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Definition of Viscosity: Absolute viscosity is the ratio of applied stress to resulting shear velocity; kinematic
viscosity is absolute viscosity divided by density.
Dynamic (absolute), poise = 1.0 dyne-sec/cm = 100 centipoise (cP) = 0.1 pascal-
2
Viscosity Units:
2
second (Pas or PI); Pas = 1.0 newton-second/m = 1.0 poiseuille (PI) = 1000 cP =
0.67 lbm/ft-sec
2 2
Kinematic viscosity, stoke = 1.0 cm /sec = 100 centistokes (cSt) = 0.00107 ft /sec
Types of Viscous Behavior: Newtonian or non-Newtonian; non-Newtonian fluids include pseudoplastic, dilatant,
plastic solid, thixotropic, and rheopectic types.
INTRODUCTION V
MOVING PLATE
F
2 r 2 ( ρS − ρL )g
THEORY OF VISCOUS BEHAVIOR υ= 8.62(1)
pµ
1700
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
8.62 Viscometers—Application and Selection 1701
µ = (Kd ∆P)/VL
4
8.62(2)
X
0.2
where 104 2 × 104 5 × 104 105 2 × 105
(6)
NEWTONIAN FLUID-(I)
(WATER, MOST OILS,
FORCE SALT SOLUTIONS)
(4) (2) PSEUDOPLASTIC
(SHEAR THINNING)
(6) (PAPER PULP, CATSUP) (3)
(5) (3) DILATANT
(SHEAR THICKENING)
SHEAR STRESS
VISCOSITY
(1)
(STARCH, QUICK SAND) (4)
FIG. 8.62c
The viscosity and shear stress of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids when these fluids are deformed at various shear rates (velocity
gradients).
which the resistance to deformation is of interest. Consequently, exhibit hysteresis. They seem to “remember” their past his-
the viscometers used to measure non-Newtonian substances tory and, for example, when reagitated will require less horse-
must be provided with accurate means of detecting the veloc- power than was required during the first agitation. Thixotro-
ity gradient. pic substances include asphalt, lard, silica gel, most paints,
glues, and fruit juice concentrates.
Newtonian Fluids Figure 8.62c illustrates the behavior of
newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. When a fluid is new- Rheopectic Substances Rheopectic substances (curve 6)
tonian (curve 1 in Figure 8.62c), its viscosity is unaffected also display hysteresis, but, instead of a shear-thinning behav-
by share rate (flow velocity), and the relationship between ior, they display shear thickening. Their viscosity appears to
force (stress) and resulting flow (velocity) is linear. Some of increase, and some will “set” after some duration of agitation.
the newtonian fluids include gasoline, kerosene, mineral oils, Gypsum in water, for example, behaves in this manner.
water, and salt solutions in water.
Apparent Viscosity Readings It is important to understand
Pseudoplastics Pseudoplastics (curve 2) are shear-thinning that the apparent viscosity of many different substances
materials whose apparent viscosity drops as flow (shear rate) depends on the design of the viscometer that is measuring it.
rises. Some such substances exhibit a yield stress above Each viscometer exposes the process sample to a different
which the apparent viscosity drops, so that a unit increase of experience in terms of shear stress and shear velocity, so non-
Newtonian substances will register different apparent viscos-
driving force results in more and more flow. Pseudoplastic
ity readings.
materials include catsup, paper pulp, and printer’s ink.
In process control, this is not a serious problem, because
one is likely to use the same viscometer all the time, and we
Dilatant Fluids Dilatant (curve 3) materials are shear-thick-
are not interested so much in the absolute viscosity of the
ening substances. Their apparent viscosity increases as the
product as in making the same product one day to the next.
flow (shear rate) rises, and more and more stress (force) is On the other hand, when viscosity specifications are passed
required to obtain the same increase in flow. Dilatant mate- on from one plant to another, it is essential that the viscometer
rials include quicksand, starch, peanut butter, and many used in making the measurement be specified.
candy compounds.
