ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH & QUALITY LIFE:

INTRODUCTION
The science of Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it
comprises various branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life
science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc. It is the science of physical
phenomena in the environment. It studies of the sources, reactions, transport, effect and
fate of physical a biological species in the air, water and soil and the effect of from
human activity upon these.

Environment Explained
Literary environment means the surrounding external conditions influencing
development or growth of people, animal or plants; living or working conditions etc. This
involves three questions:

1. What is surrounded?

The answer to this question is living objects in general and man in particular.

2. By what Surrounded?

The physical attributes are the answer to this question, which become environment.
In fact, the concern of all education is the environment of man. However, man cannot
exist or be understood in isolation from the other forms of life and from plant life. Hence,
environment refers to the sum total of condition, which surround point in space and time.
The scope of the term Environment has been changing and widening by the passage of
time. In the primitive age, the environment consisted of only physical aspects of the
planted earth' land, air and water as biological communities. As the time passed on man
extended his environment through his social, economic and political functions.

3. Where Surrounded

The answer to this question. It is in nature that physical component of the plant
earth, viz land, air, water etc., support and affect life in the biosphere. Environment is the
representative of physical components of the earth where in man is an important factor
affecting the environment.

Douglas and Holland: ‘The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all
the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and
the growth, development and maturity of living organisms.’

Objectives and Guiding Principles of Environmental Studies:

According to UNESCO (1971), the objectives of environmental studies are:

(a) Creating the awareness about environmental problems among people.

(b) Imparting basic knowledge about the environment and its allied problems.

(c) Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.

(d) Motivating public to participate in environment protection and environment

improvement.

(e) Acquiring skills to help the concerned individuals in identifying and solving
environmental problems.

(f) Striving to attain harmony with Nature.

According to UNESCO, the guiding principles of environmental education should be as

follows:

(a) Environmental education should be compulsory, right from the primary up to the post
graduate stage.

(b) Environmental education should have an interdisciplinary approach by including

physical, chemical, biological as well as socio -cultural aspects of the environment. It
should build a bridge between biology and technology.

(c) Environmental education should take into account the historical perspective, the
current and the potential historical issues.

(d) Environmental education should emphasise the importance of sustainable

development i.e., economic development without degrading the environment.

(e) Environmental education should emphasise the necessity of seeking international

cooperation in environmental planning.

(f) Environmental education should lay more stress on practical activities and first hand
experiences.

Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies:

The disciplines included in environmental education are environmental sciences,
environmental engineering and environmental management.

(a) Environmental Science:

It deals with the scientific study of environmental system (air, water, soil and land), the
inherent or induced changes on organisms and the environmental damages incurred as a
result of human interaction with the environment.

(b) Environmental Engineering:

It deals with the study of technical processes involved in the protection of environment
from the potentially deleterious effects of human activity and improving the
environmental quality for the health and well beings of humans.

(c) Environmental Management:

It promotes due regard for physical, social and economic environment of the enterprise or
projects. It encourages planned investment at the start of the production chain rather than
forced investment in cleaning up at the end.

It generally covers the areas as environment and enterprise objectives, scope, and
structure of the environment, interaction of nature, society and the enterprise,
environment impact assessment, economics of pollution, prevention, environmental
management standards etc.

Components of Environment: The environment consists of four segments as under:

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding

the earth:
(a) It sustains life on the earth.
(b) It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
(c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun.

(d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and
radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultra-violate waves
below about 300 nm.

The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. Besides, argon, carbon

dioxide, and trace gases.

2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources

oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reserviour, polar icecaps, glaciers, and
ground water.

(i) Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,

(ii) About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.

(iii)Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and

ground water fit to be used for human consumption and other uses.

3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists

of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic
matter, air and water.

4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their

interactions with environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere.

Element of Environment

Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and

cultural elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These
elements may be explained as under:

(1) Physical elements

Physical elements are as space, landforms, water bodies, climate soils, rocks and
minerals. They determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as
well as limitations.

(2) Biological elements

Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and men constitute the
biosphere.

(3) Cultural elements

Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements are essentially
man-made features, which make cultural milieu.

ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: IMPORTANCE

Importance of Environment Studies: The environment studies enlighten us, about the
importance of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into
the environment.

At present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and complexity
day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. We study about these issues
besides and effective suggestions in the Environment Studies. Environment studies have
become significant for the following reasons:

1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance

It has been well recognised that environment issues like global warming and ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but
are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.

2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development

Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth,

Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased
out in the developed world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has, fact fully,
managed to move ‘dirty’ factories of South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps
in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither
practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area,
there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts
have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic
matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.

4. Need for An Alternative Solution

It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an

alternative goal. We need a goal as under:

(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally

sound and sustainable development.

(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-
consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.

5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction

It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from exinction. Consequent to our

activities constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of
development.

6. Need For Wise Planning of Development

Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to by synchronised with the ecological cycles in any plan of
development our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS:

It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the

Environmental Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken, would
result in the extinction of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is
essential to get the country acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be
eco-friendly. Some of these challenges are as under:

1. Growing Population

A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year.
Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural
resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us
is to limit the population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to
development, yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this
development of the women is essential.

2. Poverty

India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people
are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food,
fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line.
Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources
of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge
environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge. The population growth is
essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an earner and
helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.

3. Agricultural Growth

The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural
growth with damaging the environment. High yielding varities have caused soil salinity
and damage to physical structure of soil.

4. Need to Ground water

It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community

wastes, industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our
surface water and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water
quality of our rivers and other water bodies as lakes is an important challenge. It so
finding our suitable strategies for consecration of water, provision of safe drinking water
and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult challenges is essential.

5. Development And Forests

Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to
harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these
would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the
dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and
scientific debate.

Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of
agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once green, stand today as wastelands.
These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal communities
inhabiting forests respects the trees and birds and animal that gives them sustenance. We
must recognize the role of these people in restoring and conserving forests. The modern
knowledge and skills of the forest deptt. should be integrated with the traditional
knowledge and experience of the local communities. The strategies for the joint
management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.

6. Degradation of Land

At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess any potential for
production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffers from varying
degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 are completely unproductive.
The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land, of which over half is denuded to
various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or
less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land, most of which is overgrazed.
Thus, our of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees.
Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha This degradation
is to be avoided.

7. Reorientation of Institutions

The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes and infrastructures, to

suit conditions and needs today. The change has to be brought in keeping in view India’s
traditions for resources use managements and education etc. Change should be brought in
education, in attitudes, in administrative procedures and in institutions. Because it affects
way people view technology resources and development.

8. Reduction of Genetic Diversity

Proper measures to conserve genetic diversity need to be taken. At present most wild
genetic stocks have been disappearing from nature. Wilding including the Asiatic Lion
are facing problem of loss of genetic diversity. The protected areas network like
sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves are isolating populations. So, they are
decreasing changes of one group breeding with another. Remedial steps are to be taken to
check decreasing genetic diversity.

9. Evil Consequences of Urbanisation

Nearly 27 per cent Indians live in urban areas. Urbanisation and industrialisation has
given birth to a great number of environmental problem that need urgent attention. Over
30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21
have partial or full sewerage and treatment facilities. Hence, coping with rapid
urbanization is a major challenge.

10. Air and water Population

Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and population technologies and
makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes. A great number of
cities and industrial areas that have been identified as the worst in terms of air and water
pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason
is their implementation needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social
will. Again the people are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable
to implement these rules.

STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENT

Environment is both physical and biological. It includes both living and non-living
components.

(i) Physical Environment

:
The Physical Environment is classified into three broad categories viz.

(i) Solid,

(ii) Liquid
 (iii) Gas.

These represent the following spheres:

(i) The lithosphere (solid earth)

(ii) The hydrosphere (water component) and

(iii) The atmosphere

As such, the three basic of physical environment may be termed as under:

(i) Lithospheric Environment

(ii) Hydrospheric Environment

(iii) Atmospheric Environment

The scientists have classified them into smaller units based on different spatial
scales,

e.g.

(i) Mountain Environment

(ii) Glacier Environment

(iii) Plateau Environment

(iv) Coastal Environment

(ii) Biological Environment

The biological of the environment consists of:

(i) Plants (flora)

(ii) Animals (fauna).

Thus, the biotic environment further be divided into floral environment and faunal
environment. All the organisms work to form their social groups and organizations at
several levels. Thus, the social environment is formed. In this social environment the
organisms work to derive matter from the physical environment for their sustenance and
development. This process gives birth to economic environment. Man claims to be most
skilled and civilized of all the organisms. This is the reason why his social organisation is
most systematic.
CHAPTER 2 : ECOLOGY & ECOSYSTEM:

Ecology:
Ecology is a branch of science which deals with the study of interrelationship between
biotic and abiotic components of nature as well as relationship among the individuals of
the biotic components. Ecology has been defined in a number of ways by different
scientists and ecologists
Ernest Haeckel (1866), a German biologist, for the first time defined ecology as “the
body of knowledge is concerning the economy of the nature the investigation of the total
relation of animal to its inorganic and organic environment including above all its
friendly and animal relations with those animals and plants with which it comes directly
or indirectly into contact.” The term Eco logy’ was derived from two Greek words,
OIKOS (means house) and LOGUS (means study of) to denote the relationship between
the organisms and their environment
According to Woodbury (1954), “Ecology is a science which investigates organisms in
relation to their environment’. E.P. Odum (1969) defined ecology as “the study of
structure and function of nature”. R Margalef (1968) treated ecology as “study of
ecosystems”.

In 1985, Charles Krebs proposed the most accepted definition of ecology which may be
defined as follows: “Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the
distribution and abundance of organisms”.

Ecology plays a significant role in our day to day life. It is concerned with agriculture,
horticulture, conservation of soil, wildlife, forest, water resources, etc. Its domain is so
vast that it cannot be confined with limited discussion. However the study of ecological
principles provides background knowledge for understanding the problems of forests,
soil, surface water etc.
Objectives of Ecology:
(i) The local and geographical distribution and abundance of organisms (habitat niche,
community, bio-geography).
(ii) Temporal changes in the occurrence, abundance and activities of organisms (seasonal,
annual, successional, geological).
(iii) The inter-relationship between organism in population and communities (population
ecology).
(iv) The structural adaptations and functional adjustment of organisms to their physical
environment.
(v) The behaviour of organism under natural conditions (ethology).
(vi) The evolutionary development of all these inter-relations (evolutionary ecology).
(vii) The biological productivity of nature and its relations with mankind.
(viii) The development of mathematical models to relate interaction of parameters and
predict effects (systems analysis).
(ix) The conservation and management of natural resources and pollution (applied
ecology).

Classification of Ecology:
 1. Based on study area :

1. Autecology : It deals with the study of an individual species of organisms and

it’s population. The ecologists study the behavior and adaptations of particular
species to the environmental condition at every stage of that individual’s life
cycle. It is also called the Species ecology.

2. Synecology : It deals with the study of communities, their composition, their

behavior and relation with the environment. It is also called as Ecology of
communities. It is further divided into 3 types : 1) Population Ecology 2)
Community Ecology 3) Ecosystem Ecology

2. Based on Environment or habitat

1) Aquatic ecology : The study of interaction of organisms in the water 1) Marine

water ecology i) Ocean ii) Deep Sea iii) Estuary 2) Freshwater Ecology i) Letic
(Running water) a) River b) Stream c) Spring ii) Lentic (Standing Water) a) Pond
b) Lake Fresh water river Coral reefs

2) Terrestrial Ecology : The study of interaction of organisms on land : a.

