Handouts and Materials

for Students and Teachers

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
 CONTENT

PUNCTUATION ................................................................................................................................ 4
SENTENCE PUNCTUATION ................................................................................................................. 4
Sentence Punctuation Patterns .................................................................................................... 4
Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences .............................................................................. 7
APOSTROPHES ................................................................................................................................... 8
The Apostrophe ............................................................................................................................ 8
COMMAS ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Commas After Introductions ...................................................................................................... 11
Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences ...................................................................... 13
Commas with Nonessential Elements ........................................................................................ 14
Proofreading for Commas ......................................................................................................... 15
Using Commas ........................................................................................................................... 18
HYPHENS ........................................................................................................................................ 23
Using Hyphens ........................................................................................................................... 23
OTHER PUNCTUATION ..................................................................................................................... 25
Brief Overview of Punctuation: Semicolon, Colon, Parenthesis, Dash, Quotation Marks, and
Italics.......................................................................................................................................... 25
QUOTATION MARKS ........................................................................................................................ 28
Quotation Marks ........................................................................................................................ 28
SPELLING AND CAPITALIZATION ......................................................................................... 32
Capitals ...................................................................................................................................... 32
Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike ............................................................................... 35
Spelling: Accept/Except and Affect/Effect.................................................................................. 39
Spelling: IE/EI............................................................................................................................ 42
Spelling: Noun Plurals ............................................................................................................... 43
Spelling: -ible vs. -able .............................................................................................................. 45
Writing Numbers ........................................................................................................................ 46
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................................... 48
SENTENCE PARTS, PATTERNS, AND VARIETY .................................................................................. 48
Appositives ................................................................................................................................. 48
Independent and Dependent Clauses (Definitions) ................................................................... 51
Strategies for Improving Sentence Clarity ................................................................................. 54
SENTENCE ERRORS ......................................................................................................................... 58
Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences ............................................................................ 58
Sentence Fragments ................................................................................................................... 59
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree ............................................................................................. 61
SENTENCE PUNCTUATION ............................................................................................................... 64
Sentence Punctuation Patterns .................................................................................................. 64
CLAUSES AND PHRASES .................................................................................................................. 67
Independent and Dependent Clauses (Definitions) ................................................................... 67
DANGLING MODIFIERS .................................................................................................................... 70
Dangling Modifiers .................................................................................................................... 70
PARALLEL STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................... 74
Parallel Structure....................................................................................................................... 74
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE IN VERBS ........................................................................................... 76
Active and Passive Voice ........................................................................................................... 76

2
PARTS OF SPEECH ....................................................................................................................... 81
NOUNS ............................................................................................................................................ 81
Count and NonCount Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and Quantity Words) .............................. 81
Count and NonCount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives) ...................................................... 86
PRONOUNS ...................................................................................................................................... 90
Using Pronouns Clearly............................................................................................................. 90
Pronoun Case............................................................................................................................. 92
VERBS ............................................................................................................................................. 94
Active and Passive Voice ........................................................................................................... 94
Irregular Verbs .......................................................................................................................... 99
Sequence of Tenses................................................................................................................... 102
Verb Tense Consistency ........................................................................................................... 104
Two-Part (Phrasal) Verbs (Idioms) ......................................................................................... 109
Verb Tenses .............................................................................................................................. 117
Verbs with Helpers ................................................................................................................... 121
Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives......................................................................... 123
Verbs - Voice and Mood........................................................................................................... 135
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS ........................................................................................................... 136
A or An? ................................................................................................................................... 136
Adjective or Adverb? ................................................................................................................ 137
Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns ................................................................ 142
The Use and Non-Use of Articles ............................................................................................. 144
PREPOSITIONS ............................................................................................................................... 148
Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to) ......................................................................... 148
Prepositions of Location: At, In, On ........................................................................................ 155
Prepositions of Time, of Place, and to Introduce Objects ....................................................... 161
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship ........................................................................................ 164

3
Punctuation
Sentence Punctuation

Sentence Punctuation Patterns

Pattern One: Simple sentence

Independent clause .

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma .

This pattern is an example of a simple sentence.

Pattern Two : Compound Sentence

Independent clause , coordinating conjunction independent clause .

There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the
reasons for it.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death , but they don't know the reasons for it .
rate from asthma

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

Pattern Three: Compound Sentence

Independent clause ; Independent clause .

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its
cause.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from ; they are unsure of its cause .
asthma

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

4
Pattern Four: Compound Sentence

Independent clause ; independent marker , independent clause .

Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently,
however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called
for more research into its causes.

Doctors are concerned about the rising ; therefore , they have called for more research .
death rate from asthma into its causes

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

Pattern Five: Complex Sentence

Dependent marker + dependent clause , Independent clause .

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until,
when, then, after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called
for more research into its causes.

Because doctors are concerned about the rising , they have called for more research into its .
death rate from asthma causes

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.

Pattern Six

Independent clause dependent marker + dependent clause .

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until,
when, then, after, as, as if.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common,
treatable illness.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from because it is a common, treatable illness
.
asthma

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.

Pattern Seven

First part of an independent , non-essential clause or , rest of the independent .

clause phrase clause

5
For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas With Non Essential Elements
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html for those of you reading a print
copy).
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned
about the rising death rate from asthma.

Many , including both pediatricians and family , are concerned about the rising death rate .
doctors practice physicians from asthma

Pattern Eight

First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent .
clause

For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas With Non Essential Elements
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html for those of you reading a print
copy).
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for
more research into its causes.

Many who are concerned about the rising death have called for more research into its .
doctors rate from asthma causes

6
 Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences

The above are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best
way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of
these rules.

1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor,
so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word. (For more help on independent clauses, see
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html)

_________________________, and _________________________.

(He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.)

2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and,
but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).

__________________________;_____________________________.

(He often watched TV when there were only reruns; she preferred to read instead.)

or

__________________________; however,____________________.

(He often watched TV when there were only reruns; however, she preferred to read instead.)

So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses which are joined
together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.

Incorrect: They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.

Correct: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.

Incorrect: I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.
Correct: I didn't know which job I wanted, so I was too confused to decide.

7
 Apostrophes

The Apostrophe

The apostrophe has three uses:

1) to form possessives of nouns

2) to show the omission of letters
3) to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.

Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.

Forming possessives of nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase.
For example:
the boy's hat = the hat of the boy
three days' journey = journey of three days
If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!
room of the hotel = hotel room
door of the car = car door
leg of the table = table leg
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.
• add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
the owner's car
James's hat
• add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
the children's game
the geese's honking
• add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
houses' roofs
three friends' letters
• add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money
• add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment

Showing omission of letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or
more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are
common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an
apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:
don't = do not
I'm = I am
he'll = he will
8
 who's = who is
shouldn't = should not
didn't = did not
could've = could have (NOT "could of"!)
'60 = 1960

Forming plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be
more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a
lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on
capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and
professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:

p's and q's = a phrase indicating politeness, possibly from "mind

your pleases and thankyous"?

Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.

three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4

There are two G4s currently used in the writing classrom.

many &s = many ampersands

That printed page has too many &s on it.

Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.

Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already
show possession -- they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive
pronouns. Here are some examples:

wrong: his' book

correct: his book

wrong: The group made it's decision.

correct: The group made its decision.

(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its
is a possesive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining
out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an
apostrophe for the possesives his or hers, so don't do it with its!)

wrong: a friend of yours'

correct: a friend of yours

9
 wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.
correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.

Proofreading for apostrophes:

A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following strategies:

• If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see
if it needs an apostrophe.

• If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify
it with a rule for using apostrophes.

10
 Commas

Commas After Introductions

Introductory Clauses

Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or

"set the stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause. For
example:

 If they want to win, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory dependent
clause, main clause)
 Because he kept barking insistently, we threw the ball for Smokey.
(introductory dependent clause, main clause)

Clue: Introductory clauses start with adverbs like after, although, as, because,
before, if, since, though, until, when, etc.

Introductory Phrases

Introductory phrases also set the stage for the main action of the sentence, but they
are not complete clauses. Phrases don't have both a subject and a verb that are
separate from the subject and verb in the main clause of the sentence. Common
introductory phrases include prepositional phrases, appositive phrases, participial
phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute phrases.

 To stay in shape for competition, athletes must exercise every day.

(introductory infinitive phrase, main clause)
 Barking insistently, Smokey got us to throw his ball for him. (introductory
participial phrase, main clause)
 A popular and well respected mayor, Bailey was the clear favourite in the
campaign for governor. (introductory appositive phrase, main clause)
 The wind blowing violently, the townspeople began to seek shelter.
(introductory absolute phrase, main clause)
 After the adjustment for inflation, real wages have decreased while corporate
profits have grown. (introductory prepositional phrases, main clause)

Introductory Words

Introductory words like however, still, furthermore, and meanwhile create continuity
from one sentence to the next.

 The coaches reviewed the game strategy. Meanwhile, the athletes trained on
the Nautilus equipment.
 Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still, the credibility of some
witnesses was in question.

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When to Use a Comma

Introductory elements often require a comma, but not always. Use a comma in the
following cases:

 after an introductory clause. (Does the introductory element have a subject

and verb of its own?)
 after a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory
prepositional phrase. (Are there more than five words before the main
clause?)
 after introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute
phrases.
 if there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find
your voice pausing a moment after the introductory element?)
 to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once
to make sense of it?)

When not to Use a Comma

Some introductory elements don't require a comma, and sometimes the subject of a
sentence looks like an introductory element but isn't. Do not use a comma in the
following cases:

 after a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five
words?)
 after a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on
appositives at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_appos.html.)
 to separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)

Each of the following sentences may look like it requires a comma after the opening
segment (marked with an x), but the opening segment is really the subject. It's
sometimes easy to confuse gerund- or infinitive-phrase subjects like the following
with nonessential introductory phrases, so be careful. (For more help with gerunds,
see http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html.)

 Preparing and submitting his report to the committee for evaluation and
possible publication[x] was one of the most difficult tasks Bill had ever
attempted.
 To start a new business without doing market research and long-term
planning in advance[x] would be foolish.
 Extracting the most profit for the least expenditure on labor and materials[x]
is the primary goal of a capitalist.

There is an exercise with an answer key. Click here for he exercise at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaintEX1.html.

12
 Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences

A group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought is called a
sentence or an independent clause. Sometimes, an independent clause stands alone as a sentence,
and sometimes two independent clauses are linked together into what is called a compound
sentence. Depending on the circumstances, one of two different punctuation marks can be used
between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: a comma or a semicolon. The choice is
yours.

Comma (,)

Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of
the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:

I am going home, and I intend to stay there.

It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp
for the night.

Semicolon (;)

Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:

I am going home; I intend to stay there.

It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for
the night.

You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the
following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover,
therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:

I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.

It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic
anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to
camp for the night.

13
 Commas with Nonessential Elements

Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term,
while others are nonessential and don't restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential
elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas.

Rule: Use commas before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses, that is, elements
embedded in the sentence that interrupt it without changing the essential meaning.

Clue: If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential
meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.

Nonessential vs. Essential

The average world temperature, however, has The sixth-century philosopher
continued to rise significantly. (word) Boethius was arrested, tortured, and
bludgeoned to death. (word)
Company managers, seeking higher profits, hired
temporary workers to replace full-time staff. The person checking tickets at the
(phrase) counter asked for a form of
identification. (phrase)
My uncle, who is eighty years old, walks three
miles every day. (clause) The woman who interviewed you is
my sister. (clause)

Deciding whether an element is essential or nonessential can sometimes be tricky. For help
identifying two common types of phrases that can be either essential or nonessential, see the OWL
handout on verbals at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbals.html

(handout #5) which includes information on participial phrases, as well as the handout on
appositives at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_appos.html

(handout #71) which covers appositive phrases. Both of these documents address the
essential/nonessential distinction for these kinds of phrases.

14
 Proofreading for Commas

Compound Sentence Commas

1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:

and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.

2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence),
on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html.)

3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:

She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total
population.

Comma Splices

1. Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.

2. See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.

3. If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:

 reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our
handout on dependent clauses at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html)
 add a coordinating conjunction after the comma
 replace the comma with a semicolon
 replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the
first word of the second clause

comma splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.

Introductory Commas

Introductory commas after dependent clauses

1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.

2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if,
after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaint.html).

15
 3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause.
Examples:

While I was writing, the phone rang.

Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned
picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.

Other introductory commas

1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.

2. Stop if the word or phrase . . .

 ends in -ing
 is an infinitive (to + verb)
 is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)

3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase. Examples:

To get a good grade, you must turn in all your homework problems.
Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult.

4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in, at,
on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer
than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause. Examples:

On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.

In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Across the street from the library, an old man waited for a bus.

Disruptive Commas

General guidelines

1. Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.

2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.

For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects

1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but,
so, for, or, and yet.

2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of

the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a
comma before the conjunction.

disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.

16
For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs

1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.

2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma.
It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for
nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single
comma acceptable. (For more help, see our handout on nonessential clauses at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html.)

disruptive comma: That man sitting in the train station, is the person
I'm supposed to meet.

correct: That man sitting in the train station is the person I'm
supposed to meet.

Series Commas

1. Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions.

2. Check to see if these conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

3. If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series (except the last one, as
demonstrated in this sentence: no comma after the word clause). Examples:

People who are trying to reduce saturated fat in their diets should avoid eggs, meat,
and tropical oils.

The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and
end unemployment.

Commas with Nonessential Elements

1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more
information about a word or phrase that comes before it. (See also our handout, Commas With
Nonessential Elements at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html.)

2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably
nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the
end of the sentence).

3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that
seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the
essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who
cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.

Students who cheat only harm themselves.

Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

17
 Using Commas

The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural elements of
sentences into manageable segments. The rules provided here are those found in traditional
handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific purposes, these rules may be
broken.

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven
coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.

The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main
clause.

a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a

comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while. (For more
information, see our handout on introductory clauses at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaint.html.)

While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.

Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate)
clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.
(incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct:
extreme contrast)

b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include

participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases,
and long prepositional phrases (over four words). (For more information, see our
handout on verbals at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbals.html

and our handout on appositives at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_appos.html.)

18
 Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.

c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes,

however, well.

Well, perhaps he meant no harm.

Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are
not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the
pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

 If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?
 Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?
 If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make
sense?

If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential
and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:

Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am
available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is
rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-
exerted yourself.

4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with
that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb
expressing mental action are always essential.

That clauses after nouns:

The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.

The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.

That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:

She believes that she will be able to earn an A.

He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.

Examples of other essential elements (no commas):

19
 Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.

Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):

Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be
tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.

5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of

government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and
end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who
had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty
of homicide.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure
never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with
non-coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither
adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by
asking the following questions:

 Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
 Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?

If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a
comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)

They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are
coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and
2-3 are coordinate.)

7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate
a distinct pause or shift.

20
 He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.

8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or
middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence
without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free"
and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)

1. Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)

2a. Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (incorrect: Who is laughing, Lisa or
Nancy?)
2b. Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
2c. Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)

9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day),
addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.

July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life.
Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.

(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the year:
"The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."

"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"

11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.

Comma Abuse

Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with
unnecessary and unexpected pauses.

12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.

An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. (incorrect)

The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions. (incorrect)

13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.

We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study. (incorrect)
I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car. (incorrect)

21
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound
subject or compound object.

The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are
married. (incorrect: compound subject)
Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview
me. (incorrect: compound object)

15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it
(except for cases of extreme contrast).

1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme
contrast)

There are five exercises (with answer keys) on using commas that you can try, available at the
following URLs:

exercise 1:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaEX1.html
exercise 2:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaEX2.html
exercise 3:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaEX3.html
exercise 4:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaEX4.html
exercise 5:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_commaEX5.html

22
 Hyphens

Using Hyphens

For information on dashes and other punctuation, see our handout Semicolons, Parentheses, Dashes,
Quotation Marks, and Italics at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html.

Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or
connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the
following compounds:

hair stylist
hairsplitter
hair-raiser

Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously in
a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered
here are generally agreed upon.

1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:

a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author

However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

The peanuts were chocolate covered.

The author was well known.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

forty-six
sixty-three
Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)

semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)

4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect;
between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:

ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
23
 mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s

5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only
between syllables:

pref-er-ence
sell-ing
in-di-vid-u-al-ist

For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:

mass-produced
self-conscious

For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled
before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:

plan-ning
run-ning
driv-ing
call-ing

Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter
suffixes at the beginning of a new line:

lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)

eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end
of a line.)

