La pression est beaucoup plus élevée sur les côtés faisant face à la source d'explosif.

shows how the blastload decay from peak pressure is idealized as a straight line for design purposes
where the positive phase impulse is preserved. A blast wave always engulfs a building and applies
positive blast loads to all surfaces, including the leeward face, followed by a negative phase. Therefore,
the shape of the blast load in Fig. 2 applies to all surfaces of a building.

The blast pressures imparted on any given structural member depend on the orientation of the member
relative to the blast wave path. The free-field blast pressure history in Fig. 2 occurs in open air where no
obstacles impede propagation of the blast wave. Blast loads on the sides of a building not facing the
explosive source, that is, the roof and the leeward wall, are known as side-on or incident blast loads and
are usually assumed equal to the free-field blast load.

The blast pressure on building surfaces that reflect the blast wave is known as reflected pressure, which
is much higher than the corresponding free-field pressure. Figure 3 shows the reflected pressure and
impulse resulting from 100 lb (45 kg) of TNT at 50 ft (15 m) standoff distance. The reflected pressure is
2.4 times higher than the incident pressure for the same explosion case given in Fig. 2, while the
reflected impulse is 2.2 times higher than the free-field impulse. This reflection factor is never less than
2.0 for the typical design case where the building surface facing the explosion is perpendicular to the
path of blast wave propagation from the explosive source, that is, fully reflected blast load.

Dynamic material properties

Blast load durations are generally milliseconds, causing component response times to be similarly short
durations. Therefore, the effects of dynamic material properties should not be ignored. Under dynamic
loads, materials exhibit increased yield strengths due to strain rate effects, which can considerably
improve the ultimate load capacities of blast-loaded components.

In general, the higher the strain rate is, the greater the increase in strength should be.
To account for the strain rate effects, a dynamic increase factor (DIF) is used when computing the
strength of members.

Component resistance deflection function

Unlike conventional design, components designed for blast are allowed to undergo a controlled amount
of plastic deformation. The component absorbs strain energy during elastic and plastic response that
must equal the energy imparted by the blast load, or the component will fail

Typically, a well-designed ductile component will absorb most of the blast load energy with plastic strain
energy, but the maximum component deflection will only be half, or less, of the deflection
corresponding to failure.

The strain energy absorbed by a component during response to blast load can be measured as the area
under its resistance-deflection curve at any given deflection where the strain energy increases with
deflection. The resistance-deflection curve relates the resisted load to the midspan deflection of the
blast-loaded component. It can be derived with conventional static calculation methods, including
applicable DIF and SIF factors

It is important that the component does not fail in shear or due to connection failure before reaching its
ultimate flexural resistance and that it deflects in a ductile manner out to a failure

A much lower amount of deflection past yield occurs prior to failure when shear or connection failure
controls the ultimate resistance or load capacity of a component because these are typically nonductile
response modes. However, this will not occur if a component’s ultimate flexural resistance is less than
the ultimate resistances based on the component’s shear and connection strengths, that is, component
response is controlled by ductile, flexural response. Therefore, a goal of blast-resistant design is to
design components so that their responses are controlled by ductile flexural response.

Deformation limits

As mentioned in the previous section, blast design involves allowing component stresses to exceed yield.
Therefore, allowable design stress is not used in blast design. Instead, allowable design limits are set on
component deflections. Allowable maximum dynamic deflections for components subject to blast loads
are typically specified in terms of two parameters; the support rotation θ and the ductility ratio μ

Maximum support rotation and ductility ratio values allowed for design are based primarily on blast
tests in which the values of these parameters corresponding to component failure have been
determined. These values are usually specified for government buildings based on the building’s
intended level of protection.

General design concepts

Rigorous analysis methods, such as dynamic nonlinear finite element analyses (FEAs), may be used to
obtain the dynamic response of blastloaded components. These analyses can consider more-complex
effects, such as dynamic interaction between cladding and framing, multiple modes excited during
frame sway response, and highly non uniform blast loading over the area of a component. However,
blast loads are usually relatively uniform over a component, so it is generally conservative to ignore
interaction effects

Higher mode response does not usually affect maximum deflections of blast-resistant components when
there is significant ductile, plastic response.

It is generally accepted that the blast design of most building components can be performed by
modeling the dynamic response of the component with an equivalent single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF)
system.1,2 This is referred to as the SDOF method for blast design.

Component design

The SDOF method idealizes the structural component into a massspring system with stiffness and mass
related to those in the blastloaded structural component (Fig. 8).