Grassland Ecology b. Forest Ecology c. Desert Ecology

3. Based on Advancement in the field of ecology

a. Productive ecology b. Population ecology c. Community ecology d. Ecosystem

ecology e. Microbial ecology f. Radiation ecology g. Pollution ecology h. Space
ecology Forest Ecology

Interdependence of Living Things :

All living things depend on their environment to supply them with what they need,
including food, water, and shelter. Their environment consists of physical factors—such
as soil, air, and temperature—and also of other organisms. An organism is an individual
living thing. Many living things interact with other organisms in their environment. In
fact, they may need other organisms in order to survive. This is known as
interdependence. For example, living things that cannot make their own food must eat
other organisms for food. Other interactions between living things include symbiosis and
competition.
• All living things depend on their environment to supply them with what they need,
including food, water, and shelter.
• Symbiosis is a close relationship between organisms of different species in which at
least one
of the organisms benefits.
• Competition is a relationship between living things that depend on the same resources
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a close relationship between organisms of different species in which at least
one of the organisms benefits. The other organism may also benefit, it may be unaffected
by the relationship, or it may be harmed by the relationship.. The are able to pick out food
from the fur of the deer. The deer won't eat the birds. In fact, the deer knowingly lets the
birds rest on it. What, if anything, do you think the deer gets out of the relationship.

Competition
Competition is a relationship between living things that depend on the same resources.
The resources may be food, water, or anything else they both need. Competition occurs
whenever they both try to get the same resources in the same place and at the same time.
The two organisms are likely to come into conflict, and the organism with better
adaptations may win out over the other organism.
Concept of an Ecosystem:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the
latter provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction
between a biotic community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural
self-sufficient unit which is known as an ecosystem.

An ecosystem is, therefore, defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of

living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physio chemical)
environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting system. A pond, lake, desert,
grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems.

Following are the basic concepts of an ecosystem:

i. When both biotic and abiotic components are considered, the basic structural
and functional units of nature are ecosystems.
ii. There exist varying degrees of positive, negative and even neutral interactions
among organisms at both inter- and intra-specific levels.
iii. Energy is the driving force of an ecosystem which is unidirectional or non-
cyclic.
iv. The chemical components of the ecosystem move in a defined path called
biogeochemical cycles.
v. Successful growth of the organism is governed by limiting factors. The
minimal and maximum levels of tolerance for all species vary seasonally,
geographically and according to the population.
vi. Under natural conditions, different kinds of population undergo succession

Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:

Each ecosystem has two main components:

(1) Abiotic

(2) Biotic

(1) Abiotic Components:

The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the
abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour
and inter-relationship of organisms.

Abiotic components are mainly of two types:

(a) Climatic Factors:

Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
(b) Edaphic Factors:
Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living
organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for
organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this
component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration
and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.

Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and
transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the organic
food for other forms of life.

Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even
exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content
drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%.

Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is
also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic
chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and
soil. The original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic Components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and
Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classified
into three main groups:

(A) Producers

(B) Consumers

(C) Decomposers or Reducers.

(A) Producers:

The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and
change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds
namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the green
plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos
= feeder)

The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their
own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.

(B) Consumers:

The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food. Therefore, they
depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros =
other, trophos = feeder)

The consumers are of four types:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples
are cats, foxes, snakes etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example are
Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten
up by any other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic materials of
producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release to the environment
the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products of their
metabolisms.

These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of
materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem.
The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder)
Ecological Pyramid:

An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid, eltonian pyramid, energy pyramid, or

sometimes food pyramid) is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or
bio productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem

Ecological pyramids begin with producers on the bottom (such as plants) and proceed
through the various trophic levels (such as herbivores that eat plants, then carnivores that
eat herbivores, then carnivores that eat those carnivores, and so on). The highest level is
the top of the food chain.

Types of Ecological Pyramids of an Ecosystem :

1. Pyramids of numbers

2. Pyramids of biomass

3. Pyramid of energy

The trophic structure and function of successive trophic levels, i.e. producer’s →
herbivores → carnivores, may be shown graphically by means of ecological pyramids
where the first or producer level constitutes the base of the pyramid and the successive
levels, the tiers making the apex. Ecological pyramids were developed by Charles Elton
(1927) and are, therefore, also called Eltonian pyramids. Ecological pyramids are of three
general types.

1. Pyramids of numbers:
They show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive
trophic levels in terms of their number. In a grass land ecosystem the pyramid becomes
upright.
Similarly in a pond ecosystem the pyramid is upright. In a forest ecosystem, however, the
pyramid of numbers is somewhat different in shape. The producers, which are mainly
large-sized trees, are lesser in number and form the base of the pyramid. The herbivores,
which are the fruit- eating birds, elephants etc., are more in number than the producers.
Then there is a gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores, thus making the
pyramid again upright. However, in a parasitic food chain, the pyramids are always
inverted.

They show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive
trophic levels in terms of their number. Here there will be a gradual decrease in the
number of individuals from the lower to the higher trophic levels. This may be studied by
taking the example of trophic levels in grassland.
The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level and they are abundantly present in the
grassland ecosystem. The deers occupy the second level; their number is less than
compared to the grasses.
The wolves, which feed upon the deers, are far less in number when compared to the
number of deers. The lions, which occupy the next trophic level, feed upon wolves, and
the number of individuals in the last trophic level is greatly reduced.
In the parasitic food chain, the pyramid of numbers is founds to be inverted. Here, a
single plant or tree might support varieties of herbivore. These herbivores like birds in
turn, support varieties of parasites like lice, bugs that outnumber the herbivores.
Subsequently each parasite might support a number of hyperparasites like bacteria and
fungi, which will outnumber the parasites. Thus from the producer level onwards,
towards the consumers, in the parasitic food chain there is a gradual increase in the
number of organisms, instead of the usual decrease.
As a result of this, the pyramid becomes inverted in the parasitic food chain. There is a
gradual increase in the numbers of individuals from autotrophs to the higher trophic
levels.
The pyramids of numbers do not give a true picture of the food chain as they are not very
functional. They generally vary with different communities with different types of food
chains in the same ‘environment.

2. Pyramids of biomass:
The biomass of the members of the food chain present at any one time forms the pyramid
of the biomass. They are comparatively more fundamental, as they, instead of geometric
factor, show the quantitative relationship of the standing crops. In grassland and forests,
there is generally a gradual decrease in, biomass of organisms at successive levels from
the producers to the top carnivores. Thus pyramids are upright. However, in a pond the
pyramid of biomass is inverted in shape.

They are comparatively more fundamental, as they, instead of the geometric factor, show
j the quantitative relationships of the standing crops. Here there will be gradual decrease
in the biomass from the autotrophs to the higher trophic levels. This may be illustrated by
studying the trophic levels in a pond.
The biomass in autotrophs like algae, green flagellates, green plants etc. is the maximum.
The biomass is considerably less in the next trophic level occupied by secondary
consumers like small fishes. The least amount of biomass is present in the last trophic
level.

3. Pyramid of energy:
It is a graphic representation of amount of energy trapped per unit time and area in
different trophic levels of food chain with producers forming the base and top carnivores
the tip. The energy content is expressed as Kcal/m2 /yr. Of the three types of ecological
pyramids, the energy pyramids give the best picture of overall nature of the ecosystem.

The pyramids of energy indicates not only the amount of energy flow at each level, but
more important the actual role the various organisms play in the transfer of energy. In
shape it is always upright, as in most of the cases there is always a gradual decrease in the
energy content at successive trophic levels from the producers to various consumers.

The energy pyramids give the best picture of the overall nature of the ecosystem.
Here there will be gradual decrease in the availability of energy from the autotrophs
higher trophic levels. In other words, there is decrease in energy flow from autotrophs on\
at successive trophic levels.
In the course of energy flow from one organism to the other, is considerable loss of
energy in the form of heat. More energy is available in the autotrophs t in the primary
consumers. The least amount of available energy will be in the tertiary consumer.
Therefore, shorter the food chain, greater is the amount of energy available at the top.
1. The energy pyramid always upright and errect.
2. It shows the rate of energy flows at different trophic levels.
3. It shows that energy is maximum at producer level and minimum at the carnivores'
level.
4. At every successive trophic level there is a loss of energy in the form of heat,
respiration etc.

Lecture 3.

Ecological Footprint:

An ecological footprint estimates a human’s impact on earth. It looks at all the inputs and
outputs needed to support a lifestyle. If we want to be sustainable, we need to be able to
quantify human consumption.

Importance of biodiversity:

Biodiversity or Biological diversity is a term that describes the variety of living beings on
earth. In short, it is described as degree of variation of life. Biological diversity
encompasses microorganism, plants, animals and ecosystems such as coral reefs, forests,
rainforests, deserts etc.
Biodiversity also refers to the number, or abundance of different species living within a
particular region. It represents the wealth of biological resources available to us. It’s all
about the sustaining the natural area made up of community of plants, animals, and other
living things that is begin reduced at a steady rate as we plan human activities that is
being reduced by habitat destruction.
Biodiversity has three essential elements:
 Genetic diversity,
Eco system diversity and
Species diversity
Recently a new aspect has also been added- ‘molecular diversity’.
Biodiversity is unevenly distributed. It varies globally and within regions. The various
factors that influence biodiversity include -temperature, altitude, precipitation, soils and
their relation with other species. For instance, ocean biodiversity is 25 times lesser than
terrestrial diversity. Biodiversity also increases its form as it moves from the poles
towards the tropics
Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth. These are as follows:

• Maintaining balance of the ecosystem: Recycling and storage of nutrients,

combating pollution, and stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming
and protecting soil and maintaining ecobalance.

• Provision of biological resources: Provision of medicines and pharmaceuticals,

food for the human population and animals, ornamental plants, wood products,
breeding stock and diversity of species, ecosystems and genes.

• Social benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education and
research
The role of biodiversity in the following areas will help make clear the importance of
biodiversity in human life:
Biodiversity and food: 80% of human food supply comes from 20 kinds of plants.
But humans use 40,000 species for food, clothing and shelter. Biodiversity
provides for variety of foods for the planet.
Biodiversity and human health: The shortage of drinking water is expected to
create a major global crisis. Biodiversity also plays an important role in drug
discovery and medicinal resources. Medicines from nature account for usage by
80% of the world’s population.
Biodiversity and industry: Biological sources provide many industrial materials.
These include fiber, oil, dyes, rubber, water, timber, paper and food.
Biodiversity and culture: Biodiversity enhances recreational activities like bird
watching, fishing, trekking etc. It inspires musicians and artists.

Reason for Loss of Biodiversity

The earth’s biodiversity is in grave danger. In the present era, human beings are the most
dangerous cause of destruction of the earth’s biodiversity. In 2006, the terms threatened,
endangered or rare were used to describe the status of many species. habitat destruction,
climate change, invasive species, pollution, human overpopulation and over-harvesting.
Habitat destruction is a major cause for biodiversity loss. Habitat loss is caused by
deforestation, overpopulation, pollution and global warming. Species which are
physically large and those living in forests or oceans are more affected by habitat
reduction
Global warming is also becoming a major cause for loss of biodiversity. For example if
the present rate of global warming continues, coral reefs which are biodiversity hotspots
will disappear in 20-40 years.
CHAPTER 4: POLLUTION PREVENTION

Air Pollution :
Air pollution occurs when gases, dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or odour are introduced
into the atmosphere in a way that makes it harmful to humans, animals and plant. This is
because the air becomes dirty (contaminated or unclean).

The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air (made up of various gases) called the
atmosphere. The atmosphere helps protect the Earth and allow life to exist. Without it, we
would be burned by the intense heat of the sun during the day or frozen by the very low
temperatures at night.

Any additional gas, particles or odours that are introduced into the air (either by nature or
human activity) to distort this natural balance and cause harm to living things can be
called air pollution.

Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the air from pollution sources.
Secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants undergo chemical changes in
the atmosphere. Ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant. It is formed when nitrogen
oxides (NO x ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are mixed and warmed by
sunlight. Ozone (O 3 ) is a major component of what is often referred to as smog. The
ozone which is present in the troposphere, or the atmosphere that is close to the ground,
should not be confused with beneficial ozone that is located in the stratosphere or upper
atmosphere. This beneficial ozone in the stratosphere helps protect the earth from
harmful ultraviolet light from the sun

Sources of Air Pollution

Stationary and Area Sources
A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move, also
known as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry cleaners
and degreasing operations. The term area source is used to describe many small sources
of air pollution located together whose individual emissions may be below thresholds of
concern, but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential wood burners are
a good example of a small source, but when combined with many other small sources,
they can contribute to local and regional air pollution levels. Area sources can also be
thought of as non-point sources, such as construction of housing developments, dry lake
beds, and landfills.
Mobile Sources
A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its
own power. In general, mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation, which includes
vehicles such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a "non-
road" or "off-road" category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and
construction equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.
Agricultural Sources
Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, can generate
emissions of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or
restricted area (rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure
emits various gases, particularly ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be emitted from
the animal houses, manure storage areas, or from the land after the manure is applied. In
crop production, the misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can
potentially result in aerial drift of these materials and harm may be caused.
Natural Sources
Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the most
significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources of
"pollution" as well. Wildland fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also contribute
gases and particulates to our atmosphere.

