STRUCTURAL NOTES

STRAIN It is the unit deformation of a material subjected to an

ENGINEERING MECHANICS applied load
ENGINEERING A branch of Engineering that deals with External Forces of
an assumably rigid bodies STRESS Lines depicting the direction but not the magnitude of the
MECHANICS principal stress of the beam
TRAJECTORIES
TYPES OF MECHANICS
A. STATICS Deals with the study of the external effects of forces on
STRAIN GAUGE Also called as extensometer
rigid bodies that are at rest and remain at rest before and Instrument to measure a minute deformation
after the application of forces

STRESS- STRAIN A graphic representation of the relationship between unit

B. DYNAMICS Study of External Forces applied on a body inducing any stress value and the corresponding unit strain for a
motion. DIAGRAM specific material

RIGID BODIES a basic requirement for the study of the mechanics of HOOKE’S LAW The law stating that the stress on a body is directly
proportional to the strain produced, provided the stress
deformable bodies and themechanics of fluids does not exceed the elastic limit of the material
It does not deform under load! ELASTIC LIMIT is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go
RIGID BODIES back to its original shape when the load is removed
4 FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES YIELD POINT is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
MASS elongation or yielding without any increase in load
ULTIMATE STRENGTH The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the
LENGTH ultimate strength or tensile strength.
TIME
An influence of the body producing or tending to produce a RUPTURE STRENGTH is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also
FORCE known as the breaking strength.
change in shape or movement
CHARACTERISTIC OF FORCE ELASTIC RANGE The region in stress- strain diagram from O to P is called?
A. MAGNITUDE Amount of force
PLASTIC RANGE The region in stress –strain diagram from P to R is called
B. DIRECTION Orientation of the Path where the force will be imposed. ?
SCALAR Is a physical quantity that can be described by a single MODULUS OF is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force
element of a number field such as a real number, of is gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3.
accompanied by units of measurement?
RESILIENCE
MODULUS OF is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force
VECTOR A quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
is gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3.
TOUGHNESS
KINDS OF LOADS
POINT LOAD concentratedly imposed at a point on a Free Body PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
Diagram A. ELASTICITY Property that enables deformity upon the force applied and
recovers after removing such force
UNIFORM LOADS Series of concentrated loads with uniform magnitude
B. DUCTILITY Property that enables the material to deform under tensile
Series of concentrated loads with varying magnitude load
VARYING LINE LOADS
C. MALLEABILITY The ability to deform under compressive stress or load
FORCE SYSTEM
FORCE SYSTEM is an arrangement of any two or more forces that act on a The ability to absorb energy before rupturing
body or on a group of related bodies.
D. TOUGHNESS
MODULUS OF It is the ratio between the unit stress and unit deformation
A. PARALLEL FORCES A set of forces having the same direction but do not caused by stress ; Derived by Hooke’s law
converge at a common point ELASTICITY OR
YOUNG’S MODULUS
B. COPLANAR A set of forces acting on a single plane
FORCES SHEAR MODULUS OF The ratio between shearing stress and the shearing strain.
ELASTICITY
C. CONCURRENT A set of forces having all its directions converge at a
common point
/ MODULUS OF
FORCES RIGIDITY, MODULUS
OF TORSION
RESULTANT FORCES Representative force of the cummulative effects of forces
POISSON’S RATIO Is the ratio of the transverse contraction strain to
longitudinal extension strain in the direction of stretching
force?
COMPONENT OF A Part of the Resultant force resolved at the direction of
the coordinate axes
FORCE STRAIN RATE EFFECT The behavior an increased rate of load application can
cause in normally ductile material

REACTION Reactive force developed by a body on which a force or

TEMPERATURE The brittle behavior low temperature can cause in a
system of force acts
normally ductile material
EFFECT
D. COUPLE FORCE A force system of 2 equal parallel forces acting in opposite
direction and tending to produce rotation , but not
translation TYPES OF INTERNAL FORCES
MOMENT Rotation of a Force at a point or an axis
AXIAL LOAD
MOMENT ARM Shortest distance of a force from the point or axis
 AXIAL FORCES Forces done along the longitudinal axis or the length of the
material
FREE-BODY DIAGRAM An isolated view of a body where all considered set of
force/s are shown.
 AXIAL STRESSES Stress that develops to resist axial force

EQUILIBRIUM is a state in which the resultant of the force system that

acts on a body vanishes.