24
 Other punctuation

Brief Overview of Punctuation: Semicolon, Colon, Parenthesis, Dash,

Quotation Marks, and Italics

Punctuation marks are signals to your readers. In speaking, we can pause, stop, or change our tone
of voice. In writing, we use the following marks of punctuation to emphasize and clarify what we
mean. Punctuation marks discussed in other OWL documents

include commas at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html,

apostrophes at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apost.html,

quotation marks at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_quote.html,

and hyphens at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_hyphen.html.

Semicolon ;

In addition to using a semicolon to join related independent clauses in compound sentences, you can
use a semicolon to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas.
(For more help with independent clauses, look here:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html.)

Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player;
and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter.

Colon :

Use a colon . . .

in the following situations: for example:

after a complete statement in order to
introduce one or more directly related
ideas, such as a series of directions, a list,
or a quotation or other comment
illustrating or explaining the statement.
in a business letter greeting.
between the hour and minutes in time
notation.
The daily newspaper contains four
sections: news, sports, entertainment, and
classified ads.
The strategies of corporatist industrial
unionism have proven ineffective:
compromises and concessions have left
labor in a weakened position in the new
"flexible" economy.
Dear Ms. Winstead:
5:30 p.m.

25
 between chapter and verse in biblical Genesis 1:18
references.

Parentheses ()

Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra, nonessential material included in a
sentence. For example, dates, sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest of the
sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always appear in pairs.

Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it was a relic of frontier
days) caught fire.

Dash --

Use a dash (represented on a typewriter, a computer with no dashes in the type font, or in a
handwritten document by a pair of hyphens with no spaces) . . .

in the following situations: for example:

to emphasize a point or to set off an
explanatory comment; but don't overuse
dashes, or they will lose their impact.
for an appositive phrase that already
includes commas.
To some of you, my proposals may seem
radical--even revolutionary.
In terms of public legitimation--that is, in
terms of garnering support from state
legislators, parents, donors, and
university administrators--English
departments are primarily places where
advanced literacy is taught.
The boys--Jim, John, and Jeff--left the
party early.

For more help with appositives, look here:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_appos.html

As you can see, dashes function in some ways like parentheses (used in pairs to set off a comment
within a larger sentence) and in some ways like colons (used to introduce material illustrating or
emphasizing the immediately preceding statement). But comments set off with a pair of dashes
appear less subordinate to the main sentence than do comments in parentheses. And material
introduced after a single dash may be more emphatic and may serve a greater variety of rhetorical
purposes than material introduced with a colon.

Quotation Marks " "

Use quotation marks . . .

in the following situations: for example:

to enclose direct quotations. Note that He asked, "Will you be there?" "Yes," I
commas and periods go inside the closing answered, "I'll look for you in the foyer."
quotation mark in conventional American

26
 usage; colons and semicolons go outside;
and placement of question and
exclamation marks depends on the
situation (see our quotation marks
document).
to indicate words used ironically, with History is stained with blood spilled in
reservations, or in some unusual way; but the name of "civilization."
don't overuse quotation marks in this
sense, or they will lose their impact.

For more information on writing research papers and using quotations, see our workshop on writing
research papers here http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html.

Underlining and Italics

Underlining and italics are not really punctuation, but they are significant textual effects used
conventionally in a variety of situations. Before computerized word-processing was widely
available, writers would underline certain terms in handwritten or manually typed pages, and the
underlining would be replaced by italics in the published version. Since word processing today
allows many options for font faces and textual effects, it is generally recommended that you choose
either underlining or italics and use it consistently throughout a given document as needed. Because
academic papers are manuscripts and not final publications and because italics are not always easily
recognized with some fonts, many instructors prefer underlining over italics for course papers.
Whichever you choose, italics or underlining should be used . . .

in the following situations: for example:

to indicate titles of complete or major
works such as magazines, books,
newspapers, academic journals, films,
television programs, long poems, plays
of three or more acts
foreign words that are not commonly
used in English
words used as words themselves
words or phrases that you wish to
emphasize
Faulkner's last novel was The Reivers.
The Simpsons offers hilarious parodies
of American culture and family life.
Wearing blue jeans is de rigueur for most
college students.
The English word nuance comes from a
Middle French word meaning "shades of
color."
The very founding principles of our
nation are at stake!

After reviewing this handout, you can try the Purdue OWL exercise on semicolons, parentheses,
dashes, quotation marks and italics (and then check your answers). You can find it here:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvwEX1.html

27
 Quotation Marks

Quotation Marks

For additional information on quoting sources, see the Purdue OWL handout Quoting,
Paraphrasing, and Summarizing at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_quotprsum.html. For practice using quotation
marks, try the separate exercise at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_quoteEX1.html (with Answer Key at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_quoteA1.html). For more information on
writing research papers and citing sources, see our extensive research paper workshop at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/ResearchW/index.html.

Quotation Marks with Direct and Indirect Quotations

Quoting Prose

Direct quotations are another person's exact words--either spoken or in print--incorporated into your
own writing.

 Use a set of quotation marks to enclose each direct quotation included in your writing.
 Use a capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of a whole sentence. Do not use a
capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of part of a sentence.
 If the quotation is interrupted and then continues in your sentence, do not capitalize the
second part of the quotation.

Mr. and Mrs. Allen, owners of a 300-acre farm, said, "We refuse to use that
pesticide because it might pollute the nearby wells."
Mr. and Mrs. Allen stated that they "refuse to use that pesticide" because of possible
water pollution.
"He likes to talk about football," she said, "especially when the Super Bowl is
coming up."

Indirect quotations are not exact words but rather rephrasings or summaries of another person's
words. Do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations.

According to their statement to the local papers, the Allens refuse to use pesticide
because of potential water pollution.

Below are some further explanations and examples of how to integrate quoted prose into your own
writing.

Quotation within a quotation

Use single quotation marks for a quotation enclosed inside another quotation. For example:

The agricultural reporter for the newspaper explained, "When I talked to the Allens

28
 last week, they said, 'We refuse to use that pesticide.' "

Omitted words in a quotation

If you leave words out of a quotation, use an ellipsis mark to indicate the omitted words. If you
need to insert something within a quotation, use a pair of brackets to enclose the addition. For
example:

The welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to

full quotation help every family that we'd like to help because we don't have
the funds to do so."
The welfare agency representative said, "We are unable to
omitted material
help every family . . . because we don't have the funds to do
with ellipsis
so."
added material with The welfare agency representative explained that they are
brackets "unable to help every family that [they would] like to help."

Block quotations
A quotation that extends more than four typed lines on a page should be indented one inch from the
left margin (the equivalent of two half-inch paragraph indentations). Maintain double spacing as in
the main text, and do not use quotation marks for the block quotation.

Quoting Poetry

Short quotations
When you quote a single line of poetry, write it like any other short quotation. Two lines can be run
into your text with a slash mark to indicate the end of the first line. Use quotation marks.

In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost writes: "Something there is that doesn't
love a wall, / That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it."

Long quotations
If the quotation is three lines or longer, set it off like a block quotation (see above). Some writers
prefer to set off two-line verse quotations also, for emphasis. Quote the poem line by line as it
appears on the original page, and do not use quotation marks. Indent one inch from the left margin.

In his poem "Mending Wall," Robert Frost questions the building of barriers and
walls:

Before I built a wall I'd ask to know

What I was walling in or walling out,
And to whom I was like to give offense.

Writing Dialogue

Write each person's spoken words, however brief, as a separate paragraph. Use commas to set off
dialogue tags such as "she said" or "he explained." Closely related narrative prose can be included
in a paragraph with dialogue. If one person's speech goes on for more than one paragraph, use

29
quotation marks to open the speech and at the beginning--but not the end--of each new paragraph in
the speech. To close the speech, use quotation marks at the end of the final paragraph.

Quotation Marks for Titles of Minor Works and Parts of Wholes

Use quotation marks for:

 titles of short or minor works, such as songs, short stories, essays, short poems, one-act
plays, and other literary works that are shorter than a three-act play or a complete book.
 titles of parts of larger works, such as chapters in books; articles in newspapers, magazines,
journals, or other periodical publications; and episodes of television and radio series.

Use underlining or italics for titles of major works or of works that contain smaller segments such
as books; plays of three or more acts; newspapers, magazines, journals, or other periodical
publications; films; and television and radio series.

Do not use quotation marks for referring to the Bible or other sacred texts or to legal documents.

Quotation Marks for Words

Use quotation marks to indicate words used ironically, with reservations, or in some unusual way.

The great march of "progress" has left millions impoverished and hungry.

For words used as words themselves or for technical or unfamiliar terms used for the first time (and
defined), use italics.

The English word nuance comes from a Middle French word meaning "shades of
color."
The use of chiasmus, or the inversion of syntactic elements in parallel phrases, can
create rhetorically powerful expressions.

Punctuation with Quotation Marks

Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase, or a
dependent clause, for example, "He asked," "She stated," "According to Bronson," or "As
Shakespeare wrote." Use a colon to introduce a quotation after an independent clause.

As D. H. Nachas explains, "The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from
one culture to another."
D. H. Nachas explains cultural differences in greeting customs: "Touching is not a
universal sign of greeting. While members of European cultures meet and shake
hands as a gesture of greeting, members of Asian cultures bow to indicate respect."

Put commas and periods within closing quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference
follows the quotation.

He said, "I may forget your name, but I never remember a face."
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."

30
 Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do
nothing" (27).

Put colons and semicolons outside closing quotation marks.

Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists
disagreed.
Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey":
family support, personal commitment, and great coaching.

Put a dash, question mark, or exclamation point within closing quotation marks when the
punctuation applies to the quotation itself and outside when it applies to the whole sentence.

Philip asked, "Do you need this book?"

Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?
Sharon shouted enthusiastically, "We won! We won!"
I can't believe you actually like that song, "If You Wanna Be My Lover"!

Unnecessary Quotation Marks

 Do not put quotation marks around the titles of your essays.

 Do not use quotation marks for common nicknames, bits of humor, technical terms that
readers are likely to know, and trite or well-known expressions.

You can practice these rules by doing the accompanying exercise at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_quoteEX1.html.

31
SPELLING AND CAPITALIZATION
Capitals

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab.

This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a
specific word should be capitalized that doesn't fit under one fo these rules, try checking a
dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.

Use capital letters in the following ways:

• The first words of a sentence

example: When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

• The pronoun "I"

example: The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.

• Proper nouns

(the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)

examples:
Worrill Fabrication Company Livingston, Missouri
Golden Gate Bridge Atlantic Ocean
Supreme Court Mothers Against Drunk Driving

• Family relationships

(when used as proper names)

examples:
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?

• The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

examples:
God the Father Moses
the Virgin Mary Shiva
the Bible Buddha
the Greek gods Zeus

Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."

32
 example: The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.

• Titles preceding names, but not title that follow names

examples:
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.

• Directions that are names

(North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as
compass directions)

examples:
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim’s house is two miles north of Otterbein.

• The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays

(but not the seasons used generally)

examples:
Halloween winter
October spring
Friday fall

Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.

example: The Fall 1999 semester

• The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages

examples:
Costa Rica French
Spanish English

• The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote

example: Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."

• The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs

(but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first
word of the title)

example: One of Ringo’s favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

• Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

examples:
Green Bay Packers Democrats
African-Americans Friends of the Wilderness

33
 Anti-Semitic Chinese

• Periods and events

(but not century numbers)

examples:
Victorian Era Constitutional Convention
Great Depression sixteenth century

• Trademarks

examples:
Pepsi IBM
Honda Microsoft Word

• Words and abbreviations of specific names

(but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)

examples:
Freudian UN
NBC french fries
pasteurize italics

34
 Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike

Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you
distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike. Click on any of the blue
underlined links to open a longer and more complete definition of the word in a new window.

Forms to remember

Accept, Except

 accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree: He accepted their praise graciously.

 except = preposition meaning all but, other than: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.

For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and
affect/effect.

Affect, Effect

 affect = verb meaning to influence: Will lack of sleep affect your game?
 effect = noun meaning result or consequence: Will lack of sleep have an effect on your
game?
 effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: Our efforts have effected a major
change in university policy.

A memory-help for affect and effect is is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a
Noun.

For more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and
affect/effect.

Advise, Advice

 advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel: I advise you to be cautious.
 advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be
done: I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.

Conscious, Conscience

 conscious = adjective meaning awake, perceiving: Despite a head injury, the patient
remained conscious.
 conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: Chris wouldn't cheat
because his conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal

 idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion
or conception formed by generalization: Jennifer had a brilliant idea -- she'd go to the
Writing Lab for help with her papers!

35
  ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object
or endeavour: Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.
 ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or
the best; Jennifer was an ideal student.

Its, It's

 its = possessive adjective (possessive form of the pronoun it): The crab had an unusual
growth on its shell.
 it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase): It's still raining; it's been raining for
three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

Lead, Led

 lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: The X-ray technician wore a vest lined
with lead.
 led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct: The
evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.

Than, Then

Than used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.

used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.
used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.
Then a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.
next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.
suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no
problem.

Their, There, They're

 Their = possessive pronoun: They got their books.

 There = that place: My house is over there. (This is a place word, and so it contains the
word here.)
 They're = contraction for they are: They're making dinner. (Pronouns have apostrophes
only when two words are being shortened into one.)

To, Too, Two

 To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb: They went to the lake to
swim.
 Too = very, also: I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.
 Two = the number 2: Two students scored below passing on the exam.

Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too
many")

We're, Where, Were

36
  We're = contraction for we are: We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when
two words are being shortened into one.)
 Where = location: Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word
here.)
 Were = a past tense form of the verb be: They were walking side by side.

Your, You're

 Your = possessive pronoun: Your shoes are untied.

 You're = contraction for you are: You're walking around with your shoes untied. (Pronouns
have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

One Word or Two?

All ready/already

 all ready: used as an adjective to express complete preparedness

 already: an adverb expressing time

At last I was all ready to go, but everyone had already left.

All right/alright

 all right: used as an adjective or adverb; older and more formal spelling, more common in
scientific & academic writing: Will you be all right on your own?
 alright: Alternate spelling of all right; less frequent but used often in journalistic and
business publications, and especially common in
fictional dialogue: He does alright in school.

All together/altogether

 all together: an adverb meaning considered as a whole, summed up: All together, there
were thirty-two students at the museum.
 altogether: an intensifying adverb meaning wholly, completely, entirely: His comment
raises an altogether different problem.

Anyone/any one

 anyone: a pronoun meaning any person at all: Anyone who can solve this problem deserves
an award.
 any one: a paired adjective and noun meaning a specific item in a group; usually used with
of: Any one of those papers could serve as an example.

Note: There are similar distinctions in meaning for everyone and every one

Anyway/any way

 anyway: an adverb meaning in any case or nonetheless: He objected, but she went anyway.
 any way: a paired adjective and noun meaning any particular course, direction, or manner:
Any way we chose would lead to danger.

37
Awhile/a while

 awhile: an adverb meaning for a short time; some readers consider it non-standard; usually
needs no preposition: Won't you stay awhile?
 a while: a paired article and noun meaning a period of time; usually used with for: We
talked for a while, and then we said good night.

Maybe/may be

 maybe: an adverb meaning perhaps: Maybe we should wait until the rain stops.
 may be: a form of the verb be: This may be our only chance to win the championship.

38
 Spelling: Accept/Except and Affect/Effect

Errors in writing that involve sound-alike words (homophones) are known as "wrong word" errors.
Such errors are more significant than simple spelling mistakes, since they involve word-level
confusion, not merely incorrect spelling of the correct word. Two common sources of wrong word
errors are the homophone pairs accept/except and affect/effect. For more information on sound-alike
words, see our handout on this topic at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelhomo.html.

Accept and Except

Meanings for the most common uses:

ac•cept (transitive verb) [Middle English, from Middle French accepter, from Latin acceptare,
frequentative of accipere to receive, from ad- toward + capere to take]

1a: to receive willingly <accept a gift> b: to be able or designed to

take or hold (something applied or added) <a surface that will not
accept ink>

2: to give admittance or approval <to accept her as one of the group>

3a: to endure without protest or reaction <accept poor living

conditions> b: to regard as proper, normal, or inevitable <the idea is
widely accepted> c: to recognize as true; believe <refused to accept
the explanation>
4a: to make a favorable response to <accept an offer> b: to agree to
undertake (a responsibility) <accept a job>
5: to assume an obligation to pay; also: to take in payment <we don't
accept personal checks>

1. ex•cept (preposition) [Originally past participle; see meaning 3, below] with the exclusion or
exception of <open daily except Sundays>

2. ex•cept (conjunction)

1: on any other condition than that; unless <you face punishment

except if you repent>
2: with the following exception <was inaccessible except by boat>
3: only (often followed by that) <I would go except that it's too far>

Meanings for less common uses:

3. ex•cept (transitive verb) [Latin exceptus, past participle of excipere to take or draw out, to
except; ex- out + capere to take]

39
 To take or leave out (anything) from a number or a whole; to exclude;
to omit <if we only except the unfitness of the judge, the trial was a
perfect enactment of justice> <Adam and Eve were forbidden to
touch the excepted tree (past participle)>

You can try exercises on using accept and except correctly at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelprobEX1.html.