Plastic Solids Plastic solids (curve 4) are true plastics in Conversion among Units of Viscosity
the sense that they normally behave like solids, but, when Newton’s hypothesis defines absolute viscosity of fluid as
the shear stress (force) reaches their yield point, they start to
behave as viscous fluids and start to “cold flow.” Most plas- shear stress shear stress
tics, chewing gum, tar, and some oils exhibit this behavior. absolute viscosity = =
shear rate velocity gradient
8.62(8)
Thixotropic Materials Thixotropic materials (curve 5) are ( F/A)g
= c , poise
usually pseudoplastics (shear-thinning substances), but they ( u/l)
Selection
where
F = total load force, gram force In selecting a viscometer for a specific task, the following
2
A = area of plate, cm should be determined:
l = thickness of fluid between plates, cm
u = velocity, cm/sec 1. Is this instrument for laboratory use or for continuous
gc = Newton’s acceleration caused by gravity, 980.665 measurement in the plant for control?
2
(gram mass) (cm)/(sec ) (gram force) 2. What type of materials will this viscometer handle?
a. Highly volatile? Closed system needed?
For the viscosity of common liquids in a variety of units, b. Newtonian fluids, non-Newtonian fluids, or both?
see Table 8.62d, and refer to Table 8.62e for conversion fac- c. Rheological characteristics of the material—plastic,
tors between centipoise (cP) and other units of absolute thixotropic, dilatant, etc.
Analytical Instrumentation
(2) Based on Measurement
(1) Based on Full Scale
Remote Readout Trans.
Maximum Design
Maximum Design
Inaccuarcy (±%)
Temperature, °F
Pressure, PSIG.
Non-Newtonian
Local Readout
In-line Device
or Flow Rate
Newtonian
Applicable Viscosity Ranges
Centipoises
Gas
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Type of Design 10 10 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Bubble time Manual ATM. 77 2–10(2) 13 CC
Capillary tube Manual timing ATM. 300 0.35(2) 20 CC
Auto timing ATM. 300 0.01(2) 20 CC
Capillary Influx efflux 100 300 2.0(2) 0.7 CC
extrusion 5,000 640 2.0(2) 30 CC
Efflux cup Saybolt ATM. 250 0.1(2) 60 CC
Ford cup ATM. 80 2.0(2) 150 CC
Laboratory
(2 m/s)
Piston 10,000 600 2.0(2) —
Torsional 5,000 850 2.0(2) —
Plastometer Cone and plate 100 400 0.5(1) 25 CC Arbitrary Mooney 0–200 Points
Kneader ATM. 570 1.0(1) 80 CC Units % Scale 0–1,000 Division
Capillary 5,000 570 2.0(1) 0.6 #/HR Are Used MI & CIL 0–200 and 0–100
Rotational Cone disc sphere 1,000 650 1.0(1) —
Agitator power 125 200 ~5.0(1) —
Double cylinder 145 300 1.0(1) —
Vibrational Reed 3,000 300 1.0(1) —
Normal Range. With Special Modifications
d. Corrosiveness of the fluids standards for product testing. Test procedures should be care-
e. Does the fluid contain solids? What are the special fully followed and test results correctly reported.
characteristics of this slurry or emulsion? Plastic,
thixotropic, dilatant, etc.? Routine Laboratory Testing Simple-to-operate, easy-to-clean
f. What are the operating temperatures and pressures of and direct-reading viscometers should be considered for this
the fluids? purpose. The coaxial-cylinder type viscometer is well suited,
g. Do the sample composition and/or viscosity (due to because it is inexpensive and meets most of the above require-
reaction or time lag) change with time? Is a low lag ments. The efflux-cup viscometer is recommended for field
time for manual sampling and testing sufficient, or laboratory testing work. If the available sample size is small
is on-stream measurement essential? (less than 1 cc), then modified coaxial-cylinder or cone-and-
h. What is the relationship between viscosity and oper- plate rotating viscometers should be considered.
ating temperature?