SEISMOGRAPH It is an instrument at the ground surface which records the TYPES OF AXIAL LOAD
electrical effects transmitted to it by a seismometer and COMPRESSION Act of Shortening or State of Pushing Together
thus shows the times and amplitude of earth shocks
TENSION Act of Stretching or State of Pulling apart
CARBON What components of steel dictates its ductility?

CENTER OF GRAVITY OF PLANE AREAS SHEAR LOAD

CENTROID The center of mass of a geometric object of uniform  SHEAR FORCE Forces done perpendicular the longitudinal axis or the
length of the material
density. Center of gravity of a plane area
MOMENT OF INERTIA a quantity of a body’s tendency to resist angular
acceleration. It is the sum of the products of the mass of  SHEARING STRESS Stress that develops to resist shear force
each particle in the body with the square of its distance
from the axis of rotation
ECCENTRIC FORCE
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS  BENDING Force producing both tension and compression on to the
cross-section of the body.
STRENGTH OF Branch of Engineering that deals with the internal effects
MATERIALS
of forces on the body.
 TORSION Twisting effect on to the cross section

TYPES OF LOAD ELASTIC A temporary change in the shape the body produced by a
COMPRESSION stress less than the elastic limit of the material
DEFORMATION

CREEP Gradual permanent deformation produced by continuous

application of loads
TENSION ( STRETCHED) The time-dependent decrease in strength capacity in a
STRESS RELAXATION
constrained material

MATERIAL FAILURE
FATIGUE Failure to maintain elastic limit subjected to repeated
BENDING series of stress

MOMENT VS COUPLE VS TORQUE

TORQUE (moment, moment force) is the tendency of a force to
rotate around an axis
TORSION (TWISTED)
COUPLE is a pair of forces, equal in magnitude, oppositely directed,
and displaced by perpendicular distances

SHEARING
THEORY OF STRUCTURE
BEAM
BEAM is a bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane
STRESS It is the unit strength of element containing the longitudinal section of the bar.
 TEMPERATURE BAR It is a bar that is parallel to the longer side
TYPES OF BEAM SUPPORT MAXIMUM 500 MM What is the spacing of temperature bars?
ROLLER 10 MM DIAMETER What is the minimum diameter of steel bar for
temperature bar?
MAIN BAR It is a bar that is parallel to the shorter side
PIN CONNECTION MIN : 100 MM What is the minimum and maximum spacing of main
bar?
MAX : 450 MM
12 MM DIAMETER What is the minimum diameter of steel bar for main
FIXED SUPPORT bar?
What is the formula used in order to determine the number
of bars needed in 1 meter width of slab?
3 REACTION OF A BEAM
DETERMINATE Reaction = 3 ; are those beams in which the reactions of
the supports may be determined by the use of the B. TWO WAY SLAB Two way slabs are the slabs that are supported on four
equations of static equilibrium sides and the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is
less than 2. In two way slabs, load will be carried in both
INDETERMINATE Reaction > 3 (stable structure) ; If the number of reactions the directions ; is supported by beams in all four sides.
exerted upon a beam exceeds the number of equations in C. FLAT SLAB a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete
static equilibrium columns without the use of beams