Affect and Effect

Meanings for the most common uses:

Affect

1. af•fect (transitive verb) [Middle English, from affectus, past participle of afficere]

to produce an effect upon, as a: to produce a material influence upon

or alteration in <paralysis affected his limbs> b: to act upon (as a
person or a person's mind or feelings) so as to bring about a response;
influence

Effect

1. ef•fect (noun) [Middle English, from Middle French & Latin; Middle French, from Latin
effectus, from efficere to bring about, from ex- out (of) + facere to make, do]

1a: purport; intent <the effect of their statement was to incite anger>
b: basic meaning; essence <her argument had the effect of a plea for
justice>
2: something that inevitably follows an antecedent (as a cause or
agent) <environmental devastation is one effect of unchecked
industrial expansion>
3: an outward sign; appearance <the makeup created the effect of old
age on their faces>
4: accomplishment; fulfillment <the effect of years of hard work>
5: power to bring about a result; influence <the content itself of
television is therefore less important than its effect>
6 plural: movable property; goods <personal effects>
7a: a distinctive impression <the color gives the effect of being
warm> b: the creation of a desired impression <her tears were purely
for effect> c (1): something designed to produce a distinctive or
desired impression, usually used in plural (2) plural: special effects
8: the quality or state of being operative; operation <the law goes into
effect next week>

in effect: in substance; virtually <the committee agreed to what was

in effect a reduction in the hourly wage>
to the effect: with the meaning <issued a statement to the effect that
he would resign>

40
Meanings for less common uses:

Affect:

2. af•fect (transitive verb)

1: to make a display of liking or using; cultivate <affect a worldly

manner>
2: to put on a pretense of; feign <affect indifference, though deeply
hurt>

3. af•fect (noun) [pronunciation: stress on first syllable, unlike verb forms of this word]

the conscious subjective aspect of an emotion considered apart from

bodily changes <he displayed a distressing lack of affect>

Effect

2. ef•fect (transitive verb)

1: to cause to come into being <the citizens were able to effect a

change in government policy>
2a: to bring about often by surmounting obstacles; accomplish <effect
a settlement of a dispute> b: to put into operation <the duty of the
legislature to effect the will of the citizens>

Usage: The confusion of the verbs affect and effect not only is quite common but has
a long history. The verb effect was used in place of affect (1, above) as early as 1494
and in place of affect (2, above) as early as 1652. If you think you want to use the
verb effect but are not certain, check the definitions here. The noun affect is
sometimes mistakenly used for the noun effect. Except when your topic is
psychology, you will seldom need the noun affect.

You can try an exercise on using affect and effect correctly at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelprobEX2.html.

41
 Spelling: IE/EI

Rule

Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"

i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield

e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight

Exceptions

seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure,
neither, science, species, sufficient

You can try out these rules by doing two exercises, Exercise #1 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelieEX1.html and Exercise #2 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelieEX2.html. Both have separate
answer keys.

42
 Spelling: Noun Plurals

Plurals of nouns can be created in the following ways:

(See our handout on Count and Non-Count Nouns at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslcount.html for more information on nouns.)

1. Add an -s to form the plural of most words.

 elephant--elephants
 stereo--stereos

2. For words that end in a "hissing" sound (-s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh), add an -es to form the plural.

 box--boxes
 church--churches

3. If the word ends in a vowel plus -y (-ay, -ey, -iy, -oy, -uy), add an -s to the word.

 tray--trays
 key--keys

4. If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, change the -y into -ie and add an -s to form the plural.

 enemy--enemies
 baby--babies

5. For words that end in -is, change the -is to -es to make the plural form.

 synopsis--synopses
 thesis--theses

6. Some words that end in -f or -fe have plurals that end in -ves.

 knife--knives
 self--selves

7. The plurals of words ending in -o are formed by either adding -s or by adding -es. The plurals of
many words can be formed either way. To determine whether a particular word ends in -s or -es (or
if the word can be spelled either way), check your dictionary or the list below. There are two helpful
rules:

a. All words that end in a vowel plus -o (-ao, -eo, -io, -oo, -uo) have plurals that end
in just -s:

 stereo--stereos
 studio--studios
 duo--duos

43
 b. All musical terms ending in -o have plurals ending in just -s.

 piano--pianos
 cello--cellos
 solo--solos

c. Plural forms of words ending in -o:

-os -oes -os or -oes

albinos echoes avocados/oes
armadillos embargoes buffaloes/os
autos heroes cargoes/os
bravos Negroes desperadoes/os
broncos potatoes dodoes/os
cantos tomatoes dominoes/os
casinos torpedoes ghettos/oes
combos vetoes grottoes/os
gazebos hoboes/os
infernos innuendoes/os
kimonos lassos/oes
logos mangoes/os
maraschinos mosquitoes/os
ponchos mottoes/os
sombreros mulattos/oes
tacos noes/os
torsos palmettos/oes
tobaccos peccadilloes/os
typos tornadoes/os
volcanoes/os
zeros/oes

8. The plurals of single capital letters, acronyms, and Arabic numerals (1,2,3,...) take an -s
WITHOUT an apostrophe:

 Z (the capital letter Z)--Zs

 UPC (Universal Product Code)--UPCs
 ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)--ATMs
 GUI (Graphical User Interface)--GUIs
 3 (the Arabic numeral 3)--3s

If you are unsure of how to make a noun plural, you can look up the singular form of the
noun in a dictionary to get the plural form.

Source: Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary

44
 Spelling: -ible vs. -able

Rule

-ible -able
If the root is not a complete word, add If the root is a complete word, add -able.
-ible.
accept + able = acceptable
aud + ible = audible
Examples:
Examples:
 fashionable
 visible  laughable
 horrible  suitable
 terrible  dependable
 possible  comfortable
 edible
 eligible If the root is a complete word ending in -e, drop the final -e
 incredible and add -able.
 permissible
excuse - e+ able = excusable

Examples:

 advisable
 desirable
 valuable
 debatable

Some exceptions:

 contemptible
 digestible
 flexible
 responsible
 irritable
 inevitable

You can try some exercises for spelling -ible and -able correctly at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_spelibleEX1.html.

45
 Writing Numbers

Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words
and use figures for other numbers:

Words Figures
over two pounds after 126 days
six million dollars only $31.50
after thirty-one years 6,381 bushels
eighty-three people 4.78 liters
Here are some examples of specific situations.

Days and Years

December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965

A.D. 1066
in 1900
in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
the eighties, the twentieth century
the 1980's or the 1980s

Time of Day

8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning

4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon

Addresses

16 Tenth Street
350 West 114 Street

Identification Numbers

Room 8
Channel 18
Interstate 65
Henry VIII

Page and Division of Books and Plays

page 30
chapter 6
in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii

Decimals and Percentages

46
 a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton

Large Round Numbers

four billion dollars (or) $4 billion

16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Notes on Usage

Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.

The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.

two apples, six oranges, and three bananas

NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas
115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed

Write out numbers beginning sentences.

Six percent of the group failed.

NOT: 6% of the group failed.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination
will keep your writing clear.

Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who

were born in the city. (may cause the reader to read '690' as one
number.)

Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who

were born in the city.

Try our exercise on writing numbers at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslnumberEX1.html.
For more information on plural cases, see our handout on Noun Plurals at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/grammar/g_spelnoun.html.

47
SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION
Sentence Parts, Patterns, and Variety

Appositives

An appositive is a noun or pronoun -- often with modifiers -- set beside another noun or pronoun to
explain or identify it. Here are some examples of appositives.

An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.

Punctuation of appositives

In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is
essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the
appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive,
then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.

Here are some examples.

48
 Here we do not
put commas
around the
appositive,
because it is
essential
information.
Without the
appositive, the
sentence would
be The popular
US president
was known for
his eloquent
and
inspirational
speeches. We
wouldn't know
which president
was being
referred to.

Here we put
commas around
the appositive
because it is not
essential
information.
Without the
appositive, the
sentence would
be John
Kennedy was
known for his
eloquent and
traditional
speeches. We
still know who
the subject of
the sentence is
without the
appositive.

Here we do not
put commas
around either
appositive
because they
are both
essential to
understanding
the sentence.

49
 Without the
appositives, the
sentence would
just be John
Kennedy was
quite different
from John
Kennedy. We
wouldn't know
what qualities
of John
Kennedy were
being referred
to without the
appositive.

Exercise

Underline the appositives in the following sentences.

1. My son, the policeman, will be visiting us next week.

2. The captain ordered the ship's carpenters to assemble the shallop, a large rowboat.
3. Walter, the playboy and writer, is very attached to his mother, Mrs. Hammon.
4. The actor Paul Newman directed only one picture.
5. Elizabeth Teague, a sweet and lovable girl, grew up to be a mentally troubled woman.

Underline and punctuate the appositives in the following sentences. Remember: not all require
punctuation.

6. Sweetbriar a company known throughout the South is considering a nationwide advertising

campaign.
7. An above-average student and talented musician John made his family proud.
8. The extremely popular American film Titanic was widely criticized for its mediocre script.
9. The greatest American film ever made Citizen Kane won only one Academy Award.
10. 60 Minutes the TV news magazine program featured a story on the popular singer Whitney
Houston.

Answers to this exercise are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apposA1.html .

50
 Independent and Dependent Clauses (Definitions)

When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about
whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent
and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with this.

This handout will:

 define independent and dependent clauses

 explain proper ways to punctuate sentences that use them
 note some common errors to avoid

Definitions

Independent Clause (IC)

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.

Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz. (IC)

Dependent Clause (DC)

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by
a dependent marker word.

Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (DC)

Dependent Marker Word (DM)

A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it
into a dependent clause.

Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very
noisy. (DM)

Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even
though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.

Connecting dependent and independent clauses

There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent
clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.

1. Coordinating Conjunction (CC)

51
 The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of
an independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second
independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is
needed before the coordinating conjunction:

Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to
concentrate because of the noise. (CC)

2. Independent Marker Word (IM)

An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an

independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone.
When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word,
a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.

Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard
to concentrate because of the noise. (IM)

Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however,

moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

Proper Punctuation Methods

This table gives some examples of ways to combine independent and dependent clauses and shows
how to punctuate them properly.

IC. IC. I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread.

IC; IC. I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread.
IC, CC
I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread.
IC.
IC; IM,
I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread.
IC.
DC, IC. When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread.
IC DC. I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store.

Some Common Errors to Avoid

Comma Splices

A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the
error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate
sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent by inserting
a dependent marker word in front of it.

52
 Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.

Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.

(or) I like this class; it is very interesting.

(or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.

(or) I like this class because it is very interesting.

(or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.

Fused Sentences

Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of
punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected
by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.

Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.

Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.

(or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.

(or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her.

(or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her.

Sentence Fragments

Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a

complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a
complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.

Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.

Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.

(or) I forgot the exam was today.

Related Materials on OWL

Run-Ons, Comma Splices, Fused Sentences

(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentpr.html)

Sentence Variety (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_sentvar.html)

Using Commas (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html)

53
 Strategies for Improving Sentence Clarity

Go from old to new information

Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know.
Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information
becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.

The following example sentence is clear and understandable because it uses old information to lead
to new information:

Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do
with books of lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day,
but they just keep piling up on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse
under the weight of information I might never need.

Here is a sentence that is not as clear. It moves from new information to old information:

Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but
occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the
Indian culture (new) is the topic of a recent movie (old) I saw.

Did you find the second sentence hard to read or understand? If so, it could be because the old
information comes late in the sentence after the new information. A clearer version that moves from
old information to new information might look like this:

Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but
occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. One recent movie (old) I saw
was about the rapid disappearance of the Indian culture. (new)

Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause
confusion:

 clear (subordinate clause at the end):

Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and
process corporate information.

 clear (subordinate clause at the beginning):

Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information,
industrial spying is increasing rapidly.

 not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):

54
 Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate
information, is increasing rapidly.

Use active voice

Sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because
active-voice constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In
addition, changing from passive voice to active often results in a more concise sentence. So use
active voice unless you have good reason to use the passive. For example, the passive is useful
when you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is obvious, unimportant, or
unknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.

For more on this topic, consult our handout on active and passive voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html.

 clear (active):

The committee decided to postpone the vote.

 not as clear (passive):

A decision was reached to postpone the vote.

Use parallel constructions

When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar
grammatical construction) so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and
clearly.

 clear (parallel):

In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important
(1) to become aware of the warning signs, (2) to know what precautions to take, and (3) to
decide when to seek shelter.

 not as clear (not parallel):

In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important
(1) to become aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding
when to take shelter is important.

In the second sentence, notice how the string of "things to be aware of in Florida" does not create a
parallel structure. Also, notice how much more difficult it is for a reader to follow the meaning of
the second sentence compared to the first one.

Avoid noun strings

Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to
understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.

 unclear (string of nouns):

55
 This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects.

 clearer:

This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments.

Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."

 unclear (use of nominalization):

The implementation of the plan was successful.

 clearer:

The plan was implemented successfully.

We implemented the plan successfully.

Avoid multiple negatives

Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to
understand.

 unclear (multiple negatives, passive):

Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of
commercials.

 clearer:

People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of
commercials.

Choose action verbs over forms of be

When possible, avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This
problem tends to accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a be verb, focus on the
actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs. In the following example, two ideas
are expressed: 1) that there is a difference between television and newspaper news reporting, and 2)
the nature of that difference. The revised version expresses these two main ideas in the two main
verbs.

 Unclear (overuse of be verbs):

One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers
is the time factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be
reported. The problem is that instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for
newspapers.

 Clearer:

56
 Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike
newspapers, can provide instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.

Avoid unclear pronoun references

Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the
pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by
explicitly using that noun.

 Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):

With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a

corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as
teachers. This has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions
as a way of protecting job security and benefits.

 Clearer:

With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a

corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as
teachers. This trend has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join
unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.

 Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):

Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, which may be her career choice.

 Clearer:

Larissa worked in a national forest last summer; forest management may be her career
choice.
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, and she may choose a forest management
career.

57
 Sentence Errors

Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences

The above are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best
way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of
these rules.

1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor,
so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word. (For more help on independent clauses, see

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html)

_________________________, and _________________________.

(He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.)

2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and,
but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).

__________________________;_____________________________.

(He often watched TV when there were only reruns; she preferred to read instead.)

or

__________________________; however,____________________.

(He often watched TV when there were only reruns; however, she preferred to read instead.)

So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses which are joined
together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.

Incorrect: They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.

Correct: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.

Incorrect: I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.
Correct: I didn't know which job I wanted, so I was too confused to decide.

58
 Sentence Fragments

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab.

We also have more information about sentences at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_sentp.html and general writing concerns
at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/index.html

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become
disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period
between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly
combined sentence.
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or words added to
make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent clause
or long phrase that follows the main clause.

Fragment (phrase or dependent clause) Possible Revision

Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Purdue offers many majors in engineering,
Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial such as electrical, chemical, and industrial
engineering. engineering.

Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by
walking off the field in the middle of a game. walking off the field in the middle of a game,
Leaving her team at a time when we needed leaving her team at a time when we needed
her. her.

I need to find a new roommate. Because the I need to find a new roommate because the
one I have now isn't working out too well. one I have now isn't working out too well.

The current city policy on housing is

Because the current city policy on housing is
incomplete as it stands. Which is why we
incomplete as it stands, we believe the
believe the proposed ammendments should be
proposed ammendments should be passed.
passed.

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as a
separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last example
above. This is a conventional journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing
and other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment
sentences.

Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main
clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.

Fragment (incomplete main clause) Possible Revisions

No main verb Appositive: Gilman's "The Yellow

59
 A story with deep thoughts and Wallpaper," a story with deep thoughts
emotions. and emotions, has impressed critics for
decades.
Direct object: She told a story with deep
thoughts and emotions.

Complete verb: Toys of all kinds were

Toys of all kinds thrown thrown everywhere.
everywhere. Direct object: They found toys of all kinds
thrown everywhere.

Direct object: I've noticed a record of

A record of accomplishment accomplishment beginning when you were
beginning when you were first first hired.
hired. Main verb: A record of accomplishment
began when you were first hired.

No subject
Remove preposition: The ultimate effect of
With the ultimate effect of all advertising
all advertising is to sell the product.
is to sell the product.

By paying too much attention to Remove preposition: Paying too much

polls can make a political leader attention to polls can make a political
unwilling to propose innovative leader unwilling to propose innovative
policies. policies.

Remove preposition: Doing freelance work

For doing freelance work for a for a competitor got Phil fired.
competitor got Phil fired. Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing
freelance work for a competitor.

