Article

School Psychology International

34(2) 202–212
Providing psychological ! The Author(s) 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/0143034312453399

overseas Filipino workers spi.sagepub.com

(OFWs): A challenge for

school psychologists
in the Philippines
Maria Caridad H. Tarroja and
Katrina C. Fernando
De La Salle University, Philippines

Abstract
In the last 30 years, there has been a rapid increase of Filipino parents leaving the
country and their families for better job opportunities abroad. Existing literature
points out the impact of migration on the families and on the well-being, academic
performance, and school behaviours, family and peer relationships of the children left
behind, and the need for interventions to address these concerns. A review of the
literature and a survey on the current practices in schools reveals a lack of structured
and programmatic interventions in school, which mental health professionals in schools
recognize to be essential to help OFW children adjust better. Considering the gaps in
the current practice, we recommend that more purposive school-based and family-
focused psychological services are implemented to help the children and families left
behind by OFW parents.

Keywords
Children of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs), Philippines, psychological services,
school psychologists, well-being of OFW children

Many Filipino social scientists have looked into the impact of international migra-
tion on Filipino families and children, especially those who are left behind by
parents who have decided to work abroad (e.g., Battistella & Conaco, 1998;
Carandang, Sison, & Carandang, 2007; Melgar & Borromeo, 2002). There are,

Corresponding author:
Maria Caridad H. Tarroja, Psychology Department, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines.
Email: maria.caridad.tarroja@dlsu.edu.ph

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Tarroja and Fernando 203

however, very few reports on the services and interventions that address the con-
cerns and issues of Filipino families brought about by the separation of children
from their parents. Further, the role of mental health professionals, specifically
school psychologists, in addressing the concerns of the Overseas Filipino
Workers (OFW) children has not yet been studied . Through a review of the litera-
ture on the issues faced by the families and children of OFWs and a survey of the
psychological services provided in schools to address the concerns and reported
problems of children of OFW parents, we aim to identify the gaps between what
the OFW’s children need and what psychological services have been offering them
in school settings. We highlight some of the challenges for providing appropriate
psychological services and recommend responses to these challenges from the point
of view of the school counsellors and psychologists.
School psychologists are ‘professionals who are recognized as specialists in the
provision of psychological services to children and youth within the contexts of
schools, families, and other settings that impact their growth and development’
(International School Psychology Association, http://www.ispaweb.org/). In the
Philippines, school psychology is not yet included in the Psychological
Association of the Philippines’ (PAP) list of the field of specializations (currently,
assessment, counselling, clinical, developmental, educational, industrial-organiza-
tion, and social; PAP, http://www.pap.org.ph). In the Philippines, mental health
professionals in school settings are not usually called school psychologists but
rather they are referred to as counsellors or guidance counsellors. Their educational
background is either psychology or guidance counselling. Nonetheless, the func-
tions of school psychologists as described by Watkins, Crosby, and Pearson (2001)
and Farrell, Jimerson, and Kalambouka (2005)—that is, psychoeducational assess-
ment, counselling, working with teachers to assist in developing programmes for
students with special needs, crisis intervention, behaviour management, consult-
ation with school personnel and parents in formulating intervention plans, educat-
ing and training parents and staff—are similar to the roles of counsellors in
Philippine schools.

Impact of international migration on Filipino families and children

The Philippines is considered as one of the biggest suppliers of labour migrants in
the world (Huang, Yeoh, & Asis, 2003) and over eight million Filipinos are
reported to work and reside in more than 100 countries around the globe
(Philippine Overseas Employment Agency, 2009). The rapid increase in the
number of Filipinos working abroad is primarily due to economic reasons.
Studies and reports on international migration show that children are capable of
coping with the changes brought about by migration (Battistella & Conaco, 1998;
Carandang et al., 2007) and that they understand why their parents need to work
abroad (Battistella & Conaco, 1998; Valdez, 2011). Nonetheless, some children left
behind by migrant parents experience difficulties, such as adjusting to the absence

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204 School Psychology International 34(2)

of a loved one (Melgar & Borromeo, 2002), and witnessing the struggles of their
other family members in keeping themselves and their families intact and afloat
(Carandang et al., 2007).