UNSTABLE / DEGREE Reaction ≤ 2 ; is taken as the difference between the 1. INCREASE SHEAR What is the use of column head?
number of reactions to the number of equations in static STRENGTH OF THE
OF INDETERMINACY equilibrium that can be applied
SLAB
TYPES OF BEAM
A projecting beam supported at
2. REDUCE THE MOMENT
CANTILEVER BEAM OF THE SLAB
only one end fixed
1. INCREASE SHEAR What is the use of a drop panel ?
SIMPLE BEAM a beam resisting on simple STRENGTH OF THE SLAB
supports at both ends which 2. INCREASE NEGATIVE
are free to rotate and have no MOMENT CAP. OF THE
moment resistance
SLAB
OVERHANGING a simple beam extending 3. STIFFEN THE SLAB AND
beyond one of its Supports. REDUCE DEFELCTION
D. WAFFLE SLAB Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs are
PROPPED BEAM is a beam which is simply usually supported directly by columns.
supported at one end and fixed TRIVIA TIME!
at other end
In 1905, the American engineer C.A.P. Turner employed
concrete floor slabs without beams that used diagonal and
FIXED END BEAM a beam having both ends orthogonal patterns of reinforcing bars. Today, it is now
restrained against translation evolving by introducing plastic voids or bubbles in slabs.
and rotation This new technology drastically decreases the weight of
the slab and allows for 55 feet slab span between columns
The fixed ends transfer FLAT SLAB without beams. Slab weight. What is this slab?
bending stresses, increase the
rigidity of the beam and reduce
For Flat Slab construction, when additional loading is
its maximum deflection.
imposed on the slab, why is there a need to thicken the
section at the column?
CONTINUOUS BEAM a beam extending over more
than 2 supports in order to
develop greater rigidity and COLUMN
smaller moments than a series TYPES OF COLUMN
of simple beams having similar SHORT COLUMN A column is considered to be short when the ratio of its
spans and loading effective length to its least lateral dimension does not
exceed 12. ; L/r = < 12
DEFLECTION OF BEAM The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms
of its deflection from its original unloaded position LONG COLUMN If the ratio of the effective length to its least lateral
dimension exceeds 12
METHODS OF DETERMINING BEAM L/r > 12
DEFLECTION
EFFECTIVE LENGTH It is the distance between points of zero moment when the
DOUBLE – column is deflected in its fundamental elastic buckling
INTEGRATION OF COLUMN mode.
METHOD
AREA- MOMENT FOOTINGS
ISOLATED FOOTING are most commonly used
METHOD footings for Reinforced cement
STRAIN-ENERGY concrete Columns because it is
METHOD simple and most economical. ;
used to support a single
STRAIN-ENERGY column
METHOD COMBINED FOOTING When two columns are close
CONJUGATE-BEAM together, causing overlap of
adjacent isolated footings
METHOD
METHOD OF STRAP FOOTING is a type of combined footing,
SUPERPOSITION consisting of two or more
column footings connected by
a concrete beam.

SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAM MAT FOOTING Consists of one footing usually
placed under the building area;
used when soil bearing
capacity is low, column loads
are heavy and differential
settlement for single footings
are very large or much be
reduced
SHEAR DIAGRAM a graphic representation of the variation In magnitude of
the external shears present in structure for a given set of
transverse loads and support conditions concentrated TRUSS
loads produce external shears METHODS OF In this method, we will cut the truss into two sections by
 POSITIVE SHEAR A net resultant of shear forces that acts vertically upward
SECTIONS passing a cutting plane through the members whose
on the left part of the structure being considered internal forces we wish to determine.
PURLINS is any longitudinal, horizontal, structural member in a roof
 NEGATIVE SHEAR A net resultant of shear forces that act vertically downward
on the left part of the structure being considered SAG ROD A tension member used to limit the deflection of a girt or
purlin in the direction of its weak axis or to limit the sag in
MOMENT DIAGRAM a graphic representation of the variation In magnitude of angle bracing.
the bending moment present in a structure for a given set
of transverse load and support conditions. RAFTER A rafter is one of a series of sloped structural members
 POSITIVE MOMENT A bending moment that produces moment that produces a (beams) that extend from the ridge or hip to the wall plate,
concave curvature at a section of a structure
FINK TRUSS The Fink truss was designed by Albert Fink of Germany in
 NEGATIVE MOMENT A bending moment that produces moment that produces a the 1860s. The Appomattox High Bridge on the Norfolk
convex curvature at a section of a structure and Western Railroad included 21 Fink deck truss spans
from 1869 until their replacement in 1886.
INFLECTION POINT a point at which a structure changes curvature on convex
to concave or vise versa as it deflects under a transverse
load HOWE TRUSS The relatively rare Howe truss, patented in 1840 by
TRIVIA TIME! Massachusetts millwright William Howe, includes vertical
members and diagonals that slope up towards the center,
The flexural stress at the neutral surface of a beam
the opposite of the Pratt truss
structure is:
The main Bars for Cantilevered Slabs are Located at K TRUSS A truss in the form of a K due to the orientation of the
vertical member and two oblique members in each panel.
a slight convex curvature intentionally built into beam, An example is the Südbrücke rail bridge over the River
CAMBER OF BEAMS Rhine, Mainz, Germany
girder, or truss to compensate for an anticipated deflection