These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions, that
is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional
phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in
the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the
beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors. (For more information on gerunds, see our
handout at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbals.html.)
Please refer to our fragment exercises at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_fragEX1.html for editing practice.

60
 Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and,
use a plural verb.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or
nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.

4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a
contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule
appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns,
the contraction don't should be used.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with
the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

61
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.

Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a
singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts
to these things.)

9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not
the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and
take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.
In very few cases, the plural verb is used if the individuals in the group are thought of and
specifically referred to.

62
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do
not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

Exercises for this handout are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslsubverbEX1.html

63
 Sentence Punctuation

Sentence Punctuation Patterns

Pattern One: Simple sentence

Independent clause .
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma .

This pattern is an example of a simple sentence.

Pattern Two : Compound Sentence

Independent clause , coordinating conjunction independent clause .

There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the
reasons for it.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death , but they don't know the reasons for it .
rate from asthma

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

Pattern Three: Compound Sentence

Independent clause ; Independent clause .

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its
cause.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from ; they are unsure of its cause .
asthma

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

64
Pattern Four: Compound Sentence

Independent clause ; independent marker , independent clause .

Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently,
however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called
for more research into its causes.

Doctors are concerned about the rising ; therefore , they have called for more research .
death rate from asthma into its causes

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.

Pattern Five: Complex Sentence

Dependent marker + dependent clause , Independent clause .

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until,
when, then, after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called
for more research into its causes.

Because doctors are concerned about the rising , they have called for more research into its .
death rate from asthma causes

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.

Pattern Six

Independent clause dependent marker + dependent clause .

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until,
when, then, after, as, as if.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common,
treatable illness.

Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from because it is a common, treatable illness
.
asthma

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.

65
Pattern Seven

First part of an independent , non-essential clause or , rest of the independent .

clause phrase clause

For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas With Non Essential Elements
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html for those of you reading a print
copy).
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned
about the rising death rate from asthma.

Many , including both pediatricians and family , are concerned about the rising death rate .
doctors practice physicians from asthma

Pattern Eight

First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent .
clause

For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas With Non Essential Elements
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html for those of you reading a print
copy).
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for
more research into its causes.

Many who are concerned about the rising death have called for more research into its .
doctors rate from asthma causes

66
 Clauses and Phrases

Independent and Dependent Clauses (Definitions)

When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about
whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent
and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with this.

This handout will:

 define independent and dependent clauses

 explain proper ways to punctuate sentences that use them
 note some common errors to avoid

Definitions

Independent Clause (IC)

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.

Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz. (IC)

Dependent Clause (DC)

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by
a dependent marker word.

Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (DC)

Dependent Marker Word (DM)

A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it
into a dependent clause.

Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very
noisy. (DM)

Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even
though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.

Connecting dependent and independent clauses

There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent
clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.

67
1. Coordinating Conjunction (CC)

The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of

an independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second
independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is
needed before the coordinating conjunction:

Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to
concentrate because of the noise. (CC)

2. Independent Marker Word (IM)

An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an

independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone.
When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word,
a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.

Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard
to concentrate because of the noise. (IM)

Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however,

moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

Proper Punctuation Methods

This table gives some examples of ways to combine independent and dependent clauses and shows
how to punctuate them properly.

IC. IC. I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread.

IC; IC. I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread.
IC, CC
I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread.
IC.
IC; IM,
I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread.
IC.
DC, IC. When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread.
IC DC. I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store.

Some Common Errors to Avoid

Comma Splices

A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the
error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate
sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent by inserting
a dependent marker word in front of it.

68
 Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.

Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.

(or) I like this class; it is very interesting.

(or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.

(or) I like this class because it is very interesting.

(or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.

Fused Sentences

Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of
punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected
by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.

Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.

Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.

(or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.

(or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her.

(or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her.

Sentence Fragments

Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a

complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a
complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.

Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.

Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.

(or) I forgot the exam was today.

Related Materials on OWL

Run-Ons, Comma Splices, Fused Sentences

(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentpr.html)
Sentence Variety (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_sentvar.html)
Using Commas (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html)

69
 Dangling Modifiers

Dangling Modifiers

Definition:

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A
modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.

Consider this sentence:

"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences,
the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems
logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not
have a dangling modifier.

Now consider this sentence:

Having finished is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the
main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the
participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.

(For more information on participles, see our handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html .)

Examples of dangling modifiers and revisions:

dangling modifier:

(The article--the subject of the main clause--did not read the original study.)

possible revisions:

70
 -or-
The article remains unconvincing in light of the original study. (no modifying
phrase)

dangling modifier:

(Your home--the subject of the main clause--is not relieved of your responsibilities.)

possible revision:

Characteristics of dangling modifiers:

They most frequently occur at the beginning of sentences (often as introductory clauses or phrases)
but can also appear at the end. (For more information on introductory clauses, see our handout at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaint.html.)

dangling modifier at end of sentence:

(The experiment--the subject of the main clause--is not supposed to study the lab
manual.)

possible revision:

They often have an -ing word (gerund) or a to+verb (infinitive) phrase near the start of the sentence.
(For more information on gerunds and infinitives, see our handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html .)

Squinting modifiers:

71
Related to dangling modifiers, squinting modifiers occur when the word modified is not clear or
could be more than one word. These problems can usually be solved by rearranging the elements
already present in the sentence.

squinting modifier:

possible revisions:

Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:

dangling
modifier:
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To
revise, decide who actually arrived late.

possible
revision:
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in
the modifying phrase (arrived late).

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the
action in that clause:

dangling
modifier:
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name.
To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him.
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
possible
revision: The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any
other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."

(For more information on introductory clauses, see our handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaint.html )

72
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:

dangling
modifier:
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was
trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main
clause into one sentence.
possible
revision: He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

73
 Parallel Structure

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the
same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to
join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or." (For more
information on coordinating conjunctions, see our handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html .

1. Words and Phrases

With the -ing form (gerund) of words:

Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

With infinitive phrases:

Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.

OR
Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

For more information on gerunds and infinitives, see our handout at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_verbals.html.

Do not mix forms.

Example 1

Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

Example 2

Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
in a detailed manner.
Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
thoroughly.

Example 3

Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last
minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his
motivation was low.

74
 Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute
to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked
motivation.

2. Clauses

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern
or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.

Example 1

Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not
eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
-- or --
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do
some warm-up exercises before the game.

Example 2

Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that
there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be
asked by prospective buyers.
(passive)
Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that
there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers
would ask him questions.

3. Lists after a colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.

Example 1

Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.

Proofreading Strategies to try:

 Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to
see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
 If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
 Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same
kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do
your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of
sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

75
 Active and Passive Voice in Verbs

Active and Passive Voice

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the
subject acts.

In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.

Passive Voice

In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the
subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may
be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.)

76
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above.
Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and
uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it
allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the
subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of
an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without
attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not
limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of
be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not
necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice
sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the
action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase. You can see examples of all the verb
tenses in passive voice at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.

Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your
sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and
complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active
voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

passive (indirect) active (direct):

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are
required to express action in active voice than in passive.

passive (more wordy) active (more concise)

77
Changing passive to active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase,
or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent
the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the
agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.

Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice

most of the
class

agent not
specified;
most likely
agents such
as "the
researchers"

the CIA
director and
his close
advisors

agent not
specified;
most likely
agents such
as "we"

Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an
indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also,
as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than
writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is
obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until
the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in
such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent
performing the action.

active
The dispatcher is notifying police that three
prisoners have escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new
experimental liver-transplant operation
passive
Police are being notified that three prisoners have
escaped.
A new experimental liver-transplant operation was
performed successfully yesterday.

78
yesterday.
"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said "Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.
defiantly.

In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively
unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.

Changing active to passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is
performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..."
phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be +
past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.

Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice

The
presiding
officer

The
leaders

The
scientists

In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted
upon instead of the agent.

Some suggestions

1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.

Unnecessary shift in voice Revised

Many customers in the restaurant found the
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too
coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still
bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
ordered frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but
puddle, but he was still laughed at by the
the other students still laughed at him.
other students.

2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or
phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. (See also our handout on dangling
modifiers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_dangmod.html.)

79
Dangling modifier with passive voice Revised
To save time, the paper was written on a
computer. (Who was saving time? The To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
paper?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking
the blame, consultants were hired to break Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame,
the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.
workers? The consultants?)

3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar

checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your
judgement, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.

80
PARTS OF SPEECH
Nouns

Count and NonCount Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and Quantity

Words)

Section 1: Definition of Count and Noncount nouns

Count or Noncount?

The main difference between count and noncount nouns is whether you can count the things they
refer to or not.

Count nouns refer to things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. They usually refer to
what can be perceived by the senses.

Examples:

table finger bottle

chair remark award
word girl candidate

Example sentences:

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in? Just
one.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that
can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning
(for example, furniture).

81
Examples:

anger courage progress

furniture education weather
warmth leisure precision

Example Sentences:

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into?
The question doesn't make any sense; therefore water is
noncountable.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be

counted.)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot be

counted.)

Think of the batter from which a cake is made. Before you put the batter into the oven, it can't be
divided into parts because it's a thick liquid. Once it has been baked, it becomes solid enough to be
cut into pieces. Noncount nouns are like cake batter; count nouns are like pieces of cake

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the
above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is
countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns

Pluralizing

The Rule

82
From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for
pluralizing them:

 most count nouns pluralize with -s

 noncount nouns don't pluralize at all

This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for
yourself before reading further.

An Exception to the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both
classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract
and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:

Count

 I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific

problems)
 The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of
specific lectures)
 The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of
specific lights and noises)

Noncount

 She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of
school being difficult)
 I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general)
 Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in
general)

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification.
Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other
items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages:
food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:

 There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine)

 I prefer Sumatran coffees to Colombian. (= kinds of coffee)
 We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter)

A recent entry into this class is homework, which at least among some students has the count plural
homeworks in addition to its noncount use. (For example, "You're missing three of the homeworks
from the first part of the course.") Because this usage is not firmly established and is likely to be
considered nonstandard, you should check with your instructor before using it in writing.

A Revision of the Rule

These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a
count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense do not.

83
The two possibilities in each half of the rule require different choices. If you know that a particular
noun must be either count or noncount and cannot be both, you need to decide only if it is possible
to pluralize the noun. On the other hand, if you know that a particular noun may be used in either a
count or noncount sense, then you need to decide whether it is appropriate to pluralize.

To summarize, we may put the rule in a chart, like this:

Pluralizes with -s Doesn't Pluralize

Count Noun XX

Count Use XX

Noncount Noun XX

Noncount Use XX

Articles

Nouns and Articles

Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices
depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both
count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.

Combinations of Nouns and Articles

The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these,
and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite,
which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object
known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously
mentioned in a piece of writing.

these,
a, an the this, that no article
those
Count
XX XX XX
singular
Count
XX XX XX
plural
Noncount XX XX XX

Examples:

Count Singular:
I ate an apple.
I rode the bus.
Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.

84
 Count Plural:
I like to feed the birds.
Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.
Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount:
The water is cold.
This milk is going sour.
Music helps me relax.

Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity
words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any
of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no
can also be applied to many of these terms.

some, any, many, both,

much, less, most, more, several,
each, every,
little, a little, all, a lot of, few/fewer/fewest,
any, one
very little no, none of a few, one of the,
the a couple of
Count
XX
singular
Count
XX XX
plural
Noncount XX XX

Examples:

Count Singular:
I practice every day.
I'd like one donut, please.

Count Plural:
Can I have some chips?
She has a lot of books, and many are autographed.
I have fewer pencils than you.

Noncount:
Can I have some water?
She has a lot of strength, and much is due to her upbringing.
I have less courage than you.

For more on count and noncount nouns, see our second handout on this topic at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslcount2.html .

85
 Count and NonCount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives)

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab.

Try our exercises (with answers) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX1.html

and http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX2.html

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural
form.

Concrete nouns may be countable.

There are a dozen flowers in the vase.

He ate an apple for a snack.

Collective nouns are countable.

She attended three classes today.

London is home to several orchestras.

Some proper nouns are countable.

There are many Greeks living in New York.

The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their Newport summer
mansion.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.

Abstract nouns are uncountable.

The price of freedom is constant vigilance.

Her writing shows maturity and intelligence.

Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).

The price of oil has stabilized recently.

May I borrow some rice?

While uncountable nouns do not generally take a plural form, sometimes they may be pluralized
when used in a countable sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of
nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following chart:

Uncountable Sense Countable Sense

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Art is often called an imitation of life. I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden.

Life is precious. A cat has nine lives.

He likes to eat pizza. How many pizzas should we order?

Religion has been a Many religions are practiced in the United

powerful force in history. States.

She has beautiful skin. The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins.

Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek We have several sculptures in our home.
sculpture.

We use only recycled paper in our office. Where are those important papers?

Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is
singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no
article if it is used in a general sense.

The guest of honor arrived late.

You are welcome as a guest in our home.
The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise.
Guests are welcome here anytime.

Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is
sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that
is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.

Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.

The information in your files is correct.
Sugar has become more expensive recently.
Please pass me the sugar.

Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract Material Generic Non-Plurals with - s

advice meat fruit mathematics
help rice wildlife economics
information bread equipment physics
knowledge cake machinery civics
trouble coffee furniture ethics
work ice cream mail mumps
enjoyment water luggage measles
fun oil jewelry news
recreation grass clothing tennis
relaxation hair money (other games)

87
For more on using articles with countable and uncountable nouns, see our document on that topic.

Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, Any

Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.

There are some cookies in the jar. (countable)

There is some water on the floor. (uncountable)

Did you eat any food? (uncountable)

Do you serve any vegetarian dishes? (countable)

Much, Many

Much modifies only uncountable nouns.

How much money will we need?

They ate so much cake that they started to feel sick.
Much effort will be required to solve this problem.

Many modifies only countable nouns.

How many children do you have?

They had so many books that they had to stack them in the hall.
Many Americans travel to Europe each year.

A lot of, Lots of

These words are informal substitutes for much and many.

Lots of effort will be required to solve this problem. (uncountable)

A lot of Americans travel to Europe each year. (countable)

Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few

Little and quite a little modify only uncountable nouns.

We had a little ice cream after dinner.

They offered little help for my problem. (meaning "only a small amount")
They offered quite a little help for my problem. (meaning "a large amount") (See
quite a bit of, below.)

Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns.

A few doctors from the hospital play on the softball team.

Few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "only a small
number")
Quite a few restaurants in this town offer vegetarian dishes. (meaning "a large
number")

88
A little bit of, Quite a bit of

These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as
quite a little and is used more commonly.

There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount")
There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount")

Enough

This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

I don't have enough potatoes to make the soup.

We have enough money to buy a car.

Plenty of

This term modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There are plenty of mountains in Switzerland.

She has plenty of money in the bank.

No

This word modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There were no squirrels in the park today.

We have no time left to finish the project.

These terms and their uses are summarized in the chart on our other countable and uncountable
nouns page at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslcount.html

Try our exercises (with answers) at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX1.html

and http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/es/eslcount2EX2.html .

89
 Pronouns

Using Pronouns Clearly

Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to
use the correct pronoun so that your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is
referring to.

Therefore, pronouns should:

1. AGREE in NUMBER

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.)

REMEMBER: The words EVERYBODY, ANYBODY, ANYONE, EACH, NEITHER, NOBODY,

SOMEONE, A PERSON, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.

Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)

Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)

NOTE: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural
noun as your antecedent so that you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If you
do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use just "his"
or "her" rather than "his or her." See our handout on Non-sexist Language for more information.

2. AGREE in PERSON

If you are writing in the "first person" ( I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second
person" ( you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second
person," don't switch to "first" or "third."

When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.

(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

3. REFER CLEARLY to a specific noun.

Don't be vague or ambiguous.

NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)

90
NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are "they"?)

NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is
coming soon?)

NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work. (What word
does "this" refer to?)

NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet
or your notebook?)

91
 Pronoun Case

Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.

1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.

2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

Pronouns as Pronouns that show

Pronouns as OBJECTS
SUBJECTS POSSESSION
I me my (mine)
you you your (yours)
he, she, it him, her, it his, her (hers), it (its)
we us our (ours)
they them their (theirs)
who whom whose

The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, and WHICH do not change form.

Some problems of case:

1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the
other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.

NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal.

(Would you say, "me travel"?)

NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.

(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)

NOT: Us men like the coach.

(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:

He is taller than I (am tall).

This helps you as much as (it helps) me.

She is as noisy as I (am).

Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the
parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can
choose the correct case for the pronoun.

92
NOT: He is taller than me.
(Would you say, "than me am tall"?)

3. In formal and semiformal writing:

Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.