The mass and resistance factors are derived from similar energy equivalency equations for the kinetic
and strain energies, respectively, between the equivalent SDOF system and the blast-loaded
component. However, the load and resistance factors are equal because the strain energy can be
treated as internal work. The internal work from the spring in the SDOF system is set equal to the
internal work from the resisting force of the component, which is assumed to have the same shape
function as the applied load, and the derived resistance factor is equal to the load factor.6

Also, the amounts of damping assumed for other types of dynamic structural response (earthquake
loading, for example) typically do not have a significant effect on blast-loaded components because
these components reach their maximum response during their first response cycle.
The maximum deflection from the solution of Eq. (6) is used to calculate the ductility ratio or the
support rotation for the component as described previously, which are compared with the allowable
design values.

In almost all cases, the allowable design criteria are based on assumed ductile flexural response for the
component

The required connection capacity is typically much higher than that required for conventional loads.

Typically, the component shear capacity is based on the static shear strength with no DIF. This is a
conservative assumption. However, no strength reduction factor is typically used. The capacity of
connections for blast-loaded components may include a small DIF, on the order of 1.05, because
connections typically have high-strength steel and the DIF decreases with increasing steel strength.
However, this DIF is often neglected. In this case, the connection capacity based on load and resistance
factor design (LRFD) must be greater than the reaction loads from a static load equal to the ultimate
resistance of the component with no load factor.

These requirements for the shear and connection capacity imply that the flexural resistance of blast-
loaded components should not be overdesigned to the extent that this causes corresponding increases
in the required shear and connection capacities that are expensive or difficult to construct. The more
the component relies on ductility, or deflection past yield, within the allowable design criteria to
develop the required strain energy capacity to resist the blast load, the more economic and
constructible the resulting design will be.

During rebound, there is stress reversal at all maximum stress regions of the component. All
compressive stress areas during inbound response become tensile stress regions during rebound and
require sufficient reinforcing steel to prevent rebound failure. Also, the connections must have the
capacity to resist reaction forces from component rebound response. Often the maximum forces and
stresses that develop during rebound are on the order of 70% to 80% of those during inbound response,
though 100% is possible. It is typical for blast design to provide equal reinforcing steel and connection
capacity for inbound and rebound phase responses.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
After determining the distribution of the blast loads on the overall building the engineer must distribute
the loading to the individual structural member. The response of building to a blast load may be
analyzed using dynamic structural analyses ranging from the basic single degree of freedom analysis
(SDOF) method to nonlinear transient dynamic finite element analysis (FEA).

All structures, regardless of how simple the construction, posses more than one degree of freedom.
However, many structures can be adequately represented as a series of SDOF systems for analysis
purposes. The accuracy obtainable from a SDOF approximation depends on how well the deformed
shape of the structure and its resistance can be represented with respect to time. Sufficiently accurate
results can usually be obtained for primary load carrying components of structures such as beams,
girders, columns, wall panels, diaphragms and shear walls. However, it is very difficult to capture the
overall system response if a building is broken into discrete components with simplified boundary
conditions using the SDOF approach, with the result that the SDOF method may be overly conservative.

Nonlinear finite element analysis methods may be used to evaluate the dynamic response of a single
building module or a multi-module assembly to blast loads. This global approach can remove some of
the conservatism associated with breaking the building up into its many components when using the
SDOF approach. Geometric and material non-linearity effects are normally utilized in such analyses.
These analyses are typically carried out using a finite element program capable of modeling nonlinear
material and geometric behavior in the time domain.

SDOF Analysis:

All structures consist of more than one degree of freedom. The basic analytical model used in most blast design
application is the single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. In many cases, structural components subject to blast
load can be modeled as an equivalent SDOF mass-spring system with a nonlinear spring.

The accuracy obtainable from a SDOF approximation depends on how well the deformed shape of the structure and
its resistance can be represented with respect to time. Sufficiently accurate results can usually be obtained for
primary load carrying components of structures such as beams, girders, columns, and wall panels. However, it is
very difficult to capture the overall system response if a building is broken into discrete components with simplified
boundary conditions using the SDOF approach, with the result that the SDOF method may be overly conservative.

The properties of the equivalent SDOF system are also based on load and mass transformation factors, which are
calculated to cause conservation of energy between the equivalent SDOF system and the component assuming a
deformed component shape and that the deflection of the equivalent SDOF system equals the maximum deflection of
the component at each time. The mass and dynamic loads of the equivalent system are based on the component
mass and blast load, respectively, and the spring stiffness and yield load are based on the component flexural
stiffness and lateral load capacity.

The “effective” mass, damping, resistance, and force terms in Equation 1 cause the equivalent SDOF system to
represent a given blast-loaded component responding in a given assumed mode shape such that the SDOF system
has the same work, strain, and kinetic energies at each response time as the structural component.