Note more types of trusses can be seen in the bldtech notes

SLAB
is supported on two opposite side only thus structural CONCRETE DESIGN
A. ONE WAY SLAB It is an artificial stone derived from a mixture of properly
action is only at one direction. CONCRETE
proportioned amount of hydraulic cement, fine aggregates,
What is the minimum thickness of a slab coarse aggregates and water, with or without admixtures.
75 MM
75 MM CLEAR If the slab is permanently exposed to the ground, what is Is a material other than water, aggregate or hydraulic
the minimum concrete cover? ADMIXTURE
cement used as an ingredient of concrete and added to
 concrete before and during its mixing to modify its 16 What are the available sizes of steel bars?
properties.
20
25
28
TYPES OF ADMIXTURE 32
A. ACCELERATOR an admixture which hasten the hardening rate and/or initial 36
setting time of concrete. 40
B. RETARDER an admixture which slows the setting rate of concrete. 50
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
SLUMP TEST is a measurement of concrete's workability, or fluidity. ; What is the formula of the factored load?
It's an indirect measurement of concrete consistency or FACTOR LOAD X LOAD
stiffness.
REDUCTION FACTOR X What is the formula of the ultimate capacity?
CHOICES OF SLUMP
SLUMP HEIGHT TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION NOMINAL CAPACITY
MAXIMUM MINIMUM REINFORCED FOUNDATION WALLS & FOOTINGS

75 25 PLAIN FOOTINGS, CAISONS AND SUBSTRUCTURE BEAMS

WALLS

75 25 BEAM & REINFORCED WALLS

100 25 BUILDING COLUMNS

100 25 PAVEMENTS & SLABS

75 25 MASS CONCRETE

APPARATUS USED FOR A SLUMP TEST

DIMENSION OF SLUMP MOLD:

TAMPING ROD made of round, straight BEAM ANALYSIS

steel 16 mm in diameter
and approximately 600 mm
in length,with the tamping
end rounded to a
hemispherical tip of 16 mm
diameter.
SHOVEL/ SCOOP &
RULER
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WATER CEMENT RATIO
AND
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
A. BALANCED Concrete & steel fails at the same time
Steel will fail before the concrete ; preferable ; you have
B. UNDER
time to evacuate
REINFORCED
C. OVER REINFORCED Concrete will fail before steel ; very dangerous
Stress for concrete
COMPRESSION
TENSION Stress for steel
TYPES OF REINFORCED BEAM
SINGLY REINFORCED is one in which the main reinforcement is provided only in
the tension zone and also here the ultimate bending
BEAM moment is less than the limiting bending moment
DOUBLY REINFORCED Beams are restricted by space or aesthetic requirements
to such extent the compression concrete should be
BEAM reinforced with steel to carry compression.