Impact on children’s well-being. Children’s reactions to their parents’ migration vary

from acceptance to resentment (Reyes, 2008). Some perceive their parents’ migration
as a way of improving the family’s economic condition (Valdez, 2011), and others see
it as a form of abandonment (Añonuevo & Sopeña, 2002; Battistella & Conaco,
1998; Carandang et al., 2007; Melgar & Borromeo, 2002). Feelings of loneliness and
emptiness predominate when parents leave to work overseas (Carandang et al., 2007;
Melgar & Borromeo, 2002). Children with both parents away feel greater sadness
than those with only one OFW parent (Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004).
Similarly, Battistella and Conaco (1998) found that children with both parents pre-
sent were less lonely and less socially dissatisfied than children left behind by a parent
or by both parents. Children of migrant parents experience more emotional distress
compared to children of non-migrants (Battistella & Conaco, 1998), and those who
were left behind were also reported to have more behavioural problems, such as
dropping out of school, engaging in vice, drug abuse (Gavriliuc, 2007; Melgar &
Borromeo, 2002), and becoming disposed to delinquency (Lee & Lee, 2012;
UNESCAP, 2008 cited in Devasahayam, 2011).

Impact on school performance. Children of OFWs are reported to perform less well
in school compared to peers who live with their parents (Huang et al., 2003).
Grades and class rank of left behind children, either with one or both parents
abroad were below those children with both parents present. In school activ-
ities, children of migrant mothers tend to score lower and to have poorer
performance (Battistella & Conaco, 1998). The absence of mothers is consis-
tently identified as having a more pervasive influence on the lives of their
children (Battistella & Conaco, 1998; Carandang et al., 2007; Huang et al.,
2003; Parreñas, 2006; Valdez, 2011). When the mother leaves, some children
feel burdened by filling in the responsibility of nurturing and caring for the
family (Asis, 2006). This duty affects the children’s performance in school
(Parreñas, 2006) since they tend to devote less time to studying and allot
time attending to their family’s needs. In addition, some children left behind
by their migrant parents tend to prioritize schooling less, and give lesser value
to studying so that they end up failing, dropping out, or not finishing their
grades (Edillon, 2008; Yeo & Choi, 2011). In schools, some children of
migrant parents also have trouble relating with peers. Reyes (2008) noted
that they are more vulnerable to being abused and intimidated by their
peers in school. This exacerbates the feeling of being abandoned since their
parents are not with them to protect or defend them (Deb & Walsh, 2012;
Pillay, 2011; Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004; Theron & Donald, 2012;
Toland & Carrigan, 2011; Woods, Bond, Tyldesley, Farrell, & Humphrey,
2011).