Unlike the above mentioned sources of air pollution, natural "air pollution" is not caused
by people or their activities. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and gases;
forest and prairie fires can emit large quantities of "pollutants"; plants and trees naturally
emit VOCs which are oxidized and form aerosols that can cause a natural blue haze; and
dust storms can create large amounts of particulate matter

Common Air Pollutants : sources and effects:

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Fuel combustion from vehicles and engines.
Reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the body’s organs and tissues; aggravates heart
disease, resulting in chest pain and other symptoms.

Ground-level Ozone (O3)

Secondary pollutant formed by chemical reaction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and NOx in the presence of sunlight.
Decreases lung function and causes respiratory symptoms, such as coughing and
shortness of breath, and also makes asthma and other lung diseases get worse

Lead (Pb)
Smelters (metal refineries) and other metal industries; combustion of leaded gasoline in
piston engine aircraft; waste incinerators (waste burners), and battery manufacturing.
Damages the developing nervous system, resulting in IQ loss and impacts on learning,
memory, and behavior in children. Cardiovascular and renal effects in adults and early
effects related to anaemia.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Fuel combustion (electric utilities, big industrial boilers, vehicles) and wood burning.
Worsens lung diseases leading to respiratory symptoms, increased susceptibility to
respiratory infection.

Particulate Matter (PM)

This is formed through chemical reactions, fuel combustion (e.g., burning coal, wood,
diesel), industrial processes, farming (plowing, field burning), and unpaved roads or
during road constructions.
Short-term exposures can worsen heart or lung diseases and cause respiratory problems.
Long-term exposures can cause heart or lung disease and sometimes premature deaths.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

SO2 comes from fuel combustion (especially high-sulfur coal); electric utilities and
industrial processes as well as natural occurances like volcanoes.
Aggravates asthma and makes breathing difficult. It also contributes to particle formation
with associated health effects

Noise Pollution:

Sound, a normal feature of our life, is the means of communication and entertainment in
most animals, including human beings. It is also a very effective alarm system. A low
sound is pleasant whereas a loud sound is unpleasant and is commonly referred to as
‘noise’. Noise can be defined as an unpleasant and unwanted sound.

Noise is a physical form of pollution and is not directly harmful to the life supporting
systems namely air, soil and water. Its effects are more directly on the receiver i.e. man.
Noise pollution is the result of modern industrialized urban life and congestion due to
over population.

Causes of Noise Pollution

1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of
producing large amount of noise. Apart from that, various equipments like compressors,
generators, exhaust fans, grinding mills also participate in producing big noise.
Therefore, you must have seen workers in these factories and industries wearing ear plugs
to minimize the effect of noise.
2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also
play a vital role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking,
frequent fights over basic amenities leads to noise pollution which may disrupt the
environment of society.
3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage,
parties, pub, disc or place of worship, people normally flout rules set by the local
administration and create nuisance in the area. People play songs on full volume and
dance till midnight which makes the condition of people living nearby pretty worse. In
markets, you can see people selling clothes via making loud noise to attract the attention
of people.
4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aeroplanes flying over houses,
underground trains produce heavy noise and people get it difficult to get accustomed to
that. The high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person lose the ability to hear
properly.
5. Construction Activities: Under construction activities like mining, construction of
bridges, dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the
world. These construction activities take place everyday as we need more buildings,
bridges to accommodate more people and to reduce traffic congestion. The down point is
that these construction equipments are too noisy.
6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in
our daily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile , mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners
, washing machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the
amount of noise that is produced but it affects the quality of life of your neighborhood in
a bad way.
Effects of Noise Pollution
1. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can
cause problems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without
getting damaged. Man made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes
and even vehicles can be too loud for our hearing range. Constant exposure to loud levels
of noise can easily result in the damage of our ear drums and loss of hearing. It also
reduces our sensitivity to sounds that our ears pick up unconsciously to regulate our
body’s rhythm.
2. Health Issues: Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction
sites, bars and even in our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that
the occurrence of aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and
hypertension can be linked to excessive noise levels. These in turn can cause more severe
and chronic health issues later in life.
3. Sleeping Disorders: Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may
lead to irritation and uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to
problems related to fatigue and your performance may go down in office as well as at
home. It is therefore recommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.
4. Cardiovascular Issues: Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress
related heart problems are on the rise. Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes
high blood pressure and increases heart beat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow.
Bringing them to a manageable level depends on our understanding noise pollution and
how we tackle it.
5. Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow two
people to communicate freely. This may lead to misunderstanding and you may get
difficult understanding the other person. Constant sharp noise can give you severe
headache and disturb your emotional balance.
6. Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because noise
pollution since they are more dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of
hearing than us since their survival depends on it. The ill effects of excessive noise begin
at home. Pets react more aggressively in households where there is constant noise.

Level (in db) Effects

up to 23No disturbance
……………………
….

30—60 Stress, tension, psychological (illness, heart attact) effects

…………………… especially at upper range.
…..

60—90 Damage to health, psychological and vegetative (disturbance in

…………………… stomach-gall function, pains in muscles, high blood pressure,
….. disturbance in sleeping)

60—120 Damages to health and ontological (ear diseases) effects

……………………
…

AMore than 10…………Painful effect on lung

b
o
v
eStructure of Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided vertically into several major regions which are distinguished
by the sign of the temperature gradient. In the lowermost region, the troposphere, the
temperature falls with increasing altitude. The major source of heat input into this part of
the atmosphere is long-wave radiation from the earth’s surface, while the major loss is
radiation into space.
TAt higher elevations the temperature begins to rise with altitude as we move into a region
hin which heat is produced by exothermic chemical reactions, mainly the decomposition
of ozone that is formed photochemically from dioxygen in the stratosphere. At still
higher elevations the ozone gives out and the temperature begins to drop; this is the
mesosphere, which is finally replaced by the thermosphere which consists largely of a
plasma (gaseous ions). This outer section of the atmosphere which extends indefinitely to
perhaps 2000 km is heated by absorption of intense u.v. radiation from the Sun and also
from the solar wind, a continual rain of electrons, protons, and other particles emitted
from the Sun’s surface

Composition of the atmosphere

Except for water vapor, whose atmospheric abundance varies from practically zero up to
4%, the fractions of the major atmospheric components N 2 , O2 , and Ar are remarkably
uniform below about 100 km. At greater heights, diffusion becomes the principal
transport process, and the lighter gases become relatively more abundant. In addition,
photochemical processes result in the formation of new species whose high reactivities
would preclude their existence in significant concentrations at the higher pressures found
at lower elevations.

The atmospheric gases fall into three abundance categories: major, minor, and trace. Nitrogen, the most
abundant component, has accumulated over time as a result of its geochemical inertness; a very small
fraction of it passes into the other phases as a result of biological activity and natural fixation by
lightning. It is believed that denitrifying bacteria in marine sediments may provide the major route for
the return of N2 to the atmosphere. Oxygen is almost entirely of biological origin, and cycles through the
hydrosphere, the biosphere, and sedimentary rocks.
The most abundant of the minor gases aside from water vapor is carbon dioxide, about
which more will be said below. Next in abundance are neon and helium. Helium is a
decay product of radioactive elements in the earth, but neon and the other inert gases are
primordial, and have probably been present in their present relative abundances since the
earth’s formation. Two of the minor gases, ozone and carbon monoxide, have
abundances that vary with time and location.

Eutrophication of Lakes:
Eutrophication is an ecological process, akin to aging, in which a water body is
increasingly enriched with organic matter. Although the most obvious signs of
eutrophication in lakes and rivers involve algal blooms and fish kills, the systemic of
eutrophication, although profound, are often not as noticeable to the casual observer.
Eutrophication of lakes and rivers is accelerated by nutrient pollution, one of the most
pervasive water quality problems in the world. Increases in populations and
intensification of land use have accelerated eutrophication of water bodies from the Great
Lakes of North America, to Lake Tai of China to Lake Victoria in Africa. Because
nutrients can come from many sources, point as well as nonpoint, comprehensive
strategies are required to curb eutrophication. A variety of watershed programs have
yielded success, but they are outnumbered by the ever‐expanding number of lakes and
rivers that are undergoing eutrophication.
Causes
Eutrophication is most often the result of human activity. Farms, golf courses, lawns and
other fields tend to be heavily fertilized by people. These fertilizers a re the perfect type
of nutrients to feed hungry algae and plankton, and when it rains, these fertilizers run off
into lakes, streams, rivers and oceans. Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)
are also a major source of polluting nutrients.
Eutrophication can also come from natural events. If a stream, river or lake floods, it may
wash away any excess nutrients off the land and into the water. However, eutrophication
is less likely to occur in areas that are not surrounded by fertilized lands.

Effects
Eutrophication can have serious, long-term effects. The most notable effect of
eutrophication is algal blooms. When a bloom occurs, the stream, river, lake or ocean
becomes covered with algae, which is usually bright green. In addition to looking prett y
ugly, it also blocks light from reaching the water. This prevents the aquatic plants from
photosynthesizing, a process which provides oxygen in the water to animals that need it,
like fish and crabs.
If an algal bloom is so bad that it causes wide-spread death in the water, the organisms
that die will all sink to the bottom and start to decompose. The microbes that break down
these dead organisms use oxygen to do their work. So, in addition to the lack of oxygen
from photosynthesis, there is also now a lack of oxygen from the decomposition of dead
organisms.
When the oxygen in the water becomes too low, the water becomes hypoxic. If the
hypoxia is bad enough, no organisms can survive there, and a dead zone is created.

Water Pollution:
Water pollution can be defined in many ways. Usually, it means one or more substances
have built up in water to such an extent that they cause problems for animals or people.
Oceans, lakes, rivers, and other inland waters can naturally clean up a certain amount of
pollution by dispersing it harmlessly. If you poured a cup of black ink into a river, the ink
would quickly disappear into the river's much larger volume of clean water. The ink
would still be there in the river, but in such a low concentration that you would not be
able to see it. At such low levels, the chemicals in the ink probably would not present any
real problem. However, if you poured gallons of ink into a river every few seconds
through a pipe, the river would quickly turn black. The chemicals in the ink could very
quickly have an effect on the quality of the water. This, in turn, could affect the health of
all the plants, animals, and humans whose lives depend on the river

Types of water pollution:

When we think of Earth's water resources, we think of huge oceans, lakes, and rivers.
Water resources like these are called surface waters. The most obvious type of water
pollution affects surface waters. For example, a spill from an oil tanker creates an oil
slick that can affect a vast area of the ocean.
Not all of Earth's water sits on its surface, however. A great deal of water is held in
underground rock structures known as aquifers, which we cannot see and seldom think
about. Water stored underground in aquifers is known as groundwater. Aquifers feed our
rivers and supply much of our drinking water. They too can become polluted, for
example, when weed killers used in people's gardens drain into the ground. Groundwater
pollution is much less obvious than surface-water pollution
Surface waters and groundwater are the two types of water resources that pollution
affects. There are also two different ways in which pollution can occur. If pollution
comes from a single location, such as a discharge pipe attached to a factory, it is known
as point-source pollution. Other examples of point source pollution include an oil spill
from a tanker, a discharge from a smoke stack (factory chimney), or someone pouring oil
from their car down a drain. A great deal of water pollution happens not from one single
source but from many different scattered sources. This is called nonpoint-source
pollution . When point-source pollution enters the environment, the place most affected
is usually the area immediately around the source. For example, when a tanker accident
occurs, the oil slick is concentrated around the tanker itself and, in the right ocean
conditions, the pollution disperses the further away from the tanker you go. This is less
likely to happen with nonpoint source pollution which, by definition, enters the
environment from many different places at once
Sometimes pollution that enters the environment in one place has an effect hundreds or
even thousands of miles away. This is known as transboundary pollution.