T-BEAM Reinforced concrete floor usually consist of slabs and

beams, which are placed or poured monolithically
SHEAR FAILURE What type of failure does a beam experienced?
SHEAR FAILURE are very dangerous especially if it happens before flexure
failure because they can occur without warning
DEVELOPED LENGTH

AGGREGATE DEVELOPED LENGTH is the embedment necessary to assure that the bar can be
It consist of natural sand, stone screening or other inert stressed to its yield point with some reserved to insure
FINE AGGREGATE member toughness
materials with similar characteristics or combinations
thereof, having hard
strong and durable particles CLEAR COVER OF CONCRETE
COURSE AGGREGATE It shall consist of crushed stone gravel, blast furnace slag MINIMUM COVER
or other approved inert materials of similar characteristics
75 MM Concrete cast in against & permanently exposed to earth
or combinations thereof , having hard,strong, durable
pieces and fee from any adherent coatings Concrete exposed to earth or weather :
LESS MORTAR PER Large nominal maximum sizes of well graded aggregates 1) 20 mm bar through 36 mm bar
have less voids than smaller sizes. Hence, concrete with
50 MM
UNIT VOLUME OF the larger-sizes well graded aggregates requires 40 MM 2) 16 mm bar , mw200 / md200 wire and
CONCRETE smaller
What is the economical size used for an aggregate? Concrete exposed to weather /in contact w/ground :
LARGER SIZE OF
a.) Slabs walls, joist:
AGGREGATE
What is the purpose of covering the concrete while curing? 40 MM 1.) 42 mm d &58 mm d bars
TO COUNTERACT THE
EVAPORATION 200MM 2.) 36 mm bars & smaller
WAYS OF CURING CONCRETE b.) Beam, columns

 PONDING 40 MM 1.) Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, spirals

 SPRINKLING c.) Shells, folded plate members

 SPRAYING 20 MM 1.) 20 mm d bar & larger

2.) 16 mm bar, mw200 or md200 wire & smaller
 WET BURLAP 12 MM
 WET EARTH COLUMN
 WET SAND 10 MM If you have a longitudinal bars with 32 mm or smaller what
is the size of your lateral ties / stirrups?
 SAW DUST 12 MM If you have a longitudinal bars with 36 mm or larger and for
 STRAW bundles longitudinal bars what is the size of your lateral
ties / stirrups?
15.5 C -37.5 C GIVES What is the moist curing at a temperature range of
25 MM What is the minimum spacing of a spiral ties?
concrete?
THE BEST RESULTS 75 MM What is the maximum spacing of a spiral ties?
REINFORCED CONCRETE
CLASSIFICATIONS BEAM VS COLUMN
Surface of which is provided with lugs or protrusions called BEAM Stirrups is for?
DEFORMED BAR
deformation COLUMN Ties is for?
PLAIN STEEL BAR Without surface deformations Shear/ flexural stress is for?
BEAM
GRADE COLUMN Axial stress is for?
GRADE 280 ( 40 ) BAR Are furnished only in sizes in 3- 6 ( 10 mm – 19 mm)
COMPRESSION Stressed experience in a concrete?
GRADE 520 ( 75) BARS Are furnished only in sizes through 18 ( 19mm through
TENSION STRESS Stress experience in a steel?
57mm)
N S C P
AVAILABLE LENGTH STEEL BARS Nscp stands for?
NATIONAL
5.00 STRUCTURAL CODE
6.00 OF THE PHILIPPINES
7.50 What are the available length of steel bars?
NATURE OF OCCUPANCY
9.00 ESSENTIAL FACILITIES occupancy having surgery & emergency areas
10.5 SPECIAL FACILITIES occupancy having educational facilities, institutionals
12.0 HAZARDOUS occupancies and structures housing / supporting toxic or
AVAILABLE SIZES STEEL BARS explosive substances
FACILITIES
10 STANDARD all structures housing occupancies
12 OCCUPANCY
 MISCELLANEOUS private garage, carports, sheds and fences over 1.5 m SIDEWAYS A lateral displacement
high produced in a rigid frame by
STRUCTURES lateral loads / asymmetrical
DEAD LOADS consist of the weight of all materials and fixed equipment vertical loading
incorporated into the building or other structure.
D. 3 HINGED FRAME A structural assembly of 2 rigid
LIVE LOADS those loads produced by the use and occupancy of the sections connected to each
building or other structure and do not include dead load, other and to its supports with
construction load, or environmental loads such as wind joints; least affected by support
load, earthquake load and fluid load. settlements and thermal
stresses; determinate
TYPES OF BUILDINGS A-FRAME A building constructed with a
A building having each wall at least 80 percent open. This steep triangular frame resting
BUILDING : OPEN directly on a foundation
condition is expressed for each wall by the equation Ao ≥
0.8 Ag

