THE HUMAN BODY:

AN ORIENTATION

Jean Flor C. Casauay, RPh, MS

Asst. Prof & College Secretary
Learning Objectives:
 To define anatomy, physiology &
pathophysiology , and related branches .
 To discuss the different body systems and

components of each;
 To discuss the functions of the different body

systems ;
Learning Objectives:
 To understand the homeostatic mechanisms
of the body, and deviations ;
 To enumerate the different methods of

diagnostic medical imaging and applications;

and
 To assess the advantages and disadvantages

of each medical imaging procedure.

Definition of Terms
 Anatomy
 Physiology
 Pathology
 Pathophysiology
 Subdivisions of Anatomy
 Surface anatomy  Developmental anatomy
 Gross anatomy  Embryology
 Systemic anatomy  Histology
 Regional anatomy  Cytology
 Radiographic anatomy  Pathological anatomy
Subdivisions of Physiology
 Cell physiology
 Pathophysiology
 Exercise physiology
 Neurophysiology
 Endocrinology
 Cardiovascular physiology
 Immunology
 Respiratory physiology
 Renal physiology
Assessment of Body Structure & Functions

Non-invasive Techniques:
 Palpation - feels body surfaces with the hands

 Auscultation - listens to body sounds often using a

stethoscope
 Percussion - taps on the body surface with the

fingertips ; to detect fluid, air and fluid-filled or

solid masses.
Assessment of Body Structure & Functions
Levels of Structural Organization

Organismal
System
Organ
Tissue
Cellular
Chemical
Organ System Overview

Integumentary System Endocrine System

Skeletal System Cardiovascular System
Muscular System Lymphatic System
Nervous System Respiratory System
Digestive System
Urinary System
Reproductive System
Integumentary System
Components: skin & glands, hair, nails
Functions:
 Protection of the body
 Regulation of body temperature &
water loss
 Waste elimination
 Detects sensations
 Vitamin D production
 Skeletal System
 Components:
Bones, cartilage, joint, ligament
 Skeletal System
Functions:
 Supports the body (framework)

 Aids in body movements

 Protects the soft and vital parts of the body

 Stores fats, minerals and lipids

 Site for hematopoiesis

Skeletal System
 Red Bone Marrow  Yellow Bone Marrow
- hematopoiesis -storage of lipids & fat
 Muscular System
 Components: muscles, fasciae, tendon sheaths, bursae
 Muscular System
Functions:
 Produces body movement

 Maintains posture

 Generates heat
 Nervous System

Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory

& motor structures

Functions:
 Generates nerve impulses

 Interpret stimuli coming from the internal and

external environment
 Control the special senses of sight, hearing, taste
and smell
 Endocrine System
Components: endocrine glands &
hormone-producing cells
 Hypothalamus, Pituitary,

 Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal

 Thymus, Pancreas

 Pineal, Ovaries, Testes

Function: production of hormones

that chemically regulate the body’s
function
Endocrine System
 hGH
 Anterior pituitary gland
Cardiovascular System
Components: blood, heart and blood vessels

Functions:
 Pumps & distributes blood

 Carries oxygen and nutrients

 Collects CO2 and waste

 Its components participate in immune system

 Regulates acid-base balance, T and water

Cardiovascular System
Lymphatic & Immune System
Components: lymphatic fluid,
lymphatic vessels & lymphatic
organs

Functions:
 Returns lost proteins and excess

fluid to the blood

 Houses lymphocytes
Lymphatic & Immune System
Respiratory System
Components: lungs and air
passageways

Functions:
 Brings oxygen to & eliminates carbon dioxide

from the blood

 Helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids
Respiratory System
Digestive System
 Components: organs of the GI tract and
accessory structures

Functions:
 Physical and chemical

breakdown of food
 Absorbs nutrients

 Eliminates solid wastes

Digestive System
 GIT or alimentary  Accessory digestive
canal organs
 mouth  teeth
 pharynx  tongue
 esophagus  salivary glands
 stomach  liver
 small & large  gallbladder
intestines  pancreas
Urinary System
Components: kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder and urethra

Functions:
 produce, stores and eliminates urine

 maintains the body’s water and salt balance

 regulates the acid-base balance of the blood

 Helps regulate production of RBCs

Reproductive System
Components: gonads and associated organs
 Female: uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina

 Male: epididymis, ductus (vans) deferens and penis

Functions:
 production of offspring

 maintenance of sexual characteristics

Female Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
 Fallopian tube
 provide a route for sperm to reach an ovum