FORMAL: It is I.
INFORMAL: It is me.

Use whom in the objective case.

FORMAL: To whom am I talking?
INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?

93
 Verbs

Active and Passive Voice

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the
subject acts.

In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.

You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.

Passive Voice

In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the
subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may
be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.)

94
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above.
Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and
uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it
allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the
subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of
an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without
attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not
limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of
be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not
necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice
sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the
action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html .

Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your
sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and
complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active
voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

passive (indirect) active (direct):

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are
required to express action in active voice than in passive.

passive (more wordy) active (more concise)

95
Changing passive to active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase,
or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent
the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the
agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.

Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice

most of the
class

agent not
specified;
most likely
agents such
as "the
researchers"

the CIA
director and
his close
advisors

agent not
specified;
most likely
agents such
as "we"

Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an
indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also,
as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than
writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is
obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until
the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in
such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent
performing the action.

active
The dispatcher is notifying police that three
prisoners have escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new
experimental liver-transplant operation
passive
Police are being notified that three prisoners have
escaped.
A new experimental liver-transplant operation was
performed successfully yesterday.

96
yesterday.
"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said "Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.
defiantly.

In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively
unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.

Changing active to passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is
performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..."
phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be +
past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.

Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice

The
presiding
officer

The
leaders

The
scientists

In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted
upon instead of the agent.

Some suggestions

1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.

Unnecessary shift in voice Revised

Many customers in the restaurant found the
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too
coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still
bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
ordered frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but
puddle, but he was still laughed at by the
the other students still laughed at him.
other students.

2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or
phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. (See also our handout on dangling
modifiers at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_dangmod.html.)

Dangling modifier with passive voice Revised

97
To save time, the paper was written on a
computer. (Who was saving time? The To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
paper?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking
the blame, consultants were hired to break Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame,
the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.
workers? The consultants?)

3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar

checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your
judgement, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.

98
 Irregular Verbs

Present Past Past Participle

be was, were been
become became become
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
build built built
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
do did done
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
have had had
hear heard heard

99
hide hid hidden
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
let let let
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
make made made
meet met met
pay paid paid
quit quit quit
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught

100
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
wake woke (waked) woken (waked)
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written

LIE versus LAY

Present Past Past Participle

lie, lying (to tell a falsehood)
lie, lying (to recline)
lay, laying (to put, place)
I lied to my mother. I have lied under oath.
I lay on the bed because I
He has lain in the grass.
was tired.
We have laid the dishes
I laid the baby in her cradle.
on the table.

After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?

SIT versus SET

Present Past Past Participle

sit (to be seated or come to resting You have sat there for three
I sat in my favorite chair.
position) hours.
She has set her books on my
set (to put or place) I set my glass on the table.
desk again.

Let's set the table before we sit down to rest.

RISE versus RAISE

Present Past Past Participle

rise (steady or customary He has risen to a position of
The balloon rose into the air.
upward movement) power.
They raised their hands because I have raised the curtain many
raise (to cause to rise)
they knew the answer. times.

The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.

101
 Sequence of Tenses

Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he
sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are
marked by other words called auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to recreate
much of the reality of time in his writing. The six are

Simple Present: They walk

Present Perfect: They have walked

Simple Past: They walked

Past Perfect: They had walked

Future: They will walk

Future Perfect: They will have walked

Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which are formed by
adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.

ring, rang, rung

walk, walked, walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall,"
"will," "has," "have," "had," are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.

Present Perfect

The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with "has" or "have." It
designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of which
still continues.

1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past)

2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect)
The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.

1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies.

2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the movies.

Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with "have," and sometimes problems
arise when infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope," "plan," "expect," and "intend," all of
which usually point to the future (I wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The
perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed
before the action in the main verb.

1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign!

2. John had hoped to have won the trophy.

Thus the action of the main verb points back in time; the action of the perfect infinitive has been
completed. (Notice present, present perfect sequence in the comment.)

102
Past Perfect

The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the
past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.

1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past)

2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect)
The vegetables were raised before they were sold.

1. Renee washed the car when George arrived (simple past)

2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived. (past perfect)
In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed the car. In (2), she had already finished
washing the car by the time he arrived.

In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states the
condition.

1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.

Notice: There can be only one "would have" action group in a sentence.

Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the
future.

1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)

2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)

Review

1. Judy saved thirty dollars. (past)

2. Judy will save thirty dollars. (future)
3. Judy has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect)
4. Judy had saved thirty dollars by the end of last month. (past perfect)
5. Judy will have saved thirty dollars by the end of this month. (future perfect)

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 Verb Tense Consistency

Throughout this document, example sentences with nonstandard or inconsistent usage have verbs in
red.

Controlling Shifts in Verb Tense

Writing often involves telling stories. Sometimes we narrate a story as our main purpose in writing;
sometimes we include brief anecdotes or hypothetical scenarios as illustrations or reference points
in an essay. Even an essay that does not explicitly tell a story involves implied time frames for the
actions discussed and states described. Changes in verb tense help readers understand the temporal
relationships among various narrated events. But unnecessary or inconsistent shifts in tense can
cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one tense for the main discourse and indicate changes
in time frame by changing tense relative to that primary tense, which is usually either simple past or
simple present. Even apparently non-narrative writing should employ verb tenses consistently and
clearly.

General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or
state is the same.

Examples:

1. The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers and streams.

Contains is present tense, referring to a current state; washed down is

past, but should be present (wash down) because the minerals are
currently continuing to wash down.

Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from
rivers and streams.

2. About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announces
the approaching storm.

Darkened and sprang up are past tense verbs; announces is present

but should be past (announced) to maintain consistency within the
time frame.

Corrected: About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a
low rumble announced the approaching storm.

3. Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.

Had walked is past perfect tense but should be past to maintain

consistency within the time frame (yesterday); rode is past, referring
to an action completed before the current time frame.

Corrected: Yesterday we walked to school but later rode the bus

home.

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General guideline: Do shift tense to indicate a change in time frame from one action or state
to another.

Examples:

1. The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves.

Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it

now;) built is past, referring to an action completed before the current
time frame (they are not still building it.)

2. Before they even began deliberations, many jury members had reached a verdict.

Began is past tense, referring to an action completed before the

current time frame; had reached is past perfect, referring to action
from a time frame before that of another past event (the action of
reaching was completed before the action of beginning.)

3. Workers are installing extra loudspeakers because the music in tonight's concert
will need amplification.

Are installing is present progressive, referring to an ongoing action in

the current time frame (the workers are still installing, and have not
finished;) will need is future, referring to action expected to begin
after the current time frame (the concert will start in the future, and
that's when it will need amplification.)

Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay

General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts
to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.

Hints:

 Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an author's ideas as historical
entities (biographical information about a historical figure or narration of developments in
an author's ideas over time).
 Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your
own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work. Also use present tense to
describe action in a literary work, movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for
dramatic effect, you may wish to narrate an event in present tense as though it were
happening now. If you do, use present tense consistently throughout the narrative, making
shifts only where appropriate.
 Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will, shall, is going
to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.

Using Other Tenses in Conjunction with Simple Tenses

It is not always easy (or especially helpful) to try to distinguish perfect and/or progressive tenses
from simple ones in isolation, for example, the difference between simple past progressive ("She
was eating an apple") and present perfect progressive ("She has been eating an apple").
Distinguishing these sentences in isolation is possible, but the differences between them make clear

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sense only in the context of other sentences since the time-distinctions suggested by different tenses
are relative to the time frame implied by the verb tenses in surrounding sentences or clauses.

Example 1: Simple past narration with perfect and progressive elements

On the day in question...

By the time Tom noticed the doorbell, it had already rung three times. As usual, he
had been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turned the stereo down and stood
up to answer the door. An old man was standing on the steps. The man began to
speak slowly, asking for directions.

In this example, the progressive verbs had been listening and was standing suggest action underway
at the time some other action took place. The stereo-listening was underway when the doorbell
rang. The standing on the steps was underway when the door was opened. The past perfect
progressive verb had been listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main
narrative time frame and that was still underway as another action began.
If the primary narration is in the present tense, then the present progressive or present perfect
progressive is used to indicate action that is or has been underway as some other action begins. This
narrative style might be used to describe a scene from a novel, movie, or play, since action in
fictional narratives is conventionally treated as always present. For example, we refer to the scene
in Hamlet in which the prince first speaks (present) to the ghost of his dead father or the final scene
in Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing, which takes place (present) the day after Mookie has smashed
(present perfect) the pizzeria window. If the example narrative above were a scene in a play, movie,
or novel, it might appear as follows.

Example 2: Simple present narration with perfect and progressive elements

In this scene...

By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it has already rung three times. As usual, he
has been listening to loud music on his stereo. He turns the stereo down and stands
up to answer the door. An old man is standing on the steps. The man begins to speak
slowly, asking for directions.

In this example as in the first one, the progressive verbs has been listening and is standing indicate
action underway as some other action takes place. The present perfect progressive verb has been
listening suggests action that began in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that
is still underway as another action begins. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the
first example.
In all of these cases, the progressive or -ing part of the verb merely indicates ongoing action, that is,
action underway as another action occurs. The general comments about tense relationships apply to
simple and perfect tenses, regardless of whether there is a progressive element involved.
It is possible to imagine a narrative based on a future time frame as well, for example, the
predictions of a psychic or futurist. If the example narrative above were spoken by a psychic, it
might appear as follows.

Example 3: Simple future narration with perfect and progressive elements

Sometime in the future...

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 By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it will have already rung three times. As usual,
he will have been listening to loud music on his stereo. He will turn the stereo down
and will stand up to answer the door. An old man will be standing on the steps. The
man will begin to speak slowly, asking for directions.

In this example as in the first two, the progressive verbs will have been listening and will be
standing indicate ongoing action. The future perfect progressive verb will have been listening
suggests action that will begin in the time frame prior to the main narrative time frame and that will
still be underway when another action begins. The verb notices here is in present-tense form, but the
rest of the sentence and the full context of the narrative cue us to understand that it refers to future
time. The remaining tense relationships parallel those in the first two examples.

General guidelines for use of perfect tenses

In general the use of perfect tenses is determined by their relationship to the tense of the primary
narration. If the primary narration is in simple past, then action initiated before the time frame of the
primary narration is described in past perfect. If the primary narration is in simple present, then
action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in present perfect. If the
primary narration is in simple future, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary
narration is described in future perfect.

Past primary narration corresponds to Past Perfect (had + past participle) for earlier
time frames

Present primary narration corresponds to Present Perfect (has or have + past

participle) for earlier time frames

Future primary narration corresponds to Future Perfect (will have + past participle)
for earlier time frames

The present perfect is also used to narrate action that began in real life in the past but is not
completed, that is, may continue or may be repeated in the present or future. For example: "I have
run in four marathons" (implication: "so far... I may run in others"). This usage is distinct from the
simple past, which is used for action that was completed in the past without possible continuation or
repetition in the present or future. For example: "Before injuring my leg, I ran in four marathons"
(implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more marathons").
Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others--when used to relate
two or more actions in time--can be good indicators of the need for a perfect-tense verb in a
sentence.

By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had lost (past
perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his speech, the audience
has lost (present perfect) interest.
By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his speech, the
audience will have lost (future perfect) interest.

After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we offered (past) our
guests dessert.
After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we offer (present:
habitual action) our guests dessert.

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 After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we will offer (future:
specific one-time action) our guests dessert.

Long before the sun rose (past), the birds had arrived (past perfect) at the feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds have arrived (present
perfect) at the feeder.
Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds will have
arrived (future perfect) at the feeder.

Sample paragraphs

The main tense in this first sample is past. Tense shifts are inappropriate and are indicated in bold.

The gravel crunched and spattered beneath the wheels of the bus as it swung into the
station. Outside the window, shadowy figures peered at the bus through the darkness.
Somewhere in the crowd, two, maybe three, people were waiting for me: a woman,
her son, and possibly her husband. I could not prevent my imagination from
churning out a picture of them, the town, and the place I will soon call home.
Hesitating a moment, I rise from my seat, these images flashing through my mind.
(adapted from a narrative)

Inappropriate shifts from past to present, such as those that appear in the above paragraph, are
sometimes hard to resist. The writer becomes drawn into the narrative and begins to relive the event
as an ongoing experience. The inconsistency should be avoided, however. In the sample, will should
be would, and rise should be rose.
The main tense in this second sample is present. Tense shifts--all appropriate--are indicated in bold.

A dragonfly rests on a branch overhanging a small stream this July morning. It is

newly emerged from brown nymphal skin. As a nymph, it crept over the rocks of the
stream bottom, feeding first on protozoa and mites, then, as it grew larger, on the
young of other aquatic insects. Now an adult, it will feed on flying insects and
eventually will mate. The mature dragonfly is completely transformed from the drab
creature that once blended with underwater sticks and leaves. Its head, thorax, and
abdomen glitter; its wings are iridescent in the sunlight. (adapted from an article in
the magazine Wilderness)

This writer uses the present tense to describe the appearance of a dragonfly on a particular July
morning. However, both past and future tenses are called for when she refers to its previous actions
and to its predictable activity in the future.

Exercises on verb tense consistency are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_tensecEX1.html.

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 Two-Part (Phrasal) Verbs (Idioms)

Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition (also called a particle), and these
two-part verbs, also called phrasal verbs, are different from verbs with helpers. (For more about
verbs with helpers, visit http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslverbaux.html.)
The particle that follows the verb changes the meaning of the phrasal verb in idiomatic ways:

VERB MEANING EXAMPLE

drop off decline gradually The hill dropped off near the river.
drop off(2) fall asleep While doing his homework, he dropped off.
stop and give something to
drop off(3) Would you drop this off at the post office?
someone
drop out cease to participate After two laps, the runner dropped out.

Some particles can be separated from the verb so that a noun and pronoun can be inserted, and some
particles can't be separated from the verb. In addition, some phrases are intransitive, meaning they
cannot take a direct object.

add up (meaning: to
Separable Correct: She added up the total on her calculator.
add)
Correct: She added it up on her calculator.
get around
Inseparable Correct: She always gets around the rules.
(meaning: to evade)
Incorrect: She always gets the rules around (This construction
makes no sense in English.)
catch on (meaning: Correct: After I explained the math problem, she began to catch
Intransitive
to understand) on.
Incorrect: She began to catch on the math problem. (catch on
cannot take a direct object in this meaning.)
Correct: She began to catch on to the math problem. (the word
to makes the math problem an indirect object, which is
acceptable in this meaning.)

Unfortunately, there is usually no indicator whether an idiomatic phrase is separable, inseparable, or

intransitive. In most cases the phrases must simply be memorized. Below is a partial list of each
kind of phrase.