M a + C v + K y = F(t)

where:

M = effective mass of equivalent SDOF system

a = acceleration of the mass
C = effective viscous damping constant of equivalent SDOF system
v = velocity of the mass
K= effective resistance of equivalent SDOF system
y = displacement of the mass
F(t) = effective load history

When damping is ignored, where damping is usually conservatively ignored in the blast resistant design, elastic
system then becomes,

M a + K y = F(t)

In the blast analyses, the resistance (R) is usually specified as a nonlinear function to simulate elastic-plastic
behavior of the structure.

M a + R = F(t)

For convenience, the Equation is simplified through the use of a single load-mass transformation factor, KLM, as
follows:

KLMM a + K y = F(t)
Where, KLM = KM/KL

The transformation factors for common one- and two-way structural members are readily available from several
sources (Biggs 1964, UFC 3-340-02 2008). Blast loadings, F(t), act on a structure for relatively short durations of time
and are therefore considered as transient dynamic loads. Solutions for Equation are available in the UFC 3-340-02
(2008) and Biggs (1964).

The response of actual structural components to blast load can be determined by calculating response of “equivalent”
SDOF systems. The equivalent SDOF system is an elastic-plastic spring-mass system with properties (M, K, Ru)
equal to the corresponding properties of the component modified by transformation factors. The deflection of the
spring-mass system will be equal to the deflection of a characteristic point on the actual system, i.e. the maximum
deflection. To perform equivalent SDOF, the assumption of a deformed shape for the actual system is required.

SDOF Example:

This example shows the SDOF analysis for 40’(L)X12’(W)X11’(H) single module blast resistant enclosure. The
building is designed to resist a free field overpressure of 8 psi with 200ms duration for “medium damage”. The SDOF
analysis combines both dynamic analysis and structural evaluation into a single procedure which can be used to
rapidly assess potential damage for a given blast load.

NOTES: Notations in parenthesis are from Reference 1.

Calculations assume the following:
1. The angle of incidence of the blast (angle between radius of blast from the source and front wall or
roof plate) is 0 degrees.
2. A triangular blast load is assumed
3. The blast load is uniformly distributed across the building front wall and roof plate.

It is conservatively assumed in the analysis that the blast load can be from any direction around the building. As a
result, all walls can be subjected to reflected pressure during a blast event. For analysis purpose, the free field
overpressure is converted into local pressure loads for the building front wall, side wall, rear wall, and roof (see Blast
Resistant Building Design – Part 1, Defining the Blast Loads).
Dynamic Strength, Fdy=DIF*SIF*Fy = 239.2 psi-ms2/in

Elastic Stiffness, Ke =(384*E*I)/(5*L4*w)= 6.67 psi/in

Dynamic Strength, Fdy=DIF*SIF*Fy = 65,450 psi

Ultimate Bending Resistance, Ru = 8(Mpc+Mps)/(L2*w) = 20.3 psi

Equivalent Mass, Me = KLM*M = 184.17 psi-ms2/in

Natural Period, tn = 2*pi*SQRT(Me/K) = 33.00 ms

Equivalent Elastic Deflection, Xe = Ru/Ke= 3.04 in

td/tn = 6.06

Ru/P = 2.54

Xm/Xe= 0.9 from the figure below:

Ductility Factor, m =0.9 which must be less than Allowable, ma = 10, Design O.K.

Maximum Deflection, Xm = m*Xe = 2.7 in

Rotation Factor, q = atan(Xm/(0.5*L)) = 2.4, which must be less than Allowable, qa = 6, Design O.K.
Mass, Wtotal/g = 408.7 psi-ms2/in

Elastic Stiffness, Ke =(384*E*I)/(5*L4*w)= 15.74 psi/in

Dynamic Strength, Fdy=DIF*SIF*Fy = 61,226 psi

Ultimate Bending Resistance, Ru = 8*(Mpc+Mps)/(L2*w) = 44.3 psi

Equivalent Mass, Me = KLM*M = 314.70 psi-ms2/in

Natural Period, tn = 2*pi*SQRT(Me/K) = 28.08 ms

Equivalent Elastic Deflection, Xe = Ru/Ke= 2.82 in

Ductility Factor, m = 0.4 which must be less than Allowable, ma = 2, Design O.K.

Maximum Deflection, Xm = m*Xe = 1.1 in

Rotation Factor, q = atan(Xm/(0.5*L)) = 1.0 which must be less than Allowable, qa = 1.5, Design O.K.

Each structural member of the building must be analyzed in a similar fashion for the applied blast load and compared
against the respective damage levels.

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