 Transport secondary oocytes and fertilized ova from the

ovaries to the uterus
 Uterus
 site of implantation of a fertilized ovum, development of
fetus and labor, source of menstrual flow
 Vagina
 Passageway for birth, menstrual flow and intercourse
Male Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
 Epididymis
 site of sperm maturation

 helps propel sperm into the ductus (vas) deferens during

sexual arousal by peristaltic contraction of its smooth
muscle
 Ductus deferens
 conveys sperm from the epididymis toward the urethra by
peristaltic contractions of the muscular coat
 Penis
 passageway for the ejaculation of semen & the excretion
of urine
Basic Life Functions
Metabolism
 Sum of all chemicall processess that occur within
the body
 Catabolism

 Anabolism
Basic Life Functions
 Responsiveness: Body’s ability to detect and
respond to changes in its internal or external
environment

 Movement: includes motion of the whole body,

individual organs, single cells and even tiny
structures inside cells.
Basic Life Functions
 Growth: an increase in body size, usually
accomplished by an increase in the number of
existing cells, increase in the size of cells or both

 Differentiation: the process a cell undergoes to

develop from an unspecialized to a specialized
state.
Basic Life Functions
 Reproduction: Formation of new cells for tissue
growth, repair or replacement or production of a
new individual

 Digestion: - process of breaking down ingested

foodstuffs into simple molecules that can then be
absorbed into the blood for delivery to all body
cells by the cardiovascular system
Basic Life Functions
 Excretion: - process of removing excreta, or
wastes, from the body
Control of Homeostasis
 Homeostasis
 the same (homeo); standing still (stasis)
 a dynamic state of equilibrium in the body’s internal
environment

 2 systems that maintain homeostasis in the body:

 Nervous System
 Endocrine System
Homeostatic Imbalance
 Disorder – disruption of function ; disturbance in
physical or mental health or functions
 Obsessive compulsive, autism , cerebral palsy

 Disease – abnormal condition of the body

characterized by specific set of signs & symptoms
 Gastroesophageal Disease, infectious diseases
Signs versus Symptoms
 Signs: changes that a clinician can objectively
observe & measure
 Swelling

 Symptoms: subjective changes in body functions

that are not apparent to an observer ; only the
patient can feel or notice
 Pain
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

Feedback system:
 cycle of events in which a body condition is

continually monitored and adjusted to be within

specific limits.

 Aka feedback loop

Component of a Feedback System
 Receptor: responds to stimuli by sending input to
the control center

 Control Center: determines the level at which a

variable is to be maintained, analyzes information
it receives and determines appropriate response

 Effector: Receives information from the control

center and produces a response (output)
Types of Feedback Systems

 Negative Feedback
 responds by reversing the effects of a stimulus or to
reduce its intensity
 Most feedback loops in the body are negative loops

 Positive Feedback
 increases or enhances the effects of a stimulus
 continue until it is interrupted by some mechanism
outside the system
 Some stimulus
disrupts homeostasis by
increasing blood pressure

Baroreceptors in
certain blood vessels
send
Input Nerve impulses Return to homeostasis
when response brings
Brain interprets blood pressure
input and sends back to normal

Output Nerve impulses

Heart

A decrease in heart rate

decreases blood pressure
 Contractions of wall of uterus force baby’s
head or body into the cervix, thus increasing
stretching of cervix

Stretch-sensitive nerve cells in cervix send

Increased stretching of
Input Nerve impulses
cervix causes release
of more oxytocin,
Brain interprets input and releases
which results in more
stretching of the cervix
Output Oxytocin
Muscles in wall of uterus contract
more forcefully

Baby’s body stretches cervix more

Birth of baby decreases stretching of cervix

Medical Imaging
Medical Imaging
 Allow visualization of structures inside our bodies
and are increasingly helpful for precise diagnosis of
a wide range of anatomical and physiological
disorders.
(1) Radiography (X-Ray)

Radiography visualization of the internal parts

of the body using x-ray techniques.

1. Traditional X-Ray
2. Contrast X-Ray
3. Special Type of X-Ray
Traditional X-ray

 An x-ray beam is passed through the body,

producing an image of interior structures on x ray-
sensitive film

 Radiograph or x ray film: 2D image

 Dense structures  white
 Hollow structures  black

 Intermediate density  gray

Contrast X-rays

 uses contrast medium: makes hollow or fluid-filled

structures visible in radiographs
 Barium sulfate – most common

 used to image blood vessels (angiography), the

urinary system (intravenous urography), & the GIT
(barium contrast x ray)
Contrast X rays
Special Type of X-rays

 Mammography - uses x-rays to capture images

(mammograms) of the internal structures of the
breasts.
Special Type of X-rays
 Bone densitometry scan - used to measure the
calcium content of the bone.
 Also called a Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry
(DEXA) scan - the established standard for measuring
bone mineral density (BMD)
 The density is directly related to the calcium content
of the bone. Therefore thicker bones will have a
greater calcium content than thinner bones.
 the lumbar spine, hips and forearm are usually
examined
CT Scanning
 Computed Tomography Scanning
 also called computerized axial tomography (CAT)
scanning

 a medical imaging procedure that uses x-rays to

show cross-sectional images or “slices” of areas of
the body.
CT Scanning
1. A motorized table moves the patient through a
circular opening in the CT imaging system.