Separable

add up - add
back up - cause to move backwards; support; blow up; cause to explode; destroy by explosives
break down - analyze; list the parts of separately
break into - go into a house or room forcibly; suddenly; begin; bring about - cause to happen
bring off - accomplish

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bring on - cause
bring out - publish; emphasize
bring over - bring
bring to - revive
bring up - raise; care for from childhood
brush out - brush the inside of
burn down - destroy by burning
burn up - consume by fire
buy out - by the other person's share of a business
buy up - buy the whole supply of
call off - cancel; order away
call up - telephone; summon for military service
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue
carry out - fulfill; complete; accomplish; perform
carry over - carry; continue at another time or place
cheer up - cause to become cheerful
chew up - chew thoroughly
chop up - chop into small pieces
clean off - clean the surface of
clean out - clean the inside of
clean up - clarify; tidy
clear out - clear the surface of
clear up - clear the inside of
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
count in - include
count out - exclude
count up - calculate; count; add to a total
cross out - eliminate
cut off - interrupt; sever; amputate
cut out - eliminate; delete
cut down - reduce in quantity
draw up - write; compose (a document)
dress up - put clothes on; adorn
dust out - dust the inside of
eat up - eat completely
figure out - interpret; understand
figure up - compute
fill in - complete (a printed form)
fill out - complete (a printed form)
fill up - fill completely (a container)
find out - discover
fix up - repair; arrange in a suitable manner
get across - cause to be understood
give back - return
give out - distribute; announce
give up - surrender something
hand down - deliver; pronounce formally; leave as an inheritance
hand over - yield control of
hang up - suspend
have on - be dressed in

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have over - entertain someone informally at one's home
hold off - delay; restrain
hold up - delay; rob; threaten with a weapon
keep up - continue; keep the same pace
leave out - omit
let down - disappoint
let out - release from confinement; make larger (in sewing)
light up - light; illuminate thoroughly
live down - live in such a way as to cause something to be forgotten
make over - remake
move over - move to the side
pass out - distribute
pass up - not take advantage of (as an opportunity)
pass on - transmit
pay back - repay
pay off - discharge a debt completely; give someone his final pay
pick up - come to meet an escort; lift with hands or fingers; learn casually;
initiate an association publicly
play down - minimize
play up - emphasize
point out - indicate
pull down - pull in a downward direction; raze
push across - cause to be understood or accepted
put off - postpone
put on - dress in; deceive or fool
put up - preserve (food); receive as an overnight guest
quiet down - be quiet
ring up - the telephone
rinse off - rinse the surface of
rinse out - rinse the inside of
rule out - eliminate
run down - trace; disparage; hit with a vehicle
run off - cause to depart; reproduce mechanically
save up - accumulate
see through - complete; in spite of difficulties
see off - accompany someone to the beginning of a trip
send back - send to a place where formerly located
send over - send to where someone is
set up - arrange
show off - exhibit ostentatiously
shut off - cause to cease functioning
slow up - cause to move more slowly
spell out - enumerate; state in detail
stand up - fail to keep an appointment with
sweep out - sweep the inside of
take back - return; retract a statement
take down - remove from a high position; write from dictation
take in - understood; fool; deceive; make smaller (in sewing)
take over - take; assume command of
tear down - destroy
tear up - tear into small pieces
tell off - scold; reprimand

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think over - consider
think through - consider from beginning to end
think up - create; invent
throw away - discard
throw over - reject
tie up - tie securely or tight
tire out - cause to be exhausted
touch up - repair
try on - put on a garment to verify the fit
try out - test
turn down - refuse; lower the volume
turn out - produce; force into exile, extinguish (a light)
wash off - wash the surface of
wash out - wash the inside of
wear out - use until no longer usable; tire greatly
wind up - finish, tighten the spring of a watch or machine
wipe off - wipe the surface of
wipe out - wipe the inside of; decimate
work out - solve
write down - record
write out - write down every detail; spell out
write up - compose; prepare (a document)

Inseparable

back out of - desert; fail to keep a promise

bear down on - lean on; browbeat
bear on - have to do with
bear up under - endure
break in on - interrupt
break into - interrupt
call for - come to get; require
care for - like; guard; supervise; maintain
carry on with - continue
catch up with - cover the distance between oneself and
check up on - examine; verify
come across - find accidentally
come along with - accompany; make progress
come by - find accidentally
come down with - become ill with
come out with - utter; produce
come up with - utter; produce
count on - rely on
cut in on - interrupt
disagree with - cause illness or discomfort to
do away with - abolish
do without - deprive oneself of
drop in at/on - visit casually without planning
drop out of - leave; quit
face up to - acknowledge
fall behind in - lag; not progress at required pace
fall back on - use for emergency purpose

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fall out with - quarrel with
fill in for - substitute for
get ahead of - surpass; beat
get around - evade; avoid
get away with - do without being caught or punished
get by with - manage with a minimum of effort
get down to - become serious about; consider
get in - enter (a vehicle)
get off - descend from; leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount
get on with - proceed with
get through with - terminate, finish
go back on - desert; fail to keep (a promise)
go for - like a great deal
go in for - be interested in; participate in
go on with - continue
go over - review
go with - harmonize with; look pleasing together
go without - abstain from
hang around - remain idly in the vicinity of
hear from - receive a communication from
hear of - learn about (sometimes accidentally)
hit on - discover accidentally
hold on to - grasp tightly
hold out against - resist
keep at - persevere at
keep to - persist in; continue
keep up with - maintain the pace of
lie down on - evade; fail to do
live on - support or sustain oneself by means of
live up to - maintain the standard demanded of
look after - take care of
look back on - remember nostalgically
look down on - feel superior to
look forward to - anticipate
look up to - respect; admire
make up for - compensate for
pass on - transmit
pick on - tease; bully
play up to - flatter for personal advantage
put up with - tolerate
read up on - search out information on
run against - compete against in an election
run away with - leave; escape from
run for - campaign for
see about - consider; arrange
see to - arrange; supervise
settle on - decide on; choose
stand for - represent; permit
stand up for - support; demand
stand up to - resist
stick to - persist

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stick up for - support; defend
take after - resemble
talk back to - answer impolitely
talk over - discuss
tell on - report misbehavior to authority
touch on - mention briefly
turn into - become
wait on - serve
wait up for - not go to bed while waiting for
watch out for - be careful for

Intransitive

back down - retreat from a position in an argument

back out - desert; fail to keep a promise
back up - move backwards
bear up - endure
blow in - drop in to visit unexpectedly
blow over - pass without doing harm
blow up - explode; lose one's temper
call up - telephone
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue as before; misbehave
catch on - understand
catch up - cover the distance between oneself and a moving goal
check up - investigate
check out - leave; pay one's bill
cheer up - become cheerful
clear out - leave
clear up - become clear
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
came about - happen
come along - accompany; make progress
come back - return
come by - visit someone in his home
come out - appear; make a social debut
come over - come to someone's house, to where someone is
come through - succeed
come to - regain consciousness
cut in - interrupt
die away - fade; diminish
die down - fade; diminish
die off/out - disappear; become extinct
dress up - don fancy or unusual clothes
drive back - return by car
drop in - visit someone casually without planning
drop out - abandon some organized activity; leave; quit
drop over - visit someone casually
fall behind - not progress at required pace
fall off - decrease; lose weight
fall through - fail; not be accomplished

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fill in - substitute
find out - learn
fly back - return by air
fly over - fly to where someone is
get ahead - make progress
get along - have a friendly relationship
get around - circulate; move about
get away - escape
get by - manage; either just barely or with a minimum of effort
get in - enter
get off - descend from leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount (a horse, etc.)
get on/along - progress; be compatible
get up - rise
get through - finish
give out - become exhausted
give up - surrender; fail to finish
go back - return
go off - explode
go on - happen; continue
go out - stop burning; leave one's residence
go over - go; succeed
grow up - mature
hang around - remain idly; dawdle
hang up - replace a telephone receive on its hook
hold on - grasp tightly; persevere; wait while telephoning
hold out - continue to resist; persevere; persist
keep on - continue
keep up - maintain the required pace or standard; continue
let up - diminish in intensity
lie down - recline
look on - be a spectator
make out - progress; succeed
make up - become reconciled
move over - move to the side
pan out - turn out well; be successful
pass out - become unconscious
pass on - die
pick up - grow; increase
pull in - arrive
pull out - deport
pull through - survive (barely)
ride over - ride to where someone is
run away - escape; leave; leave quickly without permission
run down - slowly lose power so as to stop functioning
run off - depart running; drain
sell out - sell the ownership or responsibility
settle up - pay one's bills or debts
show off - boast by words or actions
show up - arrive; appear unexpectedly
shut up - stop talking
slow up - reduce speed

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stand by - wait; be prepared to assist
stand up - stand; rise from sitting; last; endure
stay over - remain at someone's house overnight or longer
step aside - move to one side
take off - leave the ground
take over - assume command
talk back - answer impolitely
throw up - vomit
turn around - turn so that one is facing another direction
turn in - go to bed
turn out - succeed; come; appear, as at a public meeting
turn up - arrive; be found unexpectedly
wait up - remain awake in anticipation
wake up - awaken
walk back - return on foot to where one was
walk over - walk to where someone is
wash out - fade or disappear from washing
watch out - be careful
wear off - fade; disappear through use or time
wear out - become unusable through use; become used up
work out - be successful

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 Verb Tenses

Active Tenses
Simple Present Simple Past Present Present Perfect Past Future
Future
Present Progressive Past Progressive Perfect Progressive Perfect Perfect

Passive Tenses
Simple Present Simple Past Present Past Future
Future Modals
Present Progressive Past Progressive Perfect Perfect Perfect

Active Tenses

Simple Present
Present Action or Non-action; Habitual
General Truths Future Time
Condition Action
 I like music.
 I hear you.
 There are thirty  I run on  The train leaves
 Here comes
days in September. Tuesdays and at 4:00 p.m.
the bus.
Sundays.

Present Progressive
Activity in Progress Verbs of Perception
 I am playing soccer now  He is feeling sad

Simple Past
Completed Action Completed Condition
 We visted the museum yesterday.  The weather was rainy last week.

Past Progressive
Past Action that took place over a period of time Past Action interrupted by another
 They were climbing for twenty-seven  We were eating dinner when she told

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 days. me.

Future
With will/won't -- Activity or event that will or won't With going to -- future in relation to
exist or happen in the future circumstances in the present
 I'll get up late tomorrow.  I'm hungry.
 I won't get up early.  I'm going to get something to eat.

Present Perfect
With verbs of state that begin in With events occuring at an indefinited or
To express habitual or
the past and lead up to and unspecified time in the past -- with ever,
continued action
include the present never, before
 He has worn
 He has lived here for  Have you ever been to Tokyo
glasses all his
many years. before?
life.

Present Perfect Progressive

To express duration of an acton that began in the past, has continued into the present, and may
continue into the future
 David has been working for two hours, and he hasn't finished yet.

Past Perfect

to describe a past event or condition completed before In reported speech

another event in the past
 Jane said that she had gone to
 When I arrived home, he had already called.
the movies.

Future perfect
to express action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future
 By next month we will have finished this job.

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  He won't have finished his work until 2:00.

The passive tenses

Simple present
active: passive:
 The company ships the computers to many  Computers are shipped to many foreign
foreign countries. countries.

Present Progressive
active: passive:
 The chef is preparing the food.  The food is being prepared.

Simple Past
active: passive:
 The delivery man delivered the package  The package was delivered
yesterday. yesterday.

Past Progressive
active: passive:
 The producer was making an announcement.  An announcement was being made.

Future
active: passive:
 Our representative will pick up the computer.  The computer will be picked up.

Present Perfect

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active: passive:
 Someone has made the arrangements for  The arrangements have been made for
us. us.

Past Perfect
active: passive:
 They had given us visas for three  We had been given visas for three
months. months.

Future perfect
active: passive:
 By next month we will have finished this  By next month this job will have been
job. finished.

Modals
active: passive:
 You can use the computer.  The computer can be used.

Revised by Michelle Hansard, December 2001.

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 Verbs with Helpers

1. Recent Past (Present Perfect)

A conjugation of Have + [VERB+ed] describes an action that began in the past and continues
into the present or that occurred in the recent past.

Examples:

 The child has finished the candy.

 I have gone to college for one year.
 He has worked hard all day.

2. Distant Past (Past Perfect)

Had + [VERB+ed] describes actions that began and ended in the past.

Examples:

 Mike had promised to repair Joe's bike.

 I had eaten dinner before he came.

3. Present Continuous Action (Present Progressive)

Is + [VERB+ing] shows action that is in progress now or is going to happen in the future.

Examples:

 I am taking Spanish this semester.

 He is getting ready for the party this evening.
 Next week they are going to Florida.

4. Past Continuous Action (Past Progressive)

Was + [VERB+ing] shows action that was in progress at a certain time in the past.

Examples:

 Yesterday I was working in the garden.

 He was smoking a pack a day before he quit.
 The dogs were barking all night.

5. Other helping verbs (Modals)

[HELPER] + [VERB], such as CAN, WILL, SHALL, MAY, COULD, WOULD, SHOULD,
MIGHT, MUST
keep the same form. They do not change to agree with the subject.

Examples:
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I|
you |
he | can do that assignment easily.
we |
There are also modal phrases (some of which don't change form), such as:
COULD HAVE + Verb
WOULD HAVE + Verb
MUST HAVE + Verb
(Not could "of" or would "of")
Example:

 I could have won the prize if I had entered the contest.

 He must have bought the ticket already.

OR

USED TO + Verb
HAVE TO + Verb
HAVE GOT TO + Verb
BE ABLE TO + Verb
OUGHT TO + Verb
BE SUPPOSED TO + Verb
Examples:

 I used to think that all dogs have fleas.

I am supposed to come back next week.

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 Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives

In this handout, the three types of verbals are discussed: gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a separate section of this handout
because they can both end in -ing but have different functions in a sentence.
Finally, since they can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different forms, gerunds
and infinitives are compared and contrasted in the last section below.
Throughout this document, occasional example sentences with wording that might be considered
nonstandard, ambiguous, or at least peculiar in formal writing are marked with an asterisk (*).

Gerunds

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a
gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a
state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a
sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and
object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:

 Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.

 The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences.

Gerund as direct object:

 They do not appreciate my singing.

 They do not appreciate my assistance.

Gerund as subject complement:

 My cat's favorite activity is sleeping.

 My cat's favorite food is salmon.

Gerund as object of preposition:

 The police arrested him for speeding.

 The police arrested him for criminal activity.

A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:

The gerund phrase functions as the

subject of the sentence.
Finding (gerund)
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than
a needle (direct object of action expressed
what we're trying to do.
in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as
adverb)

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 The gerund phrase functions as the
direct object of the verb appreciate.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form,
modifying the gerund)
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this
offering (gerund)
opportunity.
you (indirect object of action expressed in
gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action
expressed in gerund)

The gerund phrase functions as the

subject complement.
Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his
lying to (gerund)
constituents.
his constituents (direct object of action
expressed in gerund)

The gerund phrase functions as the

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to
avoid work.
object of the preposition for.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed
in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the

subject of the sentence.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via
state of being expressed in gerund)

Punctuation

A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

Exercise on Gerunds:
Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label how they
function in the sentence (subject, direct object, subject complement, object of preposition).
1. Swimming keeps me in shape.
2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.
3. Telling your father was a mistake.
4. The college recommends sending applications early.
5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
6. Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
7. Going to work today took all my energy.
8. Fighting for a losing cause made them depressed.
Answers to all exercises are available at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbalsA1.html.

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Participles

A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term
verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and
therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles
modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past
participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the
words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.

 The crying baby had a wet diaper.

 Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
 The burning log fell off the fire.
 Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.

A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying Jack.
Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river. Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed
in participle)

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying cousin.
Delores noticed her cousin walking along the
walking (participle)
shoreline.
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as
adverb)

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying children.
Children introduced to music early develop strong introduced (to) (participle)
intellectual skills. music (direct object of action expressed in
participle)
early (adverb)

The participial phrase functions as an

adjective modifying Lynn.
Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance
Having been (participle)
of exercise.
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn,
via state of being expressed in participle)

Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it
modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.

 Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *

 Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.

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In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in
the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This
situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not
modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be
doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be
in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence. (For more
information on dangling modifiers, see our handout at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_dangmod.html.)

Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the
phrase.

 Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.

 Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.

If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with
commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

 Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

 The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be
used:

 The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
 The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.

If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it
modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.

 The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
 Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)

Points to remember:
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that
functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or
complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they
modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the beginning of a
sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element, or c) comes at the end of a
sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.

Exercise on Participles:
Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and draw a line to the
noun or pronoun modified.
1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.
2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they hadn't worked hard enough in
high school.

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 3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association revealed that seventy percent of
American colleges offer remedial English classes emphasizing composition.
4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.
5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.

In each of the following sentences, underline the participial phrase(s), draw a line to the
word(s) modified, and punctuate the sentence correctly. Remember that some sentences may
not need punctuation.

6. Starting out as an army officer Karen's father was frequently transferred.

7. Mrs. Sears showing more bravery than wisdom invited thirty boys and girls to a party.
8. The student left in charge of the class was unable to keep order.
9. Applicants must investigate various colleges learning as much as possible about them
before applying for admission.
10. The crying boy angered by the bully began to fight.

Rewrite the following sentences (you may need to reword them slightly) with the correct
placement and punctuation of the participial phrases.

11. Espousing a conservative point of view the proposal for more spending on federal social
programs bothered him.
12. Absorbed in an interesting conversation my scheduled appointment time passed
unnoticed.

Answers to all exercises are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbalsA1.html.

Infinitives

An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and
functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the
other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being.
However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or
adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding
what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.

 To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)

 Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
 His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
 He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
 We must study to learn. (adverb)

Be sure not to confuse an infinitive--a verbal consisting of to plus a verb--with a prepositional

phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.

Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong

Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to

us, to this address

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An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as:

The infinitive phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb intended.
We intended to leave early.
to leave (infinitive)
early (adverb)

The infinitive phrase functions as an

adjective modifying paper.
I have a paper to write before class. to write (infinitive)
before class (prepositional phrase as
adverb)

The infinitive phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb agreed.
to give (infinitive)
Phil agreed to give me a ride. me (indirect object of action expressed in
infinitive)
a ride (direct object of action expressed in
infinitive)

The infinitive phrase functions as the

direct object of the verb asked.
me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
They asked me to bring some food.
to bring (infinitive)
some food (direct object of action
expressed in infinitive)

The infinitive phrase functions as the

Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team.
direct object of the verb wanted.
Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive
phrase)
to be (infinitive)
the captain (subject complement for Carol,
via state of being expressed in infinitive)
of the team (prepositional phrase as
adjective)

Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized
as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use
the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite
verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the
fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the
infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below
illustrate.