Causes:
Most water pollution doesn't begin in the water itself. Take the oceans: around 80 percent
of ocean pollution enters our seas from the land. Virtually any human activity can have
an effect on the quality of our water environment. When farmers fertilize the fields, the
chemicals they use are gradually washed by rain into the groundwater or surface waters
nearby. Sometimes the causes of water pollution are quite surprising. Chemicals released
by smokestacks (chimneys) can enter the atmosphere and then fall back to earth as rain,
entering seas, rivers, and lakes and causing water pollution. That's called atmospheric
deposition. Water pollution has many different causes and this is one of the reasons why
it is such a difficult problem to solve.

1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic
chemicals and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our
environment. They contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates
and many other harmful chemicals. Many industries do not have proper waste
management system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers, canals
and later in to sea. The toxic chemicals have the capability to change the color of water,
increase the amount of minerals, also known as Eutrophication, change the temperature
of water and pose serious hazard to water organisms.
2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each
household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water
carries harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens
are known as a common water pollutant; The sewers of cities house several pathogens
and thereby diseases. Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of some very
deadly diseases and become the breeding grounds for other creatures that act like
carriers. These carriers inflict these diseases via various forms of contact onto an
individual. A very common example of this process would be Malaria.
3. Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper,
aluminum, rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited into the sea in some
countries. These items take from 2 weeks to 200 years to decompose. When such items
enters the sea, they not only cause water pollution but also harm animals in the sea.
4. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by
farmers to protect crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants growth.
However, when these chemicals are mixed up with water produce harmful for plants and
 animals. Also, when it rains, the chemicals mixes up with rainwater and flow down into
rivers and canals which pose serious damages for aquatic animals
5. Urban development: As population has grown, so has the demand for housing, food
and cloth. As more cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in increase use of
fertilizers to produce more food, soil erosion due to deforestation, increase in
construction activities, inadequate sewer collection and treatment, landfills as more
garbage is produced, increase in chemicals from industries to produce more materials.
6. Leakage from the landfills: Landfills are nothing but huge pile of garbage that
produces awful smell and can be seen across the city. When it rains, the landfills may
leak and the leaking landfills can pollute the underground water with large variety of
contaminants.
7. Animal waste: The waste produce produce by animals is washed away into the rivers
when it rains. It gets mixed up with other harmful chemicals and causes various water
borne diseases like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery and typhoid.
8. Underground storage leakage: Transportation of coal and other petroleum products
through underground pipes is well known. Accidentals leakage may happen anytime and
may cause damage to environment and result in soil erosion.
Water pollutants also include both organic and inorganic factors. Organic factors include
volatile organic compounds, fuels, waste from trees, plants etc. Inorganic factors include
ammonia, chemical waste from factories, discarded cosmetics etc. The water that travels
via fields is usually contaminated with all forms of waste inclusive of fertilizers that it
swept along the way. This infected water makes its way to our water bodies and
sometimes to the seas endangering the flora, fauna and humans that use it along its path.

Effects of Water Pollution

•
• Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within wildlife
in ecosystems.
• Sewage, fertilizer, and agricultural run-off contain organic materials that when
discharged into waters, increase the growth of algae, which causes the depletion of
oxygen. The low oxygen levels are not able to support most indigenous organisms in the
area and therefore upset the natural ecological balance in rivers and lakes.
•
• Old Roofs can cause pollution if they are not properly maintained. If water is being held
on roofs the water can become polluted and then run down the home and cause more
pollution to the water table. If you invest in a green roof from Allstate Roofing you can
help reduce the water pollution from your home.
•
• Swimming in and drinking contaminated water causes skin rashes and health problems
like cancer, reproductive problems, typhoid fever and stomach sickness in
humans. Which is why it’s very important to make sure that your water is clean and safe
to drink.
•
• Industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides that end up in aquatic environments can
accumulate in fish that are later eaten by humans. Fish are easily poisoned with metals
 that are also later consumed by humans. Mercury is particularly poisonous to small
children and women. Mercury has been found to interfere with the d evelopment of the
nervous system in fetuses and young children.
•
• Ecosystems are destroyed by the rising temperature in the water, as coral reefs are
affected by the bleaching effect due to warmer temperatures. Additionally, the warm
water forces indigenous water species to seek cooler water in other areas, causing an
ecological damaging shift of the affected area.
•
• Human-produced litter of items such as plastic bags and 6-pack rings can get aquatic
animals caught and killed from suffocation.
•
• Water pollution causes flooding due to the accumulation of solid waste and soil erosion
in streams and rivers.
•
• Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil does
not dissolve in water so it causes suffocation in fish and birds.

Land Pollution:

Land pollution, in other words, means degradation or destruction of earth’s surface and
soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities. Anthropogenic activities are
conducted citing development, and the same affects the land drastically, we witness land
pollution; by drastic we are referring to any activity that lessens the quality and/or
productivity of the land as an ideal place for agriculture, forestation, construction etc.
The degradation of land that could be used constructively in other words is land
pollution.
Causes of Land Pollution
Below are the sources of land pollution:
1. Deforestation and soil erosion: Deforestation carried out to create dry lands is one of
the major concerns. Land that is once converted into a dry or barren land, can never be
made fertile again, whatever the magnitude of measures to redeem it are. Land
conversion, meaning the alteration or modification of the original properties of the land
to make it use-worthy for a specific purpose is another major cause. This hampers the
land immensely. Also there is a constant waste of land. Unused available land over the
years turns barren; this land then cannot be used. So in search of more land, potent land is
hunted and its indigenous state is compromised with.
2. Agricultural activities: With growing human population, demand for food has
increased considerably. Farmers often use highly toxic fertilizers and pesticides to get rid
off insects, fungi and bacteria from their crops. However with the overuse of these
chemicals, they result in contamination and poisoning of soil.
3. Mining activities: During extraction and mining activities, several land spaces are
created beneath the surface. We constant hear about land caving in; this is nothing but
nature’s way of filling the spaces left out after mining or extraction activity.
4. Overcrowded landfills: Each household produces tonnes of garbage each year.
Garbage like aluminum, plastic, paper, cloth, wood is collected and sent to the local
recycling unit. Items that can not be recycled become a part of the landfills that hampers
the beauty of the city and cause land pollution.
5. Industrialization: Due to increase in demand for food, shelter and house, more goods
are produced. This resulted in creation of more waste that needs to be disposed of. To
meet the demand of the growing population, more industries were developed which led
to deforestation. Research and development paved the way for modern fertilizers and
chemicals that were highly toxic and led to soil contamination.
6. Construction activities: Due to urbanization, large amount of construction activities are
taking place which has resulted in large waste articles like wood, metal, bricks, plastic
that can be seen by naked eyes outside any building or office which is under construction
Effects of Land Pollution
1. Soil pollution: Soil pollution is another form of land pollution, where the upper layer
of the soil is damaged. This is caused by the overuse of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion
caused by running water and other pest control measures; this leads to loss of fertile land
for agriculture, forest cover, fodder patches for grazing etc.
2. Change in climate patterns: The effects of land pollution are very hazardous and can
lead to the loss of ecosystems. When land is polluted, it directly or indirectly affects the
climate patterns.
3. Environmental Impact: When deforestation is committed, the tree cover is
compromised on. This leads to a steep imbalance in the rain cycle. A disturbed rain cycle
affects a lot of factors. To begin with, the green cover is reduced. Trees and plants help
balance the atmosphere, without them we are subjected to various concern s like Global
warming, the green house effect, irregular rainfall and flash floods among other
imbalances.
4. Effect on human health: The land when contaminated with toxic chemicals and
pesticides lead to problem of skin cancer and human respiratory system. The toxic
chemicals can reach our body through foods and vegetables that we eat as they are grown
in polluted soil.

Control Measures:
1. Make people aware about the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.

2. Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities.

3. Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in landfill site.

4. Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of garbage.
5. Buy biodegradable products.
6. Do Organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the use of
pesticides.
7. Create dumping ground away from residential areas.

Thermal Pollution:
An increase in the optimum water temperature by industrial process (steel factories,
electric power houses and atomic power plants) may be called as “Thermal Pollution.”
Many industries generate their own power and use water to cool their generator.

This hot water is released into the system from where it was drawn, causing a warming
trend of surface water. If the system is poorly flushed, a permanent increase in the
temperature may result. However, if the water is released into the well flushed system,
permanent increase in temperature does not occur

Macro-phytic population may also be changed. As temperature is an important limiting

factor, serious changes may be brought about even by a slight increase in temperature in
a population. For minimising thermal pollution, hot water should be cooled before
release from factories and removal of forest canopies and irrigation return flows should
be prohibited.

Sources of Thermal Pollution:

1) Coal-fired Power Plants:
Some thermal power plants use coal as fuel. Coal-fired power plants constitute the major
source of the thermal pollution.

(2) Industrial Effluents:

Industries generating electricity require large amount of Cooling water for heat removal.
Other industries like textile, paper, and pulp and sugar industry also release heat in water,
but to a lesser extent.

(3) Nuclear Power Plants:

Nuclear power plants emit a large amount of unutilized heat and traces of toxic radio
nuclear into nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing
installations are also responsible for increasing the temperature of water bodies.

(4) Hydro Electric Power:

Generation of hydro-electric power also results in negative thermal loading of water
bodies.

(5) Domestic Sewage:

Domestic sewage is often discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams without waste
treatment. The municipal water sewage normally has a higher temperature than receiving
water. With the increase in temperature of the receiving water the dissolved oxygen
content (DO) decreases and the demand of oxygen increases and anaerobic conditions
occur.
Control of Thermal Pollution:
Control of thermal pollution is necessary as its detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystem
may be detrimental in the future. Viable solutions to chronic thermal discharge into water
bodies are as follows:

(1) Cooling Ponds:

Cooling ponds or reservoirs constitute the simplest method of controlling thermal
discharges. Heated effluents on the surface of water in cooling ponds maximize
dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and minimize the water area and volume. This is the
simplest and cheapest method which cools the water to a considerable low temperature.
However, the technique alone is less desirable and inefficient in terms of air-water
contact.

(2) Cooling Towers:

Using water from water sources for cooling purposes, with subsequent return to the water
body after passing through the condenser is termed as cooling process. In order to make
the cooling process more effective, cooling towers are designed to control the
temperature of water. In-fact, cooling towers are used to dissipate the recovered waste
heat so as to eliminate the problems of thermal pollution.

(3) Artificial Lake:

Artificial lakes are man-made bodies of water which offer possible alternative to once
through cooling. The heated effluents may be discharged into the lake at one end and the
water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually
dissipated through evaporation.

These lakes have to be rejuvenated continuously. A number of methods have been

suggested and developed for converting the thermal effluents from power plants into
useful heat resources for maximing the benefits.

Some of the potential physical applications for thermal discharge (rejected heat) of power
plants are:

i. Industrial and space heating.

ii. Biological applications such as soil warming.

iii. Fish culture, livestock shelters and for heating greenhouses.

