy is verified.
18.Describe the working of nuclear reactor with block diagram
It is a device in which a nuclear fission takes place in controlled manner.
Fuel: Fission material
238 235
Ex: Enriched 𝑈92 with 2 to 4 % of 𝑈92
Moderator: Convert fast neutrons into slow neutrons.
Ex: Heavy water, Water, Graphite
Control Rods: Control the neutron rate
Ex: Cadmium or Boron
Shielding: Protection against harmful radiations
Ex: Concrete wall about 2 to 2.5 m
Cooling System: Remove the heat generated in the core
Ex: water, Heavy water and liquid sodium.
Cooling system carries the heat to steam generator. The steam runs the turbines which produces
electricity.
DIAGRAM

UNIT 9 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

1.Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
• A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity is called intrinsic semiconductor
• A semiconductor in its impure form for increases electrical conductivity is called extrinsic
semiconductors

2. What you mean by doping?

Doping is a process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor
3. What you mean by rectification?
The process of converting A.C to D.C
4. Distinguish between avalanche and zener breakdown
avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown

Lightly doped heavily doped

The electric field produced The electric field produced

across the junction is not
strong
minority charge carriers are
accelerated by the weak
electric field is to break the
covalent t bond as the result
electron–hole pair is generated
across the junction
Is very strong
Strong electric field, across the
junction break the covalent
bond as the result electron–
hole pair is generated.

5 .write few application of photo diode

• Alarm system,
• Count items on a conveyer belt,
• Photoconductors,
• Compact disc players,
• smoke detectors
6. Draw the block diagram of oscillator

7. Give barkhausen condition

• The loop phase shift must be 00 or multiple of 2𝜋
• The loop gain must be unity Aβ =1

8. What do you mean by leakage current in a diode?

When the junction diode is reverse bias condition, a very small current in the range of μA,
flows across the junction. This is due to the flow of the minority charge carriers. This current is called as
leakage current

9. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and explain its working

During the positive half cycle terminal A becomes positive with respect to terminal B. The diode is forward
biased and hence it conducts.it have output
During the negative half cycle terminal A negative with respect to terminal B. The diode is reverse
biased and does not conduct. No output
Efficiency is 40.6 %

10. Explain the construction and working of a full wave rectifier.

During positive half cycle terminal M is positive, G is at zero potential and N is at negative potential. This
forward biases diode D1 and reverse biases diode D2. Diode D1conducts and current flows along the path
MD1AG C1.
During negative half cycle terminal N is positive, G is at zero potential and M is at negative potential. This
forward biases diode D2 and reverse biases diode D1. Diode D2 conducts and current flows along the
path ND2BGC.
11. Explain the working principle of a solar cell. Mention its applications.

A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, converts light energy directly into electricity or electric
potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
A solar cell is of two types: p-type and n-type.
In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of light
near the junction. The charge carriers are separated due to the electric field of the depletion
region. The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes reaching
p-side are collected by the back electrical contact. Thus a potential difference is developed
across solar cell

12. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second theorems.

First theorem
Complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the product of its complements

Second theorem
Complement of the product of two inputs is equal to the sum of its complements

13. Sketch the static characteristics of a common emitter transistor and bring out the essence
of input and output characteristics.
Input Characteristics

Input resistance

Output Characteristics

Output Resistance
Transfer characteristics

Forward current gain

UNIT 10. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1. What are advantage and disadvantage of AM
Advantage
• Easy transmission and reception
• Lesser bandwidth requirements
• Low cost

Disadvantage
• Noise level is high
• Low efficiency
• Small operating range

2. What are advantage and disadvantage of FM

Advantage
• Large decrease in noise.
• ii) The operating range is quite large.
• iii) The transmission efficiency is very high
• (iv) FM radio has better quality compared to AM radio.
Disadvantage
• FM requires a much wider channel
• FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.
• In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.

3. What are advantages of PM?

• FM signal produced from PM signal is very stable.
• The centre frequency called resting frequency is extremely stable.

4. What you meant by skip distance and skip zone

The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of the sky wave along the surface is
called as the skip distance
There is a zone where there is no reception of electromagnetic waves called as skip zone
5. List some of satellite communication
• They are used to monitor the weather and climate of Earth.
• They are used to transmit television, radio, internet signals etc.
• These are employed to determine the geographic location of ships, aircrafts or any other object.

6. Write merits and demerits of fibre optic communication

Merits
• Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than copper cables.
• This system has much larger band width.
• Fiber optic system is immune to electrical interferences.
• Fiber optic cables are cheaper
Demerits
• Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared to copper wires.
• It is an expensive technology.