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Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:

agree begin continue decide

fail hesitate hope intend
learn neglect offer plan
prefer pretend promise refuse
remember start try

Examples:
Most students plan to study.
We began to learn.
They offered to pay.
They neglected to pay.
She promised to return.

In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite) verb and the
infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:

advise allow convince remind

encourage force hire teach
instruct invite permit tell
implore incite appoint order

Examples:
He reminded me to buy milk.
Their fathers advise them to study.
She forced the defendant to admit the truth.
You've convinced the director of the program to change her position.
I invite you to consider the evidence.

In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb and before the
infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that use either pattern:

ask expect (would) like want

Examples:
I asked to see the records.
I asked him to show me the records.
Trent expected his group to win.
Trent expected to win.

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 Brenda likes to drive fast.
Brenda likes her friend to drive fast.

In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with or without an
actor.

Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it
should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.

 To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.

 To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

Points to remember:
1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun,
adjective, or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s),
and/or actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a
sentence.

Split infinitives:
Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an
infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this
practice should be avoided in formal writing.
Examples:
I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)
On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)
I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)

Exercise on Infinitives:
Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence, adding any
punctuation as needed.

1. I want to go.
2. I want you to go home.
3. We want to see the play.
4. To see a shooting star is good luck.
5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.

Now underline the infinitive phrase and label how it is used in the sentence.

6. To design a new building for them would be challenging.

7. I want him to be my bodyguard.
8. Jim is expected to program computers at his new job.
9. They will try to build a new stadium in ten years.
10. To distill a quart of moonshine takes two hours.
11. The president wants to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
12. She has the money to buy it.
13. We demonstrated to attract attention to our agenda.
14. I do not like to give poor grades.
15. The dogs were taught to stand, to sit, and to bark on command.

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 16. To be great is to be true to yourself and to the highest principles of honor.
17. To see is to believe.
Answers to all exercises are available at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_verbalsA1.html.

Comparing Gerunds and Participles

Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund (functioning as a noun)
allows the meaning to be expressed more precisely than in the second. In the first sentence the
interrupting itself, a specific behavior, is precisely indicated as the cause of the speaker's irritation.
In the second the cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who just happens to have
been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a participle, not a gerund, since it
functions as an adjective modifying Bill.)

I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting.

I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting.

The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs below: in the first of each pair, a gerund
(noun-function) is used; in the second, a participle (adjective-function). Notice the subtle change in
meaning between the two sentences in each pair.

Examples:
The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The technique was extraordinary.)
The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The person was extraordinary,
demonstrating the technique.)

He was not impressed with their competing. (The competing did not impress him.)
He was not impressed with them competing. (They did not impress him as they competed.)

Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing.

Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing.* (Ambiguous: who is running
and laughing?)

Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives

The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from comparing the
following lists:

Gerunds: swimming, hoping, telling, eating, dreaming

Infinitives: to swim, to hope, to tell, to eat, to dream

Their functions, however, overlap. Gerunds always function as nouns, but infinitives often also
serve as nouns. Deciding which to use can be confusing in many situations, especially for people
whose first language is not English.
Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one or the other
functions as the direct object in a sentence. In English some verbs take gerunds as verbal direct
objects exclusively while other verbs take only infinitives and still others can take either. Many
such verbs are listed below, organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.

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Verbs that take only infinitives as verbal direct objects

agree decide expect hesitate

learn need promise neglect
hope want plan attempt
propose intend pretend

Examples:
I hope to go on a vacation soon.
(not: I hope going on a vacation soon.*)

He promised to go on a diet.
(not: He promised going on a diet. *)

They agreed to sign the treaty.

(not: They agreed signing the treaty.*)

Because she was nervous, she hesitated to speak.

(not: Because she was nervous, she hesitated speaking.*)

They will attempt to resuscitate the victim

(not: They will attempt resuscitating the victim.*)

Verbs that take only gerunds as verbal direct objects

deny risk delay consider

can't help keep give up be fond of
finish quit put off practice
postpone tolerate suggest stop (quit)
regret enjoy keep (on) dislike
admit avoid recall mind
miss detest appreciate recommend
get/be
get/be through get/be tired of get/be used to
accustomed to

Examples:
They always avoid drinking before driving.
(not: They always avoid to drink before driving.*)

I recall asking her that question.

(not: I recall to ask her that question.*)

She put off buying a new jacket.

(not: She put off to buy a new jacket.*)
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 Mr. Allen enjoys cooking.
(not: Mr. Allen enjoys to cook.*)

Charles keeps calling her.

(not: Charles keeps to call her.*)

Verbs that take gerunds or infinitives as verbal direct objects

start begin continue hate

prefer like love try
remember

Examples:
She has continued to work at the store.
She has continued working at the store.

They like to go to the movies.

They like going to the movies.

Brent started to walk home.

Brent started walking home.

Forget and remember

These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is used as the object.

Examples:
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)
Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't remember now.)

Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)
Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't remember sometime later.)

Jack remembers to take out the cat. (He regularly remembers.)

Jack remembers taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembers now.)

Jack remembered to take out the cat. (He did it.)

Jack remembered taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembered sometime later.)

In the second of each pair of example sentences above, the past progressive gerund form having
taken can be used in place of taking to avoid any possible confusion.

Sense verbs that take an object plus a gerund or a simple verb

Certain sense verbs take an object followed by either a gerund or a simple verb (infinitive form
minus the word to). With many of the verbs that follow the object, the use of the gerund indicates
continuous action while the use of the simple verb indicates a one-time action. Still, sometimes the
simple verb can indicate continuous action if one-time action wouldn't make sense in the context.

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 feel hear notice watch
see smell observe

Examples:
We watched him playing basketball. (continuous action)
We watched him play basketball. (continuous action)

I felt my heart pumping vigorously. (continuous action)

I felt my heart pump vigorously. (continuous action)

She saw them jumping on the bed. (continuous action)

She saw them jump on the bed. (one-time action)

Tom heard the victim shouting for help. (continuous action)

Tom heard the victim shout for help. (one-time action)

The detective noticed the suspect biting his nails. (continuous action)
The detective noticed the suspect bite his nails. (one-time action)

We could smell the pie baking in the kitchen. (continuous action)

We could smell the pie bake in the kitchen. (continuous action)

Sometimes the simple-verb version might seem unconventional, so it's safer in most cases to use the
gerund version.

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 Verbs - Voice and Mood

Active and Passive voice:

Verbs in the active voice show the subject acting. Verbs in the passive voice show something else
acting on the subject. Most writers consider the active voice more forceful and tend to stay away
from passives unless they really need them.

ACTIVE: Tim killed the chicken hawk.

PASSIVE: The chicken hawk was killed by Tim.
Check out our handout on active and passive verbs at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_actpass.html .

Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive Mood:

Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which indicates something:
Examples:

 He was here.
 I am hungry.
 She will bring her books.

Some verbs are in the imperative mood, which expresses commands or requests. Though it is not
stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.
Examples:

 Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here at seven o'clock.)

 Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an omelette.)
 Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring your books with you.)

When verbs show something contrary to fact, they are in the subjunctive mood.
When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or past perfect
tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were rather than was:
Examples:

 If he were here... (Implied: ...but he's not.)

 I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ...but I don't.)
 It would be better if you had brought your books with you. (Implied: ...but you haven't
brought them.)

Review:

INDICATIVE: I need some help.

IMPERATIVE: Help me!
SUBJUNCTIVE: If I were smart, I'd call for help.

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 Adjectives and adverbs

A or An?

"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.

 a cat
 a dog
 a purple onion
 a buffalo
 a big apple

with one exception: Use an before unsounded h.

 an honorable peace
 an honest error

"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:

 an apricot
 an egg
 an Indian
 an orbit
 an uprising

with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, then a is used.

 a union
 a united front
 a unicorn
 a used napkin
 a U.S. ship

Note: The exceptions for the articles are based upon the orthographic or written representation of
the word-initial letter not the phonetic or sound quality of the letter. So, if you consider the rule
from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic
representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel;
consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a
glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant,
requiring 'a'.
After reviewing this handout, try a practice exercise at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/esliartEX1.html.

136
 Adjective or Adverb?

Basic Rules

1. Adjectives modify nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -ly to
an adjective.

Here are some sentences that demonstrate some of the differences between an
adjective and an adverb by showing what is being modified in each sentence. In each
sentence, light blue arrows point to adjectives and green arrows point to adverbs.

Here careless is an adjective that modifies the

proper noun Richard.

Here carelessly is an adverb that modifies the

verb talks.

Here happy is an adjective that

modifies the proper noun Priya and
extremely is an adverb that modifies
the adjective happy.
Here quickly is an adverb that
modifies the verb finished and
unusually is an adverb that modifies
the adverb quickly.

Adverbs can't modify nouns, as you can see from the following incorrect sentences.

He is a quietly man. The correct sentence should say He is a quiet man.

I have a happily dog. The correct sentence should say I have a happy dog.

On the other hand, it's sometimes easy to make the mistake of using an adjective to
modify a verb, as the incorrect sentences below show.

He talks careless about your The correct sentence should say He talks carelessly about

137
 wife. your wife.
He is breathing normal The correct sentence should say He is breathing normally
again. again.

2. An adjective always follows a form of the verb to be when it modifies the noun before the
verb.

Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows point from the
adjective to the noun that it modifies.

3. Likewise, an adjective always follows a sense verb or a verb of appearance -- feel, taste,
smell, sound, look, appear, and seem -- when it modifies the noun before the verb.

Here are some examples that show this rule. Light blue arrows point from the
adjective to the noun it modifies.

Here bad is an adjective that modifies the noun cough.

Using the adverb badly here would not make sense,
because it would mean her cough isn't very good at
sounding.

Here awful is an adjective that modifies the noun oil.

Using the adverb awfully here would not make sense,
because it would mean that castor oil isn't very good at
tasting.

Here fresh is an adjective that modifies the noun air.

Using the adverb freshly here would not make sense,
because it would mean that the air has a sense of smell
that it uses in a fresh manner.

138
 Here unhappy is an adjective that modifies the pronoun
she. Using the adverb unhappily here would not make
sense, because it would mean that she isn't very good at
seeming.

Here dark is an adjective that

modifies the noun images. Using
the adverb darkly here would not
make sense, because it would mean
that the images were suddenly
popping into view in a dark manner.

Be careful to notice whether the word modifies the subject or the verb in the
sentence. If the word modifies the subject, you should use an adjective. If the word
modifies the verb, you should use an adverb. The difference is shown in the
following pair of sentences.

Here sweet is an adjective that modifies the noun

apple. Using the adverb sweetly here would not make
sense, because it would mean that the apple can smell
things in a sweet manner.

Here carefully is an adverb that modifies the verb

smells. Using the adjective careful here would not
make sense, because it would mean that the dog gives
off an odor of carefulness.

Avoiding Common Errors

Bad or Badly?

When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an adjective (Why? Feel is
a sense verb;see rule #3 above). So you'd say, "I feel bad." Saying you feel badly
would be like saying you play football badly. It would mean that you are unable to
feel, as though your hands were partially numb.

Good or Well?

Good is an adjective, so you do not do good or live good, but you do well and live
well. Remember, though, that an adjective follows sense-verbs and be-verbs, so you
also feel good, look good, smell good, are good, have been good, etc. (Refer to rule
#3 above for more information about sense verbs and verbs of appearance.)

Confusion can occur because well can function either as an adverb or an adjective.
When well is used as an adjective, it means "not sick" or "in good health." For this
specific sense of well, it's OK to say you feel well or are well -- for example, after
recovering from an illness. When not used in this health-related sense, however, well
functions as an adverb; for example, "I did well on my exam."

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Double-negatives

Scarcely and hardly are already negative adverbs. To add another negative term is
redundant, because in English only one negative is ever used at a time

They found scarcely any animals on the island. (not scarcely no...)
Hardly anyone came to the party. (not hardly no one...)

Sure or Surely?

Sure is an adjective, and surely is an adverb. Sure is also used in the idiomatic
expression sure to be. Surely can be used as a sentence-adverb. Here are some
examples that show different uses of sure and surely. Light blue arrows indicate
adjectives and green arrows indicate adverbs.

Here sure is an adjective that

modifies the pronoun I.

Here surely is an adverb that

modifies the adjective ready.

Here sure to be is an idiomatic

phrase that functions as an
adjective that modifies the
pronoun she.

Here surely is an adverb that

modifies the verb has been.

Real or Really?

Real is an adjective, and really is an adverb. Here are some examples that
demonstrate the difference between real and really. Light blue arrows indicate
adjectives and green arrows indicate adverbs.

Here really is an adverb that modifies the

adverb well.

Here really is an adverb that modifies the

verb phrase going out.

Here real is an
adjective that modifies
the noun problems.

Near or Nearly?

140
 Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition. Nearly is used as an
adverb to mean "in a close manner" or "almost but not quite." Here are some
examples that demonstrate the differences between various uses of near and nearly.
Light blue arrows indicate adjectives and green arrows indicate adverbs. Subjects
and verbs are marked in purple.

Here neared is a verb in the past

tense.

Here nearly is an adverb that

modifies the verb finished.

Here near is an adjective that

modifies the noun future.

Here near is an adverb of place that

modifies the verb crept.

Here nearly is an
adverb that modifies
the verb related.

Here near is a
preposition. The
prepositional phase
near the end of the
movie modifies the
noun scene.

After reviewing this handout, try the following exercises and check your answers using the answer
keys.

Adjective/Adverb Exercise #1 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/esladjadvEX1.html
Adjective/Adverb Exercise #2 at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/esladjadvEX2.html

This handout revised December 2001 by Michelle Hansard

141
 Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some/Any:

Both modify countable and uncountable nouns.

There is some water on the floor.
There are some Mexicans here.
Do you have any food?
Do you have any apples?

Much/Many:

MUCH modifies only uncountable nouns.

They have much money in the bank.

MANY modifies only countable nouns.

Many Americans travel to Europe.

A lot of/lots of:

These are informal substitutes for MUCH and MANY. They are used with uncountable nouns when
they mean MUCH and with countable nouns when they mean MANY.
They have lots of money in the bank.
A lot of Americans travel to Europe.

Little/Few:

LITTLE modifies only uncountable nouns.

He had little food in the house.

FEW modifies only countable nouns.

There are a few doctors in town.

A little bit of:

This phrase is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.

There is a little bit of pepper in the soup.

Enough:

ENOUGH modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There is enough money to buy a car.

I have enough books to read.

Plenty of:

142
This phrase modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

They have plenty of money in the bank.

There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.

No:

NO modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There is no time to finish now.

There are no squirrels in the park.

143
 The Use and Non-Use of Articles

Definition of articles

English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of these articles
depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or to a specific member of
a group:

1. Indefinite Articles: a and an

A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. These
indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general; the corresponding
indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. The rule is:

 a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy

 an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
 a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e.
begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
 some + plural noun: some girls

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of
the adjective that immediately follows the article:

 a broken egg
 an unusual problem
 a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)

Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a profession,
nation, or religion.

 I am a teacher.
 Brian is an Irishman.
 Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.

2. Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is particular or specific.
The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. Compare the
indefinite and definite articles in the following examples:

Indefinite (a or an) Definite (the)

a dog (any dog) the dog (that specific dog)
Singular
an apple (any apple) the apple (that specific apple)
some dogs (any dogs) the dogs (those specific dogs)
Plural
some apples (any apples) the apples (those specific apples)

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The is not used with noncountable nouns referring to something in a general sense:

[no article] Coffee is a popular drink.

[no article] Japanese was his native language.
[no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.

The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a limiting modifying phrase or
clause:

The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.

The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.
The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.

The is also used when a noun refers to something unique:

the White House

the theory of relativity
the 1999 federal budget

Note: Geographical uses of the

Do not use the before:

 names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and the US
 names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami)
 names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.)
 names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group of lakes like the
Great Lakes
 names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of mountains like the
Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
 names of continents (Asia, Europe)
 names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the
Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:

 names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific)

 points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)
 geographical areas (the Middle East, the West)
 deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the
Iberian Peninsula)

Further Uses of Articles

In addition, use of a, an, and the also depends on whether the noun following the article possesses
one of these paired qualities:

 Countable vs. noncountable

 First vs. subsequent mention
 General vs. specific

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1. Countable vs. Noncountable

A and an are used if the noun can be counted.

I stepped in a puddle. (How many puddles did you step in?

Just one. Therefore, use a.)

I drank a glass of milk. (Glasses of milk can be counted)

I saw an apple tree. (Apple trees can be counted)

The must be used when the noun cannot be counted.

I dove into the water. (How many waters did you dive into?
The question doesn't make any sense because water is
noncountable. Therefore, use the.)