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Tarroja and Fernando 205

What helps children cope

School interventions. A structured and formal school programme is more convenient
for teachers, parents, and the students (Harris, 2005), and more effective in addres-
sing not just academic but also personal concerns of the children (Lambie, 2005;
Loop, 1997; Petroski, 2003). Loop (1997) enumerated characteristics of an effective
school guidance programme in elementary schools: Individual and small group
counselling, group guidance, consultation, coordination, information services, indi-
vidual assessment, placement, and evaluation. Similarly, Petroski (2003) found that
comprehensive guidance and counselling programmes made children feel more
secure in school and in their relationships with their peers and with teachers, feel
more satisfied with the quality of their education, and increase the perceived value
of studying. Those who received counselling services were found to perform better
and get higher grades.
Ehrhardt-Padgett, Hatzichristou, Kitson, and Meyers (2003) ascertained that
using results of intervention assessment as data, and having well-constructed meth-
odologies for research may improve the services that school psychologists provide
to address their students’ educational and mental health needs. Similarly, they
recognized the value of school psychologists working with other professionals
such as teachers, school counsellors, administrators, and the students’ families.
Working with them allows school psychologists to determine alternative and crea-
tive solutions, and to maximize existing interventions. Spoth, Randall, and Shin
(2008) substantiated the benefits of school-family partnerships on students’ aca-
demic success. Family socialization and the youth’s positive perception of their
relationships with parents and teachers foster socio-emotional development,
which in turn encourages school engagement and better academic performance.
It is nonetheless important to note that children must be open to their parents being
involved in school activities for the partnership to have an impact on their devel-
opment (Deslandes & Cloutier, 2002). In the Philippines, children’s peer groups
and their participation in school activities also help them cope with the emotional
impact of being left behind by parents (Edillon, 2008; Melgar & Borromeo, 2002).
Children feel a sense of belongingness and positive involvement when they are
given the opportunity to affiliate with their peers and when they take part in
school activities.

Community interventions. There are also several non-government organizations assist-

ing Filipino migrants and their families but they do not directly provide psycho-
logical services. One non-government agency (NGO) in Metro Manila is able to
provide a structured programme to children of OFW families coming from differ-
ent provinces. The NGO’s primary goals are to help the children cope with the
absence of their parents, and to help them improve their social skills. They also aim
to help the children of OFW families gain understanding of their situation, unearth
their emotions, ease their pain, learn to forgive and rediscover love (UGAT

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206 School Psychology International 34(2)

Foundation Programme, http://www.ugatpanatag.com). However, such pro-

grammes seem to have low utilization rate.

Family interventions. In most cases, relatives take over and become more involved in
care giving to compensate for parental absence (Battistella & Conaco, 1998). Close
relationship established with their parents before they migrated, support from the
extended family, regular communication with their migrant parents, and a sense of
hope that their family will be together again, are some of the factors that promote
resilience among left behind children (Llangco, 2002 cited in Añonuevo & Sopeña,
2002). Regular and frequent communication with migrant parents helps the chil-
dren cope with loneliness and sadness (Asis, 2006; Parreñas, 2006; Woods et al.,
2011). Modern technologies that allow quick and cheap communication, and
migrant parents’ success in negotiating care-giving from a distance, are important
factors for the children of migrant workers. Modern technology helps in providing
easy, fast and low-cost communication between members of transnational families
(Bryant, 2005; Huang et al., 2003). The most common means of maintaining close
family ties is the cellular phone, followed by the landline telephone (Edillon, 2008),
as well as emails and video calls (Valdez, 2011; Yeoh & Lam, 2011).

Method
Respondents for this study included 34 mental health practitioners who work in
different private and public schools in the Philippines and who have dealt with
children of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs). The respondents comprised 31
guidance counsellors, one assessment personnel, and one school psychologist.
Twenty-three out of the 34 respondents worked in private schools, and the rest
worked in public schools. The respondents came from different colleges/universi-
ties, high schools, and in primary schools in Metro Manila. A questionnaire was
used to collect data for this study. It contained six open-ended questions, which
asked about the different concerns of children of OFWs, the school services which
different universities/colleges, high schools, and primary schools offered to address
these concerns, and their recommended programmes and interventions for pro-
blems that these children experienced.
Academic and mental health professionals were contacted and invited to answer
the questionnaire. Prior to participating, the researchers assured the respondents of
confidentiality. Questionnaires were then sent out to each consenting school psy-
chologists and guidance counsellors via e-mail and through a Web-based form.
The researchers analysed the data using content analysis. To unearth themes, the
researchers repeatedly read the responses, separately coded, and evaluated the
accuracy of the coding units. The researchers continued collecting and analysing
data until no new themes were emerging from the obtained responses. Afterwards,
the researchers came together to resolve ambiguities, and to establish agreement on
identified themes.