2. An x-ray source and detector within the housing

rotate around the patient. A single rotation takes
about 1 second. The x-ray source produces a
narrow, fan-shaped beam of x-rays that passes
through a section of the patient's body.
CT Scanning
3. A detector opposite from the x-ray source records
the x-rays passing through the patient's body as a
"snapshot" image.

4. For each rotation of the x-ray source and detector,

the image data are sent to a computer to
reconstruct all of the individual "snapshots" into
one or multiple cross-sectional images (slices) of
the internal organs and tissues
Computed Tomography (CT)
 visualizes soft tissues &
organs with much more
detail than conventional
radiographs

 Provides good details

about bony structures

 “slice” images
Computed Tomography (CT)

 Whole-body CT scanning:
 targets the torso
 provides the most benefit in screening for lung
cancers, coronary artery disease, & kidney cancers
(3) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

 Test that uses a high-energy magnetic field and

pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of
organs and structures inside the body

 The area of the body being studied is placed inside

a special machine that contains a strong magnet

 provides a 2D or 3D blueprint of cellular chemistry

Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI)
MRI

 shows fine details for soft tissues

but not for bones

 other uses:
 detect tumors & artery-clogging fatty plaques
 reveal brain abnormalities, measure blood flow
 detect a variety of musculoskeletal, liver, & kidney
disorders
MRI
 May be done to provide more information about a
problem seen on an X-ray, ultrasound scan, or CT
scan.
 MRI has better detection and descriptive powers
than CT.
 Contrast material may be used during MRI to
show abnormal tissue more clearly.
 It cannot be used on patients with metal in their
bodies.
(4) Ultrasound Scanning (Sonography)

 Ultrasound screening
 Uses high-frequency sound waves produced by a
handheld wand reflect off body tissues & are
detected by the same instrument
 Sonogram: image, which may be still or moving
Ultrasound Scanning
Ultrasound Scanning
 Ultrasound requires a frictionless surface to obtain
a perfect image.

 Ultrasound gel acts as a lubricant that allows for

easy movement of the transducer across the skin
and removes the air between the skin and the
transducer.
Ultrasound Scanning

 most commonly used to visualize the fetus during

pregnancy
 Produces images: the size, location, & actions of
organs
 Doppler ultrasound – used to measure blood flow
and blood pressure
(5) Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

 Substance that emits positrons is injected into the

body, where it is taken up by tissues.
 Positrons + electrons = gamma rays (detected by
gamma cameras)
 Used to study the physiology of body structures,
such as metabolism in the brain or heart
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

 darkened area at upper left

indicates where a stroke has
occurred
 The PET scan shows where injected
substance is being used in the
body.
 The black and blue colors indicate
minimal activity, whereas the red,
orange, yellow, and white colors
indicate areas of increasingly
greater activity.
(6) Radionuclide Scanning

 A radioactive substance is introduced intravenously

into the body & carried by the blood to the tissue to
be imaged
 It emits gamma radiation, detected by a camera and
creates an image.
 Used to find out how well an organ is functioning by
looking at the supply of blood to its tissues.
Radionuclide Scanning
Radionuclide Scanning
 Used to study activity of a tissue or organ, such as
the heart, lungs, thyroid gland, & kidneys
 Nuclear scans can help doctors diagnose many
conditions, including cancers, injuries and infections.

 Radionuclide image:
 areas of intense color: take up a lot of the
radionuclide & represent high tissue activity
 areas of less intense color: take up smaller amounts
of the radionuclide & represent low tissue activity
 Radionuclide Scanning

 SPECT: single-photo-emission computerized

tomography

 specialized type of radionuclide

scanning
 especially useful for studying
brain, heart, lungs, & liver
 can be used to produce both
vertical and horizontal cross sections through the
body, and the data can also be manipulated by a
computer to produce three-dimensional images.
(7) Endoscopy
 visual examination of the inside of body
organs or cavities using a lighted instrument
with lenses called an endoscope
Endoscopy
 Types:
 Colonoscopy - interior of the colon
 Laparoscopy - organs w/in the abdominopelvic cavity
 Arthroscopy - interior of a joint, usually the knee
 Laryngoscopy
 Bronchoscopy
 Nasopharyngoscopy
 Thoracoscopy
END!