Most of these potential physical applications are of colder regions or locations

Lecture 7

Marine Pollution:
Ocean pollution, also known as marine pollution, is the spreading of harmful substances
such as oil, plastic, industrial and agricultural waste and chemical particles into the ocean.
1. Sewage: Pollution can enter the ocean directly. Sewage or polluting substances flow
through sewage, rivers, or drainages directly into the ocean. This is often how minerals
and substances from mining camps find their way into the ocean. The release of other
chemical nutrients into the ocean’s ecosystem leads to reductions in oxygen levels, the
decay of plant life, a severe decline in the quality of the sea water itself. As a result, all
levels of oceanic life, plants and animals, are highly affected.
2. Toxic Chemicals From Industries: Industrial and agricultural waste are another most
common form of wastes that are directly discharged into the oceans, resulting in ocean
pollution. The dumping of toxic liquids in the ocean directly affects the marine life as
they are considered hazardous and secondly, they raise the temperature of the ocean,
known as thermal pollution, as the temperature of these liquids is quite high. Animals and
plants that cannot survive at higher temperatures eventually perish.
3. Land Runoff: Land runoff is another source of pollution in the ocean. This occurs
when water infiltrates the soil to its maximum extent and the excess water from rain,
flooding or melting flows over the land and into the ocean. Often times, this water picks
up man-made, harmful contaminants that pollute the ocean, including fertilizers,
petroleum, pesticides and other forms of soil contaminants. Fertilizers and waste from
land animals and humans can be a huge detriment to the ocean by creating dead zones.
4. Large Scale Oil Spills: Ship pollution is a huge source of ocean pollution, the most
devastating effect of which is oil spills. Crude oil lasts for years in the sea and is
extremely toxic to marine life, often suffocating marine animals to death once it entraps
them. Crude oil is also extremely difficult to clean up, unfortunately meaning that when it
is split; it is usually there to stay.
5. Ocean Mining: Ocean mining in the deep sea is yet another source of ocean pollution.
Ocean mining sites drilling for silver, gold, copper, cobalt and zinc create sulfide deposits
up to three and a half thousand meters down in to the ocean. While we have yet the
gathering of scientific evidence to fully explain the harsh environmental impacts of deep
sea mining, we do have a general idea that deep sea mining causes damage to the lowest
levels of the ocean and increase the toxicity of the region. This permanent damage dealt
also causes leaking, corrosion and oil spills that only drastically further hinder the
ecosystem of the region.

Effects of Ocean Pollution

1. Effect of Toxic Wastes on Marine Animals: Oil spill is dangerous to marine life in
several ways. The oil spilled in the ocean could get on to the gills and feathers of marine
animals, which makes it difficult for them to move or fly properly or feed their children.
The long term effect on marine life can include cancer, failure in the reproductive system,
behavioral changes, and even death.
2. Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs: Oil spill floats on the surface of water and
prevents sunlight from reaching to marine plants and affects in the process of
photosynthesis. Skin irritation, eye irritation, lung and liver problems can impact marine
life over long period of time.
3: Depletes Oxygen Content in Water: Most of the debris in the ocean does not
decompose and remain in the ocean for years. It uses oxygen as it degrades. As a result of
this, oxygen levels go down. When oxygen levels go down, the chances of survival of
marine animals like whales, turtles, sharks, dolphins, penguins for long time also goes
down.
4: Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals: Industrial and agricultural wastes
include various poisonous chemicals that are considered hazardous for marine life.
Chemicals from pesticides can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals, leading to failure
in their reproductive system.
5: Effect on Food Chain: Chemicals used in industries and agriculture get washed into the
rivers and from there are carried into the oceans. These chemicals do not get dissolved
and sink at the bottom of the ocean. Small animals ingest these chemicals and are later
eaten by large animals, which then affects the whole food chain.
6. Affects Human Health: Animals from impacted food chain are then eaten by humans
which affects their health as toxins from these contaminated animals gets deposited in the
tissues of people and can lead to cancer, birth defects or long term health problems.
Water Quality Index:
A water quality index provides a single number (like a grade) that expresses overall water
quality at a certain location and time based on several water quality parameters. The
objective of an index is to turn complex water quality data into information that is
understandable and useable by the public.

The Story of Flouride Contamination:

BalisanaVillage,PatanDistrict,Gujarat

Balisana means laden with sand. The village in the dry Patan district of Gujarat has been
under the acute grip of fluoride pollution amidst drought. Almost all of the villagers from
early to middle aged population are suffering from fluorosis or other fluoride related
diseases.

Six years back, the villagers started a community drive to solve the crisis, with help
from Ahmedabad-based non governmental organisation, UTTHAN. The villagers started
to desilt a 3.05 metre (m) long canal through which they diverted rainwater to a 300-year-
old tank. About 82,000 cubic metre of silt has been extracted from the tank at a cost of Rs
52 lakh. Sixty per cent of the cost came from the government, 40 per cent was
community shramdaan (voluntary labour). A 12 kilo meter long bund was reconstructed
to hold the diverted rainwater. Adjacent to the tank, is a 45 m deep recharge well that was
fitted with an ultra-poly vinyl chloride (high density pipe). The horizontal pipe carries
water from the tank to the recharge well. Water from the well is pumped into a storage
tank near the well. (see figure: Harvesting rain to fight flouride in Balisana village Catch
Water.

A 12 year old dead well nearby has got water now that is also free from fluoride.
This water is increasingly used by villagers for drinking purposes. According to the
villagers, since last 20 years groundwater extraction has been increasing, due to which
the fluoride contents have creeped into the groundwater.

The woes of the villagers are not only related to drinking water but are also with the
crops they grow - as they are also laden with traces of fluoride. At present, they have no
solution. But they hope to solve this problem by regularly recharging the groundwater
table with rainwater.The villagers have evolved laws to protect the resource like, no new
tube wells will be dug and water from the well will be first used for drinking purposes
and then can be used for irrigation

Waste Water Treatment : (Primary , Secondary, Tertiary stages)

Wastewater treatment is closely related to the standards and/or expectations set for the
effluent quality. Wastewater treatment processes are designed to achieve improvements
in the quality of the wastewater. The various treatment processes may reduce:
1. Suspended solids (physical particles that can clog rivers or
channels as they settle under gravity)
2. Biodegradable organics (e.g. BOD) which can serve as “food” for
microorganisms in the receiving body. Microorganisms combine
this matter with oxygen from the water to yield the energy they
need to thrive and multiply; unfortunately, this oxygen is also
needed by fish and other organisms in the river. Heavy organic
pollution can lead to “dead zones” where no fish can be found;
sudden releases of heavy organic loads can lead to dramatic
“fishkills”.
3. Pathogenic bacteria and other disease causing organisms These are
most relevant where the receiving water is used for drinking, or
where people would otherwise be in close contact with it; and
4. Nutrients, including nitrates and phosphates. These nutrients can
lead to high concentrations of unwanted algae, which can
themselves become heavy loads of biodegradable organic load
Treatment processes may also neutralize or removing industrial
wastes and toxic chemicals. This type of treatment should ideally
take place at the industrial plant itself, before discharge of their
effluent in municipal sewers or water courses.

Widely used terminology refers to three levels of wastewater treatment: primary,

secondary, and tertiary (or advanced).

Primary (mechanical) treatment is designed to remove gross, suspended and floating

solids from raw sewage. It includes screening to trap solid objects and sedimentation by
gravity to remove suspended solids. This level is sometimes referred to as “mechanical
treatment”, although chemicals are often used to accelerate the sedimentation process.
Primary treatment can reduce the BOD of the incoming wastewater by 20-30% and the
total suspended solids by some 50-60%. Primary treatment is usually the first stage of
wastewater treatment. Many advanced wastewater treatment plants in industrialized
countries have started with primary treatment, and have then added other treatment stages
as wastewater load has grown, as the need for treatment has increased, and as resources
have become available.
Secondary (biological) treatment removes the dissolved organic matter that escapes
primary treatment. This is achieved by microbes consuming the organic matter as food,
and converting it to carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their own growth and
reproduction. The biological process is then followed by additional settling tanks
(“secondary sedimentation", see photo) to remove more of the suspended solids. About
85% of the suspended solids and BOD can be removed by a well running plant with
secondary treatment. Secondary treatment technologies include the basic activated sludge
process, the variants of pond and constructed wetland systems, trickling filters and other
forms of treatment which use biological activity to break down organic matter.
Tertiary treatment is simply additional treatment beyond secondary! Tertiary treatment
can remove more than 99 percent of all the impurities from sewage, producing an effluent
of almost drinking-water quality. The related technology can be very expensive, requiring
a high level of technical know-how and well trained treatment plant operators, a steady
energy supply, and chemicals and specific equipment which may not be readily available.
An example of a typical tertiary treatment process is the modification of a conventional
secondary treatment plant to remove additional phosphorus and nitrogen.
Disinfection, typically with chlorine, can be the final step before discharge of the
effluent. However, some environmental authorities are concerned that chlorine residuals
in the effluent can be a problem in their own right, and have moved away from this
process. Disinfection is frequently built into treatment plant design, but not effectively
practiced, because of the high cost of chlorine, or the red uced effectiveness of ultraviolet
radiation where the water is not sufficiently clear or free of particles.

Municipal Solid Waste Management:

Collection
The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste and
recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the
location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a materials
processing facility, a transfer station or a landfill disposal site.
Waste handling and separation, storage and processing at the source
Waste handling and separation involves activities associated with waste management
until the waste is placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses
the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Separating different types
of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the
source.
Separation and processing and transformation of solid wastes
The types of means and facilities that are now used for the recovery of waste materials
that have been separated at the source include curbside ('kerbside' in the UK) collection,
drop-off and buy-back centers. The separation and processing of wastes that have been
separated at the source and the separation of commingled wastes usually occur at a
materials recovery facility, transfer stations, combustion facilities and disposal sites.
Transfer and transport
This element involves two main steps. First, the waste is transferred from a smaller
collection vehicle to larger transport equipment. The waste is then transported, usually
over long distances, to a processing or disposal site.
Disposal

The disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid
wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill
site, residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the
combustion of solid waste, compost, or other substances from various solid waste
processing facilities. A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility
used for disposing of solid wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public
health or safety, such as the problems of insects and the contamination of ground water.
Landfills
Landfills are created by land dumping. Land dumping methods vary, most commonly it
involves the mass dumping of waste into a designated area, usually a hole or sidehill.
After the garbage is dumped it is then compacted by large machines. When the dumping
cell is full, it is then "sealed" with a plastic sheet and covered in several feet of dirt. This
is the primary method of dumping in the United States because of the low cost and
abundance of unused land in North America. Landfills pose the threat of pollution, and
can intoxicate ground water. The signs of pollution are effectively masked by disposal
companies and it is often hard to see any evidence. Usually landfills are surrounded by
large walls or fences hiding the mounds of debris. Large amounts of chemical odor
eliminating agent are sprayed in the air surrounding landfills to hide the evidence of the
rotting waste inside the plant
Energy generation
Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy. Several technologies have been
developed that make the processing of MSW for energy generation cleaner and more
economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture, combustion, pyrolysis,
gasification, and plasma arc gasification While older waste incineration plants emitted
high levels of pollutants, recent regulatory changes and new technologies have
significantly reduced this concern. United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) regulations in 1995 and 2000 under the Clean Air Act have succeeded in reducing
emissions of dioxins from waste-to-energy facilities by more than 99 percent below 1990
levels, while mercury emissions have been by over 90 percent. The EPA noted these
improvements in 2003, citing waste-to-energy as a power source "with less
environmental impact than almost any other source of electricity"]

Bio Medical Waste:

Biomedical waste is waste that is either putrescible or potentially infectious. Biomedical
waste may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that
visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages,
infusion kits, etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or
organisms that are restricted from environmental release. As detailed below, discarded
sharps are considered biomedical waste whether they are contaminated or not, due to the
possibility of being contaminated with blood and their propensity to cause injury when
not properly contained and disposed of. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste.
Biomedical waste is generated from biological and medical sources and activities, such as
the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Common generators (or producers) of
biomedical waste include hospitals, health clinics, nursing homes, medical research
laboratories, offices of physicians, dentists, and veterinarians, home health care, and
funeral homes. In healthcare facilities (i.e., hospitals, clinics, doctors offices, veterinary
hospitals and clinical laboratories), waste with these characteristics may alternatively be
called medical or clinical waste

Hazardeous waste:
Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the
environment
 • Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit
one or more of the following four hazardous traits:
o ignitability
o reactivity
o corrosivity
o toxicity

CHAPTER 6 : ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION & ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION:

Environmental Act:

Water (Prevention &control of pollution) Act, 1974

The Central Pollution Control Board, and State Pollution Control Boards composition,
terms and conditions of service of members are defined in Sections 3-12 of water
(prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974.