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Tarroja and Fernando 207

Findings and discussion

Earlier findings suggest that parents’ absence negatively affects their children’s
school performance and overall well-being (Battistella & Conaco, 1998;
Carandang et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2003; Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004).
Children of OFW parents also present with a lack of confidence in establishing
friendships, and exhibit behavioural problems (aggression, impulsivity) (Gavriliuc,
2007; Melgar & Borromeo, 2002; Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004). Similar to the
findings of Valdez (2011) and Carandang et al., (2007), this study determined that
children reportedly went through emotional turmoil and experienced a great deal
of longing for their parents. All these findings suggested a strong need for psycho-
logical interventions that could address these concerns.

Limited school interventions for children of OFWs

Whereas all respondents acknowledged the academic, behavioural, and emotional
problems of the children left behind by their parents, most respondents in this
study noted an absence of regular, structured, and formal programmes that
could address the needs of OFW children and their families, and that interventions,
programmes and activities were only carried out as the need arose. Counselling was
the most common intervention provided by schools. Some counsellors held groups,
which allowed the children to share their experiences and express their feelings and
concerns related to their parents leaving for work abroad. Some schools offered
counselling services through a government agency and some schools were sup-
ported by NGOs.
One private school also recognized the importance of organizing counselling
sessions for teachers who needed assistance in handling students of OFWs.
Concerns tackled during these sessions were classroom management and identify-
ing at-risk students. They also held activities for the children’s parents and/or
guardians, which aimed to improve their relationship with the children. Most
schools had extra-curricular services or programmes that they made available to
all their students. Children of OFWs were encouraged to join school clubs and
organizations as a healthy diversion from the loneliness that they felt, and to help
them build and strengthen their social support. Overall, interventions provided for
the specific concerns of children of OFW parents were limited. With the lack of a
formal and structured programme for children of OFWs, the core psychological
issues—such as feelings of abandonment, loneliness, and confusion that exacer-
bated academic and behavioural problems—might not likely to be fully addressed.

The need for an eco-systemic approach to intervention

All respondents agreed that there was a need for a structured and formal school
programme for children of OFW parents, validating findings of previous studies
(e.g., Harris, 2005; Lambie, 2005; Loop, 1997; Low, Kok, & Lee, 2013; Petroski,

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208 School Psychology International 34(2)

2003). For example, individual and family counselling, and group guidance pre-
ventive programme for students deemed high-risk due to developmental and socio-
economic reasons were found most effective. These guidance programmes could
also be utilized in developing activities specific to the issues and needs of children of
OFW families. An eco-systemic approach to interventions addressing children’s
emotional and behavioural problems in school was encouraged by many school
psychologists (Cooper & Upton, 1991). This approach looked into the dysfunctions
in the general environment, including the school and the family, and how these
units could be tapped to bring about positive change. Partnership models, such as
between schools and family, in implementing interventions could also lead to posi-
tive outcomes (Spoth, Guyll, Lillehoj, & Redmond, 2007; Woods et al., 2011).

Interventions in schools. All respondents recognized the importance of carrying out