7. Give the applications RADAR

• In military, it is used for locating and detecting the targets.
• It is used in navigation systems
• In meteorological observations, Radars are used.
• It is employed to locate and rescue people in emergency situations.
8. Give the applications of Mobile communication

• It is used for personal communication

• Transmission of news across the globe is done within a few seconds.
• Home automation using a mobile phone.
• It enables smart classrooms, online availability of notes, monitoring student activities etc.
9. Write a few applications of GPS.
• Fleet vehicle management
• Wildlife management
• Engineering for making tunnels, bridges
10. Give the applications of ICT in mining and agriculture sectors.
Mining:
• Operational efficiency, remote monitoring and disaster locating system.
• Audio-visual warning to the trapped underground miners.
• It helps to connect remote sites.
Agriculture
• Increase food productivity and farm management.
• Optimize the use of water, seeds and fertilizers etc.
• Robots, temperature and moisture sensors, aerial images, and GPS technology can be used.

11. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication system with the necessary block diagram.

UNIT 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS

1.Distinguish between Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.
Nanoscience: study of structures and materials on Nano meter scale (10-9m).
Nanotechnology: The technology involving the design, production, chacterisation and applications of
Nano structured materials.
2.What is the difference between Nano materials and Bulk materials?
If the particle size is lesser than 100nm, it is called Nano materials.
If the particle size is greater than 100nm, it is called bulk materials.
3.Give any two examples for’ Nano’ in nature.
*Single strand of DNA
*Morpho butterfly
*Peacock Feathers
*Lotus leaf structure
4.Mention any two advantages and disadvantages of Robotics.
Advantages:(any two)
*Much cheaper than robots
*Can work for 24x7
*Error free performance
*Stronger and faster
*Work is extreme environmental condition. Ex:bomb detection
*In warfare,it can human lives.
*Handling materials in Nuclear plants.
Disadvantages (Any two)
*No sense of emotions.
*Create an emotionless workplace.
*Unemployment will increase.
*Cannot handle unexpected situations.
*If a small thing goes wrong it ends up in a big loss to the company.
*Identification and rectification of problem takes more time.
*Can’t make decision making
5.Why steel is preferred in making Robots?
Because steel is several times stronger and can be easily made as sheet, bars, rod, channel and
other shapes.
6.What are black holes?
Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massive objects. It has very strong
gravitational force, even light cannot escape from it.
7.What are sub atomic particle?
Protons, neutrons and electrons.
Applications of Nanomaterials in various fields.
a) Automotive Industry

*Catalysts
*Tires
*Sensors
*Wind screen and car bodies
*Painting
b) Chemical Industry

*Magnetic fluids
*Switchable adhesives
*Coating system
c) Engineering
*Anti blocking coatings
*Scratch resistant
*Lubricant.
d) Electronic industry
*Data memory
*Display
*Laser diode
*Optical fibers
*Filters
e) Construction
*Construction materials
*Thermal insulation
*Groove mortar
*Flame retardants
f) Medicine
*Drug delivery system
*Active agents.
*Medical rapid tests.
*Antimicrobial agents.

*Cancer therapy agents

g) Textile
*Surface processed textiles
*smart clothes
h) Energy
*Fuel cell
*Solar cell
*Batteries
*Capacitors
i) Cosmetics
 *Sun protection
*Lipsticks
*Skin creams
*Tooth paste
j) Food and drinks
*Package materials
*Storage life sensors
*Additives
*Clarification of fruit juices
k) Household
*Coatings for irons
*Odors catalyst
*Floor cleaner
*Glass cleaner
l) Sports and outdoors
*Ski wax
*Anti fogging agent
*Reinforced tennis balls

2.What are the possible harmful effects of usage of Nanoparticles? Why?

a) Brain

*Neurological diseases
*Parkinson’s diseases
b) Lungs
*Asthma
*Cancer
c) Heart
*Heart disease
*Death
d) Skin
*Auto immune diseases
*Dermatitis
e) Orthopedic
*Auto immune diseases
 *Urticana
*Vasculitis
f) Gastro-Intestinal system:
*Crohn’s diseases
*Colon cancer
Reasons:
Size of nanoparticles are equal to proteins.Hence they easily get absorbed onto the surface of
living organisms and they might enter the tissues and fluids of the body.
3.Discuss the functions of key components in Robots.
Power conversion unit batteries, solar power and hydraulics.
Actuators convert energy into movements.
Electric motors Actuate the parts of robots like wheels, arms, fingers etc
Pneumatic Air muscles contract and expand when air pumped.
Muscle wires Thin wires made of memory alloys.
Piezo motors and Ultrasonic motors Used in Industrial robots.
Sensors Provides real time knowledge
Robot locomotion Provides movements to robot.
4.Comment on the recent advancement in medical diagnosis and therapy.
*Virtual reality
Effectively used to stop brain from processing pain and cure soreness
Uses Autism, memory loss, mental illness.
*Precision medicine
Approach for disease treatment and preventions.
*Healthy wearables
It is a device used for tracking health, fitness, location etc.
*Artificial organs
An engineered device that is implanted in human.
*3D printing
It assists physicians in operation in the medical field of dentistry, audiology and orthopedics
*Wireless brain sensors:
Monitor inter cranial pressure and temperature
*Robotic surgery
Type of surgical procedure that is done by robotic systems
*Smart inhalers:
It uses Bluetooth technology to detect inhaler use, remind the patients and gather data.