The Board advises the government on any matter concerning the prevention and control
of water pollution. It coordinates the activities and provides technical assistance and
guidance. This policy sets the standards and penalties for non-compliance for polluting
bodies.

The Government has power to restrict any unit, and to take samples of effluents and get
them analysed in Central or State laboratories. Whoever fails to comply with any
provision of this Act is punishable with imprisonment, fine or with both.

The Central Board may perform all or any of the following functions, namely,-

• advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and
control of water pollution;
• co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;
• provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and
sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;
• plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in
programmes for the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution on such
terms and conditions as the Central Board may specify;
• organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the
prevention and control of water pollution;
 • collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water
pollution and the measures devised for its effective prevention and control and
prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and
trade effluents and disseminate information connected therewith;
• lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned,
the standards for a stream or well;
• plan and execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
• perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

Air (Prevention & control of pollution ), Act 1981

The main objectives of the Act are as follows:

(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to
implement the Act.

(c) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign
to the Boards functions relating to pollution.

Central Pollution Board:

The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation created to improve the
quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the country.

The-Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of

air quality and also coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to
State Boards and lays down standards for the quality of air. It collects and disseminates
information in respect of matters relating to air pollution and performs functions as
prescribed in the Act.

State Pollution Control Boards:

The State Boards have the power to advise the State Government on any matter
concerning the prevention and control of air pollution. They have the right to inspect at
all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant, or manufacturing process
and give orders to take the necessary steps to control pollution
Environmental (Protection) Act,1986
The act came into force on November 19,1986.
Environment includes water, air and land and the inter relationships that exist among and
between them and human being.
Environmental Pollution means the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substances
present in such concentration, as may be or tend to be injurious to environment.
Hazardous substance means any substance or preparation which by its physic chemical
properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human being.

Function of CPCB
The standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes.
The maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants
(including noise) for different areas.
The prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on process and
operations in different areas.
SPCB have to follow the guideline provided under schedule VI.
Under Envrionment (Protection) Rules, 1 986 an amendment was made in 1994 for
environmental impact assessment. Alos made Hazardous waste Management & Handling
rules, 1989. Also made provision for audit.

Motor Vehicle Act, 1988

The main objective is reduction and control of traffic pollution.

Under this act there are certain restrictions on trucks regarding the use of double sirens,
passing through certain localities.

Control of noise and air pollution

Driving license for authorized person to drive the motor vehicle

Permit issued by a state or regional transport authority to use the vehicle as transport
vehicle.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:

The Indian board of wildlife created(IBWL) in 1952. Wildlife protection act actively
took up the task of setting up wildlife national parks and sanctuaries.

It defines the wildlife related terminology

 It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisor board
Comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for first time and
prohibition of hunting of the endangered species.

Protection to some endangered plants orchid, pitcher plant etc

Act provide setting up national park, wildlife sanctuaries etc.

There is provision for trade and commerece in some wildlife species.

The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.

Some of major drawback of act is mild penalty to offenders, illegal wildlife trade in J &
K, personal ownership certificate for anmal articles like tiger leopard skins.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980

This act adopted in all over India except J & K
The state government has been empowered under this Act to use the forests onl for
forestry purposes. It can pass orders for declaring some part of reserve forest for non
forest purposes. Or for clearing some naturally growing trees and replacing them by
economically important trees .
It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for the purpose there is an
advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the central government.
Any illegal non forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this
act.
EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment):
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely
environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-
related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.
UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the
environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims
to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find
ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment
and present the predictions and options to decision-makers. By using EIA both
environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cost and time of
project implementation and design, avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws
and regulations.
Although legislation and practice vary around the world, the fundamental components of
an EIA would necessarily involve the following stages:
a. Screening to determine which projects or developments require a full or partial impact
assessment study;
b. Scoping to identify which potential impacts are relevant to assess (based on legislative
requirements, international conventions, expert knowledge and public involvement), to
identify alternative solutions that avoid, mitigate or compensate adverse impacts on
biodiversity (including the option of not proceeding with the development, finding
 alternative designs or sites which avoid the impacts, incorporating safeguards in the
design of the project, or providing compensation for adverse impacts), and finally to
derive terms of reference for the impact assessment;
c. Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of alternatives, to predict and
identify the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, including
the detailed elaboration of alternatives;
d. Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report, including an
environmental management plan (EMP), and a non -technical summary for the general
audience.
e. Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the terms of reference
(scoping) and public (including authority) participation.
f. Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions;
and
g. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. Monitor whether
the predicted impacts and proposed mitigation measures occur as defined in the EMP.
Verify the compliance of proponent with the EMP, to ensure that unpredicted impacts or
failed mitigation measures are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.

ISO :14001

ISO 14000 is a family of standards related to environmental management that exists to

help organizations (a) minimize how their operations (processes, etc.) negatively affect
the environment (i.e., cause adverse changes to air, water, or land); (b) comply with
applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented requirements, and (c)
continually improve in the above

ISO 14001 is known as a generic management system standard, meaning that it is

relevant to any organization seeking to improve and manage resources more effectively.
This includes:

• single-site to large multi-national companies

• high-risk companies to low-risk service organizations
• manufacturing, process, and the service industries, including local governments
• all industry sectors including public and private sectors
• original equipment manufacturers and their supplier

Environmental Ethics:

Environmental ethics is a branch of ethics that studies the relation of human beings and
the environment and how ethics play a role in this. Environmental ethics believe that
humans are a part of society as well as other living creatures, which includes plants and
animals. These items are a very important part of the world and are considered to be a
functional part of human life. Thus, it is essential that every human being respect and
honor this and use morals and ethics when dealing with these creatures
Global warming, global climate change, deforestation, pollution, resource degradation,
threat of extinction are few of the issues from which our planet is suffering.
Environmental ethics are a key feature of environmental studies, that establishes
relationship between humans and the earth. With environmental ethics, you can ensure
that you are doing your part to keep the environment safe and protected. Every time that a
tree is cut down to make a home or other resources are used we are using natural
resources that are becoming more and more sparse to find. It is essential that you do your
part to keep the environment protected and free from danger. It is not as difficult to do as
you may think so long as you’re willing to make a few simple and easy changes.
With the rapid increase in world’s population, the consumption of natural resources has
increased several times. This has degraded our planet’s ability to provide the services we
humans need. The consumption of resources is going at a faster rate than they can
naturally replenish.
Environmental ethics builds on scientific understanding by bringing human values, moral
principles, and improved decision making into conversation with science. It was Earth
Day in 1970 that helped to develop environmental ethics in the US, and soon thereafter
the same ethics were developed in other countries including Canada and North America.
This is important because the ethics of the environment are of major concern these days

CHAPTER - 3
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:

Urbanization:
Growth in the proportion of a population living in urban areas is called urbanization.
People migrate to bigger urban centres to seek jobs and other social services such as
health and education.

Environmental and Socio-economic problems due to urbanization:

1) Demand for dwelling place
2) Overcrowding
3) Pressure on medical and other services
4) Increase crime
5) Exploitation of ground and surface resources
6) Air pollution
7) Generation of solid and liquid wastes
8) Pressure on habitants of wild and domesticated animals

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

There is much to celebrate and appreciate about the world we live in. It includes our
environment. However, mostly due to our actions we are altering the very environment,
which sustains us. It would be very difficult for us to live in an unfriendly environment. This
lesson exposes you to the various global environmental issues or concerns and possible
strategies to cope with them.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

• identify and list major global environmental issues;

• define and correlate global warming with green house effect;

• enumerate the major effects of global warming on living and non-living

components of the environment;

• briefly explain the causes of biodiversity loss;

• comment on major causes of desertification;

• explain the cause and effects of ozone-layer depletion;

• describe acid rain and its harmful effects on living organisms, buildings and

monuments;

• identify the causes of oil spills and their impact on marine and terrestrial

environment;

• state problems related to dumping of hazardous waste.

MAJOR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Increased human activity, urbanization, industrialization have led to rapid deterioration of

the environment. This has severely affected the life supporting system.

Environmental Science Senior Secondary Course

Contemporary

Environmental Issues

The developmental discrepancies in different regions of the world pose a serious threat to

our common global environment. Consequently, we are confronted with complex

environmental issues deserving attention. The important global environmental issues are:

• green house effect and global warming

• biodiversity loss

• desertification

• depletion of ozone layer

• acid rain

• oil spills

• dumping of hazardous wastes

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

What is the green house effect?

The temperature surrounding the earth has been rising during the recent past. This is due to

the ‘green house effect’.

A green house is a glass chamber in which plants are grown to provide them warmth by

trapping sun light. Sunlight (a form of energy) passes through the glass and it gets absorbed

inside releasing heat radiations unlike sunlight, heat radiation cannot escape through glass

the heat generated there from, cannot escape out of the glass chamber. Thus, even on a

cold winter day, the inside of a green house can become quite warm to support plant

growth. The phenomenon of heat build up inside a glass chamber from the absorption of

solar radiation is called green house effect.

But, you may well ask, where is the glass around the earth that prevents escaping of heat

from the earth’s surface.

Global warming and green-house effect

The green-house effect is a natural phenomenon and has been occurring for millions of
years on the earth. Life on the earth has been possible because of this natural green house
effect which is due to water vapour and small particles of water present in the atmosphere.

Together, these produce more than 95 percent of total green-house warming. Average

global temperatures is maintained at about 150C due to natural green house effect. Without

this phenomenon, average global temperatures might have been around and at

such low temperature life would not be able to exist.

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Environmental Issues

Solar radiations strike the earth. Some of these radiations are reflected

back by the atmosphere into the space, but some pass through the atmosphere

towards earth. About half of these are absorbed by the atmosphere and heat the

air. The rest reaches the earth’s surface. The earth’s surface now heats up and

gives off longer wavelength, lower energy (infra red or heat) radiations. These

infra-red radiations pass back up into the atmosphere. Instead of being radiated

100 percent back into the space, much of it is absorbed by the atmosphere and are

reradiated back to the earth’s surface. The temperature near the earth’s surface as

well as that of the atmosphere then rises.

Before industrialization, simple human activity did not cause any significant increase in the

atmospheric temperature. What is particularly worrisome is the increase in the emission of

green house gases due to urbanization and industrialization. These green house gases have

increased significantly in the atmosphere in recent years. Some important green house

gases

Table 14.1: Greenhouse Gases: Their sources and Causes

Gas Sources and Causes

Carbon dioxide (CO2

) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation

Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) Refrigeration, solvents, insulation foams, aero propellants,

industrial and commercial uses

Methane (CH4

) Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites,

burning of fossil fuel, wood, land fills.

Nitrogen oxides (N2O) Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop
residue.

Global warming affects both living and non-living components of our planet.

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Effect on climate

Observe the following diagram and both the effects of global warming:

14.2.3 Effect on living beings

• Increased CO2 concentration in the atmosphere may increase photosynthetic

productivity of plants. This in turn produces more organic matter. It may seem a positive

effect. But, then-

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• Weeds may proliferate rapidly, and that too at the expense of useful plants.

• Insects and other pests that feed on plants may also increase in number.

• Survival of other organisms gets affected.

14.2.4 Strategies to cope with greenhouse effect

We must take immediate steps to minimize global warming by reducing emission of green house
gases especially carbon dioxides. Following steps would be useful in reducing emission/release of
green house gases into the atmosphere:

• Increased fuel efficiency of power plants and vehicles;

• Development/implementation of solar energy/non-fossil fuel alternatives;

• Halting deforestation;

• Supporting and undertaking tree-planting (afforestation);

• Reduce air-pollution.(see table14.1)

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.1

1. Why do you think environmental issues are of global significance?

______________________________________________________________

2. Enumerate at least 3 environmental issues that confront us today.

______________________________________________________________

3. Define global warming.

______________________________________________________________

4. Why is green-house effect called so?

______________________________________________________________

5. Which kind of radiations are not reflected back out of atmosphere causing greenhouse

effect?