I saw the milk spill. (How many milks? Milk cannot be

counted)

I admired the foliage. (How many foliages? Foliage cannot

be counted)

2. First vs. Subsequent Mention

A or an is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a piece of writing. The
is used afterward each time you mention that same noun.

An awards ceremony at the Kremlin would not normally have attracted so much
attention. But when it was leaked that Soviet President Konstantin Chernenko would
be presenting medals to three cosmonauts, interest in the ceremony intensified. Time,
Sept. 17, 1984.

146
Note: There is and there are can be used to introduce an indefinite noun at the beginning of a
paragraph or essay.

There is a robin in the tree outside my window. When my cat jumps up on the desk,
the robin flies away.

3. General vs. Specific

A, an, and the can all be used to indicate that a noun refers to the whole class to which individual
countable nouns belong. This use of articles is called generic, from the Latin word meaning "class."

A tiger is a dangerous animal. (any individual tiger)

The tiger is a dangerous animal. (all tigers: tiger as a generic category)

The difference between the indefinite a and an and the generic a and an is that the former means
any one member of a class while the latter means all of the members of a class.
The omission of articles also expresses a generic (or general) meaning:

no article with a plural noun: Tigers are dangerous animals. (all tigers)
no article with a noncountable noun: Anger is a destructive emotion. (any kind of
anger)

Omission of Articles

While some nouns combine with one article or the other based on whether they are countable or
noncountable, others simply never take either article. Some common types of nouns that don't take
an article are:

1. Names of languages and nationalities

a. Chinese
b. English
c. Spanish
d. Russian

2. Names of sports

a. volleyball
b. hockey
c. baseball

3. Names of academic subjects

a. mathematics
b. biology
c. history
d. computer science

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 Prepositions

Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to)

Prepositions of Direction: To, On(to), In(to)

This handout explains prepositions that express movement toward something: to, onto, and into.
First, the prepositions will be introduced as a group. Then, the special uses of each one will be
discussed.
To, into, and onto correspond respectively to the prepositions of location at, in, and on. Each pair
can be defined by the same spatial relations of point, line/surface, or area/volume. To learn more
about the spatial relationships expressed by these pairs of prepositions, read the first section of
"Prepositions of Location: At, On, and In" before you start reading this handout.

Introduction

1. The basic preposition of a direction is 'to'.

TO: signifies orientation toward a goal

When the goal is physical, such as a destination, "to" implies movement in the direction of the goal.

(1) Sa'id returned to his apartment.

When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to" marks a verb; it is attached as an
infinitive and expresses purpose. The preposition may occur alone or in the phrase in order.
(2) Li Ling washed her dog (in order) to rid it of fleas.
The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:

2. The other two prepositions of direction are compounds formed by adding "to" to the
corresponding prepositions of location.

The preposition of location determines the meaning of the preposition of direction.

ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface

148
IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a
volume

("To" is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean about the same thing.)

3. With many verbs of motion, "on" and "in" have a directional meaning and can be used
along with "onto" and "into".

(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is why "to" is inside parentheses in
the title of the handout, showing that it is somewhat optional with the compound prepositions. Thus,
the following sentences are roughly synonymous:

(4) Tai-shing jumped in/into the pool.

(5) Porfirio fell on/onto the floor.

(6) The crab washed up on/onto the shore.

To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition conveys the completion of an
action, while the simple preposition points to the position of the subject as a result of that action.
This distinction helps us understand how directional and locational prepositions are related: they
stand in the relationship of cause and effect.

Completion of
Position of Subject
an Action

(7) Jean fell

Jean is on the floor.
on(to) the floor.

149
(8) Susumu dived Susumu is in the
in(to) the water. water.

Uses of "to"

To occurs with several classes of verbs.

1. verb + to + infinitive

Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or obligation.

 willingness: be willing, consent, refuse

 desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer
 intention: intend, plan, prepare
 obligation: be obligated, have, need

Examples:

(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats.

(10) I'd like to ask her how long she's been skiing.
(11) I plan to graduate this summer.
(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar's office.

2. In other cases "to" is used as an ordinary preposition.

 verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate, appeal (in the sense of 'plead,'
not 'be attractive')
 verbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly, travel

Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as to. However, "to" suggests
movement toward a specific destination, while "toward" suggests movement in a general direction,
without necessarily arriving at a destination:

(13) Drive toward the city limits and turn north.

(Drive in the direction of the city limits;

turnoff may be before arriving there.)

150
 (14) The plane was headed toward a mountain.

(It was headed in the direction of a mountain;

it may not have reached or hit the mountain.)

(15) Take me to the airport, please.

(I actually want to arrive at the airport.)

Uses of "onto"

1. Onto can generally be replaced by on with verbs of motion.

(16) Dietrich jumped on(to) the mat.

(17) Huan fell on(to) the floor.

(18) Athena climbed on(to) the back of the truck.

2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes itself or some physical object
to be situated in a certain place (compare #15-17 above).

Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto, with the latter being preferred
by some speakers.

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 (19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.
(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.

Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is put. Other verbs taking
both prepositions are raise, scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.

(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.

(27) We're adding on a wing at the back of the building.
(28) We're adding a porch onto the house.

In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple preposition. This contrast points
to a fairly important and general rule:

Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound prepositions

cannot.

Note also that in (27), the word "on" has its ordinary meaning of a position on a surface, but in this
case the surface is vertical rather than horizontal-- the side of a building. The use of "onto" in (28) is
like its use in (24) and (25) above.

3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which are formally like "add on" but
have the meaning "of continuing or resuming an action" when used in the imperative mood.

(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang, which takes both on and onto, they
all occur only with on. The meanings of these combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are given
in parentheses.

 Hang on(to the rope)! ('continue to grasp tightly')

 carry on ('resume what you were doing')
 sail on ('resume or continue sailing')
 dream on ('continue dreaming'; a humorous way of saying 'that is an unattainable goal')
 lead on ('resume or continue leading us')
 rock on ('continue playing rock music')

Uses of "into"

1. With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable except when the preposition is
the last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.

In this case only in (or inside) can be used.

(29) The patient went into the doctor's office.

(30) The patient went in. (not into)
(31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. ('to take up

152
 residence in a new home')
(32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.

In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object of the preposition in (32) can be
omitted. Of course, in an information question, "into" also can be last word except for an adverbial
when its object is questioned by a wh- word:

(34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
(35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?

2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only "on" or "in" with the ordinary meanings of
those prepositions.

If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted, the construction may have an idiomatic
meaning.

(36) The cat sat on the mat.

(37) The doctor is in his office.

(38) The doctor is in. ('available for

consultation')

In(to) has two special uses with move.

3. When "move in" is followed by a purpose clause, it has the sense of "approach".

(39) The lion moved in for the kill.

(40) The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the building.

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In (39) and (40) "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; We cannot say: "The lion moved
into for the kill."

4. When "into" is used with move, it functions as an ordinary preposition to convey the idea
of moving something from one place to another.

(41) We'll move your brother's old bed into

your room.

This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and (29).

Exercises for this handout are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslprepEX1.html.

154
 Prepositions of Location: At, In, On

Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds: prepositions of location and prepositions
of direction. Both kinds may be either positive or negative. Prepositions of location appear with
verbs describing states or conditions, especially be; prepositions of direction appear with verbs of
motion. This handout deals with positive prepositions of location that sometimes cause difficulty:
at, on, and in.
The handout is divided into two sections. The first explains the spatial relationships expressed by
the three prepositions. The second examines more closely the uses of in and on.

Dimensions and Prepositions

Prepositions differ according to the number of dimensions they refer to. We can group them into
three classes using concepts from geometry: point, surface, and area or volume.

Point

Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows them is treated as a
point in relation to which another object is positioned.

Surface

Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an object is defined with
respect to a surface on which it rests.

Area/Volume

Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within the boundaries of an area
or within the confines of a volume.

Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together because both are two-dimensional, in
grammar area and volume go together because the same prepositions are used for both.
In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified as follows:

at ....... point

on ....... surface

in ....... area/volume

155
The meanings of the three prepositions can be illustrated with some sample sentences:

1) My car is at the house.

2) There is a new roof on the house.

3) The house is in Tippecanoe county.

4) There are five rooms in the house,

which has a lovely fireplace in the
living room.

All of these sentences answer a question of the form, "Where is _______?" but each gives different
information. Before going on, explain to yourself the spatial relations shown in each sentence.
1) locates a car in relation to a house, understood as a fixed point. 2) treats the house as a surface
upon which another object, the roof, is placed. 3) locates the house within a geographical area. 4)
treats the house as a three-dimensional structure that can be divided into smaller volumes, namely,
rooms, inside one of which is an object, the fireplace.

Using "at"

At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific of the prepositions in its spatial
orientation, it has a great variety of uses. Here are some of them:

location

156
5a) Tom is waiting for his sister at the bank.

5b) Sue spent the whole afternoon at the fair.

destination

6a) We arrived at the house.

6b) The waiter was at our table immediately.

direction

7a) The policeman leaped at the assailant.

7b) The dog jumped at my face and really scared

me.

In 5a), the bank can be understood as a point defining Tom's location, much as in 1) above. It makes
less sense to think of a fair as a point in 5b) since fairs are usually spread out over a fairly large
area. Probably at is used in this case just because it is the least specific preposition; it defines Sue's
location with respect to the fair rather than some other place. In 6a), at exhibits its cause/effect
relationship with to, which cannot be used here: arrival at a place is the result of going to it. For
more on this relationship, see the handout Prepositions of Direction: To, (On)to, (In)to. 7a) and 7b)

157
show that with certain verbs of motion at may be used with the same meaning as its directional
counterpart to, that is, direction toward something. Again, see the directional prepositions handout.
In the remainder of the handout, we will look at special problems that arise in choosing between in
and on.

"in" and "on"

1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window, take both on and in. The
prepositions have their normal meanings with these nouns: on is used when the space is considered
as a surface, in when the space is presented as an area:

Three players are practicing on the field.

(surface)

Three cows are grazing in the field. (area)

The frost made patterns on the window.

(surface)

A face appeared in the window. (area)

158
Notice that in implies that the field is enclosed, whereas on implies only that the following noun
denotes a surface and not necessarily an enclosed area:

The sheep are grazing in the pasture. (enclosed

by a fence)

The cattle are grazing on the open range. (not

enclosed by a fence )

Three players are on the basketball court. (not

enclosed)

Three players are on the soccer field. (not

enclosed)

Two boxers are in the ring. (enclosed by ropes)

2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries, such as when field means
"academic discipline," in is used:

She is a leading researcher in the bioengineering field.

3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two follow the general pattern of in
and on usage. The third is an idiom that must be learned as a unit.

159
 a) The children are playing in the street.

b) Our house is on Third Street.

c) He declared bankruptcy last week, and

(This is an idiom meaning that he's poor.)
now he's out on the street.

In a) the street is understood as an area enclosed by the sidewalks on either side. Compare b) with
the discussion of sentence 3) in the first section. Here on locates the house on either side of Third
Street: it doesn't mean that the street is a surface on which the house sits. Because the street is
understood as a line next to which the house is situated, on functions much like at in its normal use:
it locates the house in relation to the street but does not specify the exact address. For that purpose,
at is used because the address is like a particular point on the line. Compare: "Our house is at 323
Third Street." In c) out on the street is an idiom meaning "poor" or "destitute."
4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is used with a car, on with public or
commercial means of transportation:

in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train
on the ship

Some speakers of English make a further distinction for public modes of transportation, using in
when the carrier is stationary and on when it is in motion.

My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.
The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff.

Exercises for this handout are available at

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslprep2EX1.html.

160
 Prepositions of Time, of Place, and to Introduce Objects

One point in time

On is used with days:

 I will see you on Monday.

 The week begins on Sunday.

At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:

 My plane leaves at noon.

 The movie starts at 6 p.m.

In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:

 He likes to read in the afternoon.

 The days are long in August.
 The book was published in 1999.
 The flowers will bloom in spring.

Extended time

To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from—to, from-
until, during,(with)in

 She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)
 I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
 The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)
 The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)
 I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
 We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place

To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself:
in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general
vicinity, at. For more detail, see our handouts on Prepositions of Location and Prepositions of
Direction.

 There is a wasp in the room.

 Put the present inside the box.
 I left your keys on the table.
 She was waiting at the corner.

Higher than a point

To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following prepositions:
over, above. For more detail, see our handout on Prepositions of Spatial Relationship.

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  He threw the ball over the roof.
 Hang that picture above the couch.

Lower than a point

To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following prepositions:
under, underneath, beneath, below. For more detail, see our handout on Prepositions of Spatial
Relationship.

 The rabbit burrowed under the ground.

 The child hid underneath the blanket.
 We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
 The valley is below sea-level.

Close to a point

To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions:
near, by, next to, between, among, opposite. For more detail, see our handout on Prepositions of
Spatial Relationship.

 She lives near the school.

 There is an ice cream shop by the store.
 An oak tree grows next to my house
 The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
 I found my pen lying among the books.
 The bathroom is opposite that room.

To introduce objects of verbs

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs.

At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare

 She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
 You didn't laugh at his joke.
 I'm looking at the computer monitor.
 We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
 That pretty girl smiled at you.
 Stop staring at me.

Of: approve, consist, smell

 I don't approve of his speech.

 My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
 He came home smelling of alcohol.

Of (or about): dream, think

 I dream of finishing college in four years.

 Can you think of a number between one and ten?
 I am thinking about this problem.

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For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish

 Did someone call for a taxi?

 He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
 I'm looking for my keys.
 We'll wait for her here.
 You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.

If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.

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 Prepositions of Spatial Relationship

above Write your name above the line.

across Draw a line across the page.

against She leans against the tree.

ahead of The girl is ahead of the boy.

along There is lace along the edge of the cloth.

among He is among the trees.

around Draw a circle around the answer.

behind The boy is behind the girl.

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below Write your name below the line.

beneath He sat beneath the tree.

beside The girl is standing beside the boy.

between She is between two trees.

from He came from the house.

in front of The girl is in front of the boy.

inside He is inside the house.

nearby There is a tree nearby the house.

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off His hat is off.

out of He came out of the house.

through She went through the door.

toward She is walking toward the house.

under He is hiding under the table.

within Please mark only within the circle.

The following information must remain intact on every handout printed for distribution.

This page is located at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/esl/eslprep3.html

Copyright ©1995-2004 by OWL at Purdue University and Purdue University. All rights reserved.
Use of this site, including printing and distributing our handouts, constitutes acceptance of our
terms and conditions of fair use, available at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/lab/fairuse.html .

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Non-Sexist Language

Brought to you by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab

The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) suggests the following guidelines:

Generic Use
Although MAN in its original sense carried the dual meaning of adult human and adult male, its
meaning has come to be so closely identified with adult male that the generic use of MAN and other
words with masculine markers should be avoided.

Examples Alternatives
mankind humanity, people, human beings
man's achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic, manufactured, machine-made
the common man the average person, ordinary people
man the stockroom staff the stockroom
nine man-hours nine staff-hours

Occupations
Avoid the use of MAN in occupational terms when persons holding the job could be either male or
female.

Examples Alternatives
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a
meeting), presiding officer, head, chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mail carrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative

Pronouns
Because English has no generic singular--or common-sex--pronoun, we have used HE, HIS, and
HIM in such expressions as "the student needs HIS pencil." When we constantly personify "the
judge," "the critic," "the executive," "the author," and so forth, as male by using the pronoun HE,
we are subtly conditioning ourselves against the idea of a female judge, critic, executive, or author.
There are several alternative approaches for ending the exclusion of women that results from the
pervasive use of masculine pronouns.

a. Recast into the plural.

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Example Alternative
Give each student his paper as soon as he is Give students their papers as soon as they are finished.
finished.

b. Reword to eliminate gender problems.

Example Alternative
The average student is worried about his
The average student is worried about grades.
grade.

c. Replace the masculine pronoun with ONE, YOU, or (sparingly) HE OR SHE, as

appropriate.

Example Alternative
If the student was satisfied with his
A student who was satisfied with her or his
performance on the pretest, he took the post-
performance on the pretest took the post-test.
test.

d. Alternate male and female examples and expressions. (Be careful not to confuse the
reader.)

Example Alternative
Let each student participate. Has he had a Let each student participate. Has she had a chance to
chance to talk? Could he feel left out? talk? Could he feel left out?

Indefinite Pronouns
Using the masculine pronouns to refer to an indefinite pronoun (everybody, everyone, anybody,
anyone) also has the effect of excluding women. In all but strictly formal uses, plural pronouns have
become acceptable substitutes for the masculine singular.

Example Alternative
Anyone who wants to go to the game should Anyone who wants to go to the game should bring
bring his money tomorrow. their money tomorrow.

- END -

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