preventive school programmes that would buffer children from experiencing dis-
tress. Such programmes might focus on addressing the effects of parental absence,
and in helping children develop better coping strategies. Moreover, respondents
also recommended having school services for OFW parents and for their children’s
replacement caretakers/guardians. The primary suggestion was to develop systema-
tic and regular counselling programmes; guidance and counselling programmes
could thus compensate for the lack of parental supervision (James, Logan, &
Davis, 2011). Schools could also initiate the formation of in-school support
groups for these children since being in a group of children with the same concerns
might help alleviate a child’s feelings of loneliness. Some also suggested conducting
seminars and workshops for the children. Proposed topics included self-regulation,
personality development, decision-making, handling peer pressure, enhancing com-
munication with parents abroad, living independently and responsibly, nurturing
relationships with other family members, and handling finances. Van Schalkwyk
(2010) argues that the partnership between the school and the home may be
strengthened by taking into consideration the perceptions of the family and the
school about their different roles in helping children. It is important to note how
these perceptions, as well as one’s cultural background and beliefs, can promote or
hamper the concerted efforts of the school and the home in addressing the chil-
dren’s concerns (Carter, 2011; Van Schalkwyk, 2011).
Most respondents saw value in developing school programmes catering to the
needs of OFW parents—such as strengthening the communication lines between
the parents and the school. It was also emphasized that before the parent leaves for
abroad, school counsellors could help in educating family members about the
impact of leaving their children. In this way, the family could devise proactive
ways to deal with psychological, relational, behavioural, and academic problems.
A comprehensive guidance and counselling programme was consistently associated
with students’ feelings of safety in school, better relationships between students and
teachers, greater satisfaction with the education that they were receiving, seeing the
importance of education in their future, and getting high grades. Counselling pro-
grammes should encourage the practice of counsellors spending more time in

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Tarroja and Fernando 209

classrooms, helping students with personal problems and career plans, consulting
with parents and school personnel, providing counselling services, making referrals
as needed, and communicating with the community about the initiatives of their
guidance programme (Petroski, 2003). The School-Based Family Counselling is
one approach that weaves principles of traditional school psychology and family
counselling. It gained acceptance among families since counselling is embedded
within the system and not seen as a separate, intermediary process (Gerrard, 2008).

Interventions outside schools. Our respondents recognized the potential contribution

of the community in helping children of OFW parents fare better. NGOs were seen
as a supportive and efficient ally that could help the OFW families. Faith-based
organization could also extend help by facilitating activities for children. Involving
children in community activities might help build and strengthen their support
system, which in turn would lessen behavioural, social, emotional, and even aca-
demic problems. A few saw the capacity and the possible usefulness of government
agencies in initiating national programmes for these children. While there are
government organizations that help OFWs with work-related concerns, none has
centred their services on the welfare of the family members who were left behind.
This study also showed that practitioners recognize that helping OFW children
entails assisting the people who watch over them, which results in a need for family-
focused programmes. Training counsellors and teachers in identifying and helping
at-risk children, informing the parents about the effects of leaving their children
behind, and guiding the guardians in managing the children’s behaviours were
reckoned as important elements.

Conclusion
In sum, studies and reports on the experiences families and children left behind by
Overseas Filipino Workers demonstrate a need for structured and systematic ways
to help them understand and cope better with the situation. Whereas some govern-
ment and non-government organizations have made some efforts to this direction,
very few schools provide specific programmes for the left-behind children and
families. The challenge for school psychologists and other mental health profes-
sionals working in schools is to devise a structured and systemic school programme
to help address the psychosocial issues faced by children when their parents leave
them behind to work abroad. Our extensive review of current literature and the
findings of our study showed a lack of such programmes in most school settings in
the Philippines.

Acknowledgements and funding

The authors wish to acknowledge Dr. Allan B. I. Bernardo, Mr. Patrick James Garcia,
and Ms. Agnes Villegas for their contributions in this paper, and the College Research
Council of the College of Liberal Arts, De La Salle University-Manila for its financial
support.

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210 School Psychology International 34(2)

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Author biographies
Maria Caridad H. Tarroja, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Psychology
Department at the De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines. Her research inter-
ests include types of Filipino families, clinical assessment, and children with special
conditions including learning disability, anxiety and mood disorders. Address: De
La Salle University-Manila, 2401 Taft Avenue, 1004 Manila, Philippines. Email:
maria.caridad.tarroja@dlsu.edu.ph

Katrina C. Fernando, MS, is Assistant Professor in the Psychology Department at

the De La Salle University Manila, Philippines. Her research interests include flow
and psychological well-being, recovery and mental health. Address: De La Salle
University-Manila, 2401 Taft Avenue, 1004 Manila, Philippines. Email:
katrina.fernando@dlsu.edu.ph

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