______________________________________________________________

6. Name four green-house gases.

______________________________________________________________

14.3 BIODIVERSITY

Plants and animals of a region constitute biodiversity. Biodiversity is a natural wealth essential

for human survival.

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14.3.1 Classification

Biodiversity could be classified as -

(a) Species biodiversity: It includes total number of different taxonomical or biological

species. There are more than 200000 species in India of which several are confined to

India (endemic).

(b) Genetic biodiversity: It includes land traces; horticultural varieties; cultivers, ecotypes

(related types differing due to difference in the ecological condition); all within a biological

species.

(c) Ecosystem biodiversity: It includes various biological zones, like lake, desert, coast,
estuaries, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs etc.
Both flora and fauna, all over the world are under an assault from a variety of indiscriminate

human activities. These activities are often related to rapid growth of human population,

deforestation, urbanization and industrialization.

14.3.2 Reasons for biodiversity loss

Rapid decline of biodiversity is a result of various causes.

(1) Loss of habitat: Due to the growing human population, wetlands are being made dry

through landfills, as the demand for land increases. Natural forests are cleared for

industry, agriculture, dams, habitation, recreational sports, etc. As a consequenceevery

plant and animal species occupying that ecosystem is temporarily or permanently

affected. So are the migrating birds or other animals visiting that habitat.

Thus, the population of different species occupying that habitat become unsettled. An

altered ecosystem causes changes in the neighbouring ecosystems.

(2) Pollution: Pollution also alters the habitat to such an extent that it becomes critical for

survival of some of the species. For example, pollution that leads to green house effect

results in global warming. All those species that are slow to adjust to the changed

environment are eventually lost.

(3) Overuse: Whales for oil, fish for food, trees for wood, plants for medicines etc. are

being removed by humans at higher rates than they can be replaced. Excessive cutting

of trees, overgrazing, collection of fire-wood, hunting of wild animals for skin (for

example tigers from reserve forests of India), ivory etc. all result in gradual loss of

species.

(4) Introduction of foreign species: With growing volume of international travel accidental

introduction of species into a new or foreign area has become easier. There are many

species which have invaded new areas to which they were introduced unintentionally.

Many of the new species introduced into new regions thrive at the expense of native

species. For example: Parthenium, Argemone and Lantana are the common weeds

of foreign origin in our country (Fig. 14.2).

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Common foreign origin weeds of our country

(5)Environmental degradation: A vast array of factors causing environmental degradation

may result in the loss of biodiversity. Some of these factors are: global warming,

increased CO2 concentration in atmosphere, nuclear radiation; UV-exposure; oil spills,

etc.

As an example, let us below, compile a combination of factors which results in the loss of

marine biodiversity.

Loss of marine biodiversity

Marine fishing

endangers the existence of eels, elvers

Many kinds of birds/aquatic mammals/reptiles are unnecessarily caught by the nets

used for fishing and left abandoned to perish.

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DESERTIFICATION

The land that has lost its productivity (ability to grow plants) is called a desert. A desert

landscape supports a very limited growth of sparse vegetation and stunted growth of

plants. Substantial part of earth’s 132.4 million sq km of terrestrial area is facing

desertification due to overexploitation and mismanage of land resources for human activities.

Some of the principal causes, which promote desertification, are:

• over cultivation,

• overgrazing,

• deforestation, and

• salt accumulation due to irrigation.

(a) Over Cultivation

Every cycle of cultivation is preceded by ploughing to remove weeds. The ploughed land

turns soil upside down thus exposing rich sub-soil to wind and water erosion. Such land

may remain barren for most part of the year and in turn lose more soil due to erosion. Such
erosion is most pronounced on slopes. Moreover, in regions where rainfall is low, the soil
is often dry and is more susceptible to erosion. Ploughed soil loses more water by

evaporation.

(b) Overgrazing

Deserts receive less rainfall. Deserts have sparce vegetation mostly consisting of grasses

and herbs less and best used for grazing. Overgrazing by goats, domestic cattle remove

the protective vegetation and expose the soil. Further the movement of grazing animals

loosen the soil surface by their hoofs. Unprotected loose soil becomes highly susceptible

to erosion by wind and water.

(c) Deforestation

Forests and vegetation prevent soil erosion and to hold water in soil. Plant roots absorb

and recycle nutrients released from the decaying organic matter. Forests are often cleared

to agriculture, timber, construction wood, firewood, raw material for paper etc. All this

leads to barrenness of the land leading to desertification.

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Environmental Issues

(d) Salting due to Irrigation

With demand for more land for agriculture, crops are grown in areas that have little access

to natural water bodies. The water is supplied to these growing areas by artificial means

and improved irrigation methods. Such water brings salts dissolved in it. Even the best

Environmental Issues

quality of irrigation water contain 200-500 ppm of salts. Water used for irrigation is lost

from agriculture field through evaporation and transpiration by crop plant. The water gets

evaporated but the dissolved salt keeps on accumulating which makes the soils more salty.

Saline accumulation of execesive soils prevents retards plant growth. Land devoid of plant

cover easily becomes desertified. Accumulation of excessive salt in soil or salinization

makes the soil unfit for agriculture.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.2

1. List different components of biodiversity.

______________________________________________________________

2. Why does biodiversity loss occur?

______________________________________________________________
3. How does high-technology fishing affect marine biodiversity?

______________________________________________________________

4. How does a species lose its habitat?

______________________________________________________________

5. What kinds of activities promote desertification?

______________________________________________________________

6. Which kind of sowing is better in long-term: ploughing or tractor – sowing?

______________________________________________________________

7. What is a desert?

______________________________________________________________

14.5 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

14.5.1 Formation of ozone layer

Ozone (O3

) is a highly reactive molecule containing three oxygen atoms. The upper part of

the earth’s atmosphere, between 10 and 50 km above the earth surface called stratosphere

contains a thin layer of ozone. This ozone layer serves as a natural filter for blocking deadly

incoming uv radiation from the sun.

Ultra violet (UV) radiation, with wavelengths shorter than visible spectrum has high

energy. UVradiations can be divided into three forms: UV-A (wavelength between

320-400nm), UV-B (wave length lesser than 280 nm), and UV-C (wavelength

lesser than 280 nm). UV-C is most damaging to biological systems.

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Since, the early 1970’s levels of the stratospheric ozone have thined markedly over certain

regions of the earth, particularly over the Antarctic region. The Antarctic region contains

one of the worlds’ most productive marine ecosystems. The thinning of stratospheric ozone
layer is termed ‘“ozone hole”.
14.5.2 Causes of ozone layer depletion

Ozone (O3) layer can be destroyed both by natural and man-made causes-

(i) Natural causes: A number of naturally occurring substances destroy stratospheric

ozone. Most important of these compounds are:

Hydrogen oxide (HOx

), Methane (CH4

), Hydrogen gas (H2

), Nitrogen oxides (NOx

).

Chlorine monoxide (ClO); during volcanic eruptions, significant amount of chlorine

may be released in the stratosphere. Tiny particulate matter in the stratosphere, known

as stratospheric aerosols, may also lead to ozone destruction.

(ii) Human activity related causes: Any event, which release chlorine atoms into the

atmospheric, can cause severe ozone destruction, because chlorine atoms in the

stratosphere can destroy ozone very efficiently. Most damaging among such agents

are human made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which is widely used as refrigerants

and to pressurize sprays cans. In stratosphere, chlorine atoms from CFCs react with

ozone to form chlorine monoxide and oxygen molecule.

Cl + O3————— ClO + O2

Chlorine monoxide, may then react with oxygen atoms to release more chlorine atoms:

2ClO + O2————— 2Cl + 2O2

One chlorine atom can break down 1,00,000 ozone molecules.

O3 O2

+O

O+O

Oxygen 2 oxygen

molecule atoms

O+

oxygen ozone

atom molecule
Fig. 14.5: Formation of ozone molecule
High-energy

UV radiation

uv

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Table 14.2: Important ozone depleting chemicals and their uses.

Name of the compound Used in

CFCs Refrigeration, aerosol, foam, food freezing, warming devices,

cosmetics, heat detectors solvents, cosmetics, refrigerants,

firefighting

Halon Fire fighting

HCFC-22 Refrigeration, aerosol, foam, fire fighting

Methyl chloroform Solvent

Carbon tetrachloride Solvent

14.5.3 Effect of O3

-layer depletion

Why are we so concerned about ozone hole? It is because without the ozone-shield the

deadly uv radiation shall pass through the atmosphere and reach the earth surface. A small

amount of uv-radiation is necessary for well-being of human beings and other organisms,

such as uv-B promote synthesis of vitamin-D. UV-radiation also act as a germicide to

control microorganisms. However, increased uv dose is highly dangerous to living organisms.

14.5.4 Measures to prevent ozone (O3

) layer depletion

Global awareness and action on the part of world community in the form of Helsinki

(1989), Montreal (1990’s) conventions and protocol have had some important success

on this front. A complete ban on the use of CFCs and other ozone destroying chemicals is
Harmful effects on human
beings

- Increase susceptibility of

skin-cancer

- Increase cataract

- Damage DNA

- Damage cornea

- Cause retinal diseases

- Suppers human immune

systems

Harmful effects on plants

- Inhibit photosynthesis

- Inhibit metabolism

- Repress growth

- Destroy cells

- Cause mutation

- Decline forest productivity

Harmful effects on other

organisms

- Marine/freshwater

organisms are very

sensitive to UV-rays

- Fish larvae are very

sensitive

- Plankton population

severely damaged.

- Affect fish/shrimp/crab

larvae

Harmful effects on non-living

materials

- Accelerate breakdown
of paints
- Accelerate breakdown

of plastics

- Affect temperature

gradient levels in the

atmosphere

- Affect atmospheric

circulation pattern,

climatic changes.

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recommended. Further, use of HCFCs (Hydrochloric fluorocarbons) as a substitute for

CFCs is being recommended on temporary basis because HCFCs are relatively less

damaging to ozone layer as compared to CFCs, but they are not completely ozone safe.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.3

1. Which kind of electromagnetic waves are screened by ozone in the stratosphere?

Give their wavelength.

______________________________________________________________

2. How many oxygen atoms are these in an ozone molecule?

______________________________________________________________

3. How do volcanoes contribute to O3

depletion?

______________________________________________________________

4. Which kinds of anthropogenic activities are most dangerous to ozone-shield?

______________________________________________________________

5. Name some harmful effects of UV radiation on human-being.

______________________________________________________________
14.6 ACID RAIN
Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than normal.

Acid rain is caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and

oxides of nitrogen emitted from burning of fossil fuels. Acid rain is formed when the air that

contains acidic gases emitted mostly from power plants industries and automobiles,

combines with the rain drops. The acid rain affect ecosystems in diverse ways (see fig.

14.5)

Fig.14.5: Acid rain

Fuel

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Therefore, emission of sulphur dioxide oxide and of oxides nitrogen into the atmosphere

can lead to the formation of acid rain.

It is also recognized that acidic smog, fog, mist, move out of the atmosphere and settle on

dust particleswhich in turn accumulate on vegetation as acid depositions. When rain falls,

the acid from these depositions leak and form acid dews.

The table below shall help you to know the sources of gases/materials that contribute to

acid rains (table 14.3)

Table14.3: Acidic gases and their emission sources.

Acidic gases Source

CO2

(Carbon dioxide) Fossil fuel burning, industrial process, respiration.

CH4 (Methane) Paddy fields, wetlands, gas drilling, landfills, animals, termites

CO (Carbonmonoxide) Biomass burning, Industrial sources, Biogenesis, Plant isoprene’s.

SOx

(Sulphur oxides) Fossil fuel burning, industrial sources, volcanoes, oceans.

NOx
(nitrogen oxides) Fossil fuel burning, lightening, biomass burning, oceans, power plants
14.6.1 Harmful effects of acid rain

Acid precipitation affects both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. It also damages buildings

and monuments.

(i) Effects on aquatic life

The pH of the surrounding or medium is very important for metabolic processes of aquatic

organisms. The eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other aquatic organisms are very sensitive

to pH change. Acid rain kills their gametes affecting the life cycles and productivity. Death

or their inability to increase in numbers affects aquatic food chains in acidic water bodies,

causing severe ecosystem imbalances.