3. Area classification—does the viscometer need to be Scientific Research Study For scientific research purposes,
explosion proof? accuracy and versatility should be the main selection consid-
4. What are the viscosity ranges to be measured? erations. Cone-and-plate rotational viscometers are the most
5. What levels of accuracy (maximum error allowable), versatile units but are also the most expensive. If extreme
sensitivity, and repeatability (for continuous process accuracy is desired, consider the automatic capillary-tube
viscometer) are required? viscometer (See Figure 8.62g). If it is important to record the
6. What special features are needed? results to maintain a permanent record, both of the previously
a. Remote indication or recording mentioned viscometers have the appropriate capability. For
b. Automatic operation the measurement of gas and vapor viscosity, the falling-ball
c. Automatic closed-loop control viscometer is the best option.
d. Temperature compensating system
7. What is the viscometer response time requirement? In-Line Process Control In selecting an in-process viscom-
8. What are the flow conditions—laminar or turbulent? eter, cost, repeatability, sensitivity, construction materials,
reliability, response time, and ease of cleaning should all be
considered. Vibrating-reed viscometers are successfully used
Applications in the polymer industry. Rotating-cone and agitator power
viscometers have been successfully employed in the paper
A viscosity measurement can be of value for one of the industry. Continuous capillary viscometers are widely
following two reasons: applied in the petroleum industry. The manufacture of syn-
thetic rubbers and certain plastics would be almost impossi-
ble without the plastometers.
1. It is very difficult to size a pump, pipeline, orifice
meter, or agitator without knowing the viscosity of the Continuous viscometers are reliable. Viscosity measure-
process fluid. In any operation where liquids are used ment need not be an expensive and time-consuming opera-
(spraying, coating, or dipping processes), the viscosity tion. Continuous in-line viscometers are available to satisfy
of the fluid determines the effectiveness of the process most process needs. Even such unique applications as the
and the quality of the finished product. In short, vis- measurement of the viscosity of molten steel can be handled.
cosity is one of the most important process properties. Viscometer signals can be readily sent over digital networks
2. Viscosity readings can vary as a function of other and be accepted by process computers, which can calculate
process variables. These include molecular weight and other related fluid properties or perform closed-loop control.
its distribution in polymers, lubricating oils, and other
substances, as well as the concentration, specific grav- TERMINOLOGY
ity, color, size, shape, and distribution of solids in a
slurry or in an emulsion. All of these can cause vis-
Absolute (dynamic) viscosity ( µ). Constant of propor-
cosity variations.
tionality between applied stress and resulting shear
velocity (Newton’s hypothesis).
Viscometers can be used for several purposes, primarily Apparent viscosity. Viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid
(1) to ensure that the finished product meets specifications, under given conditions. Same as consistency.
(2) to perform routine laboratory testing, (3) for scientific Consistency. Resistance of a substance to deformation.
research, and (4) for in-line process control. Each is described It is the same as viscosity for a newtonian fluid and
briefly below. the same as apparent viscosity for a non-Newtonian
fluid.
Finished Product Specification For such applications, the Fluidity. Reciprocal of absolute viscosity; the unit in
appropriate type of viscometer has been specified by industry the cgs system is the rhe, which equals 1/poise.
FIG. 8.62g
A single process viscosity system can measure absolute (kinematic or dynamic), relative, reduced, and intrinsic viscosities as well as viscosity
index. (Courtesy of Brinkmann Instruments Inc.)
Hagen-Poiseuille law (flow through a capillary), connecting the measured points and extending curve
to zero shear rate.
π R4 Specific viscosity. Ratio of absolute viscosity of a fluid
Q= ( P − P2 ) 8.62(9) to that of a standard fluid, usually water, both at
8µL 1
same temperature.
Stoke. Unit of kinematic viscosity υ (cm /sec).
2
Kinematic viscosity (υ). Dynamic viscosity/density =
Stress. Force/area (F/A).
υ = µ/ρ.
Velocity gradient (shear). Rate for change of liquid
Pascal-second (Pas). Internationally accepted unit of
2 velocity across the stream—V/L for linear velocity
absolute (dynamic) viscosity. Pas = newton-sec/m =
profile and dV/dL for nonlinear velocity profile.
10 poise = 1000 centipoise. –1
Units are V–L = ft/sec/ft = sec .
Poise (µ). Unit of dynamic or absolute viscosity (dyne-
2
sec/cm ).
Poiseuille (Pi). Suggested name for the new interna- Bibliography
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