Acidic lake waters may kill bacteria/microbes/planktons and the acidic lakes become

unproductive and life less. Such acidic and lifeless ponds/lakes adversely affect fisheries

and livelihood.

(ii) Effect on terrestrial life

Acid rain damage cuticle of plant leaves resulting etiolation of foliage. This in turn reduces

photosynthesis. Reduced photosynthesis accompanied by leaf fall reduces plant and crop

productivity.

Acidic medium promotes leaching of heavy metals such as aluminum, lead and mercury.

Such metals when percolate into ground water affect soil microflora/ micro fauna. The soil

becomes lifeless. Absorption of these toxic metal ions by plants and microorganisms affect

their metabolism.

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Acid rains damage forests and kill vegetation and causes severe damage to the landscape.

(iv) Effect on buildings and monuments

Many old, historic, ancient buildings and works of art/textile etc. are adversely affected by

acid rain. Limestone and marble are destroyed by acid rain. Smoke and soot cover such
objects. They slowly dissolve/flake away the surfaces because of acid fumes in the air.
Many buildings/monuments such as Taj Mahal in Agra have suffered from acid rain.

14.6.2 Strategies to cope with acid rain

Any procedure that shall reduce, minimize, or halt emission of sulphur and nitrogen oxides

into the atmosphere shall control acid rain. Use of low sulphur fuel or natural gas or washed

coal (chemical washing of pulverized coal) in thermal plants can reduce incidences of acid

rain.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.4

1. Name two acids that are present in acid rain.

______________________________________________________________

2. How does acid rain affect aquatic life?

______________________________________________________________

3. Use of which type of fuel will help in preventing acid rain?

______________________________________________________________

14.7 NUCLEAR DISASTERS

Nuclear energy offers an alternative to many of environmental and social problems. But, it

also introduces serious problems of its own. Though environment friendly, it is not yet

economically affordable. Nuclear plants pose potential danger of accidents that may release

hazardous radioactive materials into the environment. The problems are two fold: (i) nuclear

disasters and fall out and (ii) safe disposal of nuclear waste generated by nuclear plants.

Some of the major nuclear disasters are given in table: 14.4

Table 14.4: List of some major nuclear disasters

Year Nuclear power plants

December,1952 Chalk River, Toranto, Canada

October,1957 Windscale Plutonium Production Centre, U.K.

April 26, 1986 Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor, Kiew, Chernobyl, USSR

November, 1995 Monju, Japan

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14.7.1 Impact of muclear disasters on the environment

The detrimental effects of nuclear leakage could be quick or slow.

The quick devastating and immediate effects of nuclear radiations are well known as

witnessed following Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during world war II. Therefore,

military use of nuclear energy is always fraught with unimaginable consequences.

The slow nuclear radiations can also emanate from a variety of sources viz: nuclear

reactors, laboratories, hospitals, and direct exposures to radiation for diagnostic purposes

(eg X-rays)

Such low dose radiations could have substantial impact on life forms and ecosystems. It is

now established that continued small dose exposure to nuclear radiation is very harmful. It

can cause: childhood leukemia, miscarriage; underweight babies; infant deaths; increased

susceptibility to AIDS and other immune disorders and increased criminilalities.

Underground bomb testing releases radiations in very small doses of radicals that enter

water in the soil. This radioactive water is taken by plants through roots. The radioactivity

enters food chain when such plants are eaten by animals and humans. Such radioactivity

has been detected even in the milk.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.5

1. Enumerate the sources of slow nuclear radiations that can pose danger to life forms.

______________________________________________________________

2. Enlist some harmful affects of nuclear radiation on human being.

______________________________________________________________

14.8 OIL POLLUTION

Oil pollution refers to layers of oil on water bodies. Oil spills are most glaring of all oceanic

pollution. Every marine transport vessel poses a potential danger of oil spill.

14.8.1 Causes of oil spill

The most common cause of oil spill is leakage during marine transport. It includes both

small scale (most often) and large scale (accidental) leakages. Oil spill could occur during

off shore oil production. There is a continuous oil slicks concentrated along the supply

lines used by oil tankers. Motor boats may release oil into the seas. On an average a ton of
oil is discharged into the seas for every 1000 tons of oil transported by sea.
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Within hours of oil spill, the fishes, shellfish, plankton die due to suffocation and metabolic

disorders. Within a day of oil spill birds and sea mammals die. Death of these organisms

severely damages marine ecosystems. Oil spills also either poison or suffocate algal blooms.

This in turn makes water body deficient in oxygen. Water deficient in oxygen in turn, is

responsible for the deaths of enormous number of fish/marine life.

14.8.3 Impact of oil spills on terrestrial life

Bays, estuaries, shores, reefs, beaches particularly near large coastal cities or at the mouth

of rivers are relatively more susceptible to the hazards of oil spills. A number of coastal

activities, especially recreational such as bathing, boating, angling, diving, rafting are affected.

As a result tourism and hotel business in the coastal areas suffers seriously.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.6

1. What is the affect of oil spills on algal blooms?

______________________________________________________________

2. What is the harmful impact of oil spill on marine lif e?

______________________________________________________________

14.9 HAZARDOUS WASTE

Any substance that is present in the environment or released into the environment causing

substantial damage to public health and welfare of the environment is called hazardous

substance.

Any substance that could have serious irreversible health effects from a single exposure is

called very hazardous substance. Any hazardous substance could exhibit any one or more

of the following characteristics:

• toxicity

• ignibility
• corrosivity
• reactivity (explosive)

Thus, any waste that contains hazardous or very hazardous substance is called hazardous

waste.

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Hazardous wastes can originate from various sources such as: house-hold, local areas,

urban, industry, agriculture, construction activity, hospitals and laboratories, power plants

and other sources.

Problems related to dumping of hazardous waste

The hazardous waste per se or when disposed off release a number of environmentally

unfriendly substance(s). some of them are given in table 14.5.

Table 14.5: Hazardous wastes, its disposal and effect

INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.7

1. Give four important characteristics that make any substance hazardous.

______________________________________________________________

2. What is a very hazardous substance?

______________________________________________________________

Source Disposed/used as Polluting agent Effect

Industrial

waste

Incineration of

waste

Toxic fumes e.g. Chlorine

polyvinylchlorine

Chlorine could cause acid

rain
Incomplete
combustion

Dioxins/organo chlorides Carcinogenic

Release into water

bodies

Chlorophenol, fluorine compounds,

aldehydes, SO2

, CO

Cause environmental

pollution

Plastic Polythene, poly propylene, polyesters

etc on burning release gases

Toxic, ecological pollution

Nuclear waste Hospitals

Laboratories

Slow/sustained in medical/agriculture

use

Health hazard,

carcinogenic, mutation

Agricultural

waste

Forms of Nitrogen

wastes

Manure/Dung rich in NO3

/NO2

–2 Accumulate in vegetables,

cause methanoglobenemia

cyanosis

Nitrosamines/ NO3

/NO 2
-
Carcinogenic contribute to

acid rain

N2O Green house effect

NH3

+ (from livestock breeding) Affect aquatic life;

stimulate fungal growth;

epiphytes; cause weathering

of forests

Phosphates Eutrophicastion of aquatic

environment

Phyto sanitary

product

Insecticides/pesticides/fungicides/herbi

cides

Enter soil as run off,

polluter water table affect

aquatic life, carcinogenic,

renal failure

Methane Ruminating cattle, fermentation of

organic matter

Powerful green house effect

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3. Is plastic burning hazardous. Why?

______________________________________________________________

4. What are phytosanitory products? How are they harmful?

______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

• All of us are inheritors of common global environment.

• All of us are responsible for its growing deterioration. If the deterioration exceeds a

limit, it shall be a dangerous place to live in.

• Pollution, ozone-hole, greenhouse effect, desertification, loss of biodiversity, oil spills,

nuclear disasters, hazardous waste management, are some of the global environmental

problems that need immediate collective attention.

• Increased human activity, urbanisation, industrialisation are led to rapid deterioration

of the environment. This has severely affected the life supporting system.

• A green house is a glass chamber in which plants are grown to provide them warmth

by trapping solar radiations and heat. Infrared rays pass through glass and the heat

generated there from, cannot escape out of the glass chamber.

• Increased fuel efficiency in vehicles; development/implementation of solar energy/nonfossil

fule alternatives; halting further deforestation; support and undertake tree planting

(afforestation); reduce air-pollution are the strategies for coping with green house

effect.

• Flora and fauna of a region constitute biodiversity. It is considered as natural wealth of

the nature.

• Biodiversity can be classified into three types i.e. species biodiversity, genetic

biodiversity and ecosystem biodiversity.

• Loss of habitat, pollution, and overuse, introduction of foreign species and contribution

of other environmental degradation factors are the reasons of biodiversity loss.

• Desertification is diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land which

ultimately leads to desert. Over cultivation, overgrazing, deforestation and salting sue

to irrigation are principal causes for desertification.

• Acid precipitation affects both aquatic and terrestrial life. It also damages buildings

and monuments.

• We all need to cooperate at individual, domestic, local. National and international

level to maintain our environment clean and sustainable.

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TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Name an introduced weed in India.

2. Name two green-house gases.

3. Name any two compounds that are harmful to ozone layer.

4. Which has been the most disastrous nuclear accident so far.

5. Name one phytosanitory product.

6. Mention various (at least 5) global environmental issues?

7. Why are environmental issues of global concerns?

8. Why should we avoid use of CFCs and such compounds?

9. Explain briefly:

(a) Compare the effects of tropospheric and stratospheric ozone on life in our planet.

(b) Suggest strategies to cope with green house effect.

(c) How does canal-based irrigation contribute to desertification?

(d) Chlorine atom causes ozone-hole

(e) Harmful effect of uv radiations on human being.

(f) Perils of nuclear disasters

(g) “Environmental problems need global intervention”.

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

14.1

1. Because environment has no frontiers, no geographical boundaries.

2. pollution, O3

-hole, green house effect, biodiversity loss, desertification, problems related

to dumping of hazardous wastes, nuclear disasters, oil spills (Any three)

3. Global warming is defined as a natural or human induced increase in the average

global temperature of the atmosphere near the earth surface.

4. Because it stimulates similar conditions that one encounters in a glass green house.
5. Infrared
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6. CFC, methane, nitrogen oxides, CO2

14.2

1. Species biodiversity, generic biodiversity, ecosystem biodiversity.

2. Because of loss of habitat, overuse, introduction of foreign species.

3. Because, they help locate shoals of fish very accurately and efficiently.

4. When its habitat is destroyed to make way to housing, industry, agriculture, sports etc.

5. Over cultivation, over grazing, deforestation, salting due to irrigation.

6. Tractor-sowing.

7. The land that has lost the productivity capacity is called a desert.

14.3

1. Ultraviolet, 200-400 nm

2. Three

3. By releasing significant amount of chlorine.

4. Any activity that release chlorine atoms into the atmosphere.

5. Causes skin cancer, retinal diseases, damage cornea etc.

14.4

1. H2

SO4

, HNO3

2. Acid rain lowers the pH of water in which the organism lives. At low pH gametes (egg/

sperms) of the organisms cannot survive. It affects the life cycle. Leading to generation/

population loss.

3. Solar / nuclear energy.

14.5
1. Ignibility, corrosively, reactivity, toxicity.
2. Any substance that could have serious, irreversible health after affects from a

single dose of exposure.

14.6

1. It may either poisonous or suffocate, damage marine ecosystem

2. Lack of oxygen in the water body is responsible for the deaths of enormous number of

fish or marine life.

Environmental Science Senior Secondary Course

Notes

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MODULE - 4

Contemporary

Environmental Issues

14.7

1. From nuclear reactors, laboratories, hospitals and direct exposure to radiation for

diagnostic purposes (X-rays).

2. Quick devastating effect on human and other life forms. Slow effect – childhood

leukemia, miscarriages, infant mortality, increased susceptibility to AIOs.

3. It suffocates them, poisons them.

4. If sea water deficient in oxygen, that is very essential for aerobic respiration for the

organism living in water.