BUILDING : ENCLOSED is a building that docs not comply with the requirements for
open or partially enclosed buildings.
MULTISTORY FRAME
MULTISTORY FRAME A vertical frame having a
is a building that complies with both of the following continuous be a supported by
BUILDING : PARTIALLY a rigidly connected to 3 or
conditions:
ENCLOSED the total area of openings in a wall that receives positive more columns
external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of TRANSFER COLUMN A discontinuous column in a
openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls multi-storey frame, supported
and roof) by more than I 0%; at some indeterminate level
On a concrete pouring of Beams and Slabs, which should where it load is transferred to
BEAM FIRST adjacent column
be poured first with one day interval?

WALLS
TYPES OF WALLS
BEARING WALL Masonry or concrete wall that supports more than 2.90
kN/m of vertical load in addition to its own weight. TRANSFER GIRDER A girder supporting a transfer
column
Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more than 1.45
kN/m of vertical load in addition to its own weight.

EXTERIOR WALL any wall or element of a wall, or any member or group of

members, that defines the exterior boundaries or courts of
a building and that has a slope of 60 degrees or greater
with the horizontal plane. A rigid frame having a
MULTIBAY FRAME
continuous beam supported by
PARAPET WALL Part of any wall entirely above the roof line. and rigidly connected to 3 or
more columns
RETAINING WALL a wall designed to resist the lateral displacement of soil or A rigid frame of 2 columns and
other materials PORTAL / SINGLE BAY
beam defining a single bay
SHEAR WALL a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the place FRAME
of the wall

EARTHQUAKE LOADS
BUILDING, LOW RISE Mean roof height, h, less than or equal to 18m BENT A braced / rigid frame designed
Mean roof height, h, does not exceed least horizontal to carry a vertical and lateral
dimension loads transverse to the length
of a framed structure
BASE SHEAR Total design lateral force or shear at the base KNEE The junction of the top and
either of the uprights of a bent
P-DELTA The secondary effect on shears and moments of structural
members due to the action of the vertical loads induced by
horizontal displacement of the structure resulting from
various loading conditions.
VIERENDEEL TRUSS/ A framed beam structure
STORY DRIFT The horizontal deflection at the top of the story relative to having vertical web members
the bottom of the story GIRDER rigidly connected to parallel top
and bottom chords; not a tru
STORY DRIFT RATIO Is the story drift divided by the story height truss ; members are subject to
no axial bending forces
SOFT STORY in one which lateral stiffness is less than 70 percent of the
stiffness of the story above
STORY SHEAR is the summation of design lateral forces above the story
under consideration METHODS OF ANALYZING
WEAK STORY is one which the story strength is less than 80 percent of MULTISTORY FRAME
the story above
PORTAL METHOD A method of analysing a multi-
DIAPHRAGM A horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit storey frame as a cantilever
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements. The term dominated by shear racking. A
“diaphragm” includes horizontal bracing systems point of inflection occurs at the
mid- length of all members in
MOMENT RESISTING Is a frame in which members and joints are capable of the frame and that the frame
resisting forces primarily by flexure acts as a series of independent
FRAMES
portals to which the total lateral
LATERAL-FORCE Is that a part of the structural system designed to resist the shear at each level is
Design seismic forces distributed in proportion to the
RESISTING FRAMES
floor area each column
FRAMES supports
A skeletal structures of CANTILEVER METHOD A method for analysing a
frame multi-storey frame as a
relatively slender members
designed to give shape and cantilever subject to bending. It
support to a building or other assumes that a point of
construction inflection occurs at the mid-
TYPES OF FRAME: length of all members in the
frame, and that axial force in
A. BRACED FRAME a structural frame whose
each column of a story is
resistance to lateral forces is
proportional to is horizontal
provided by a diagonal / other
distance from the centroid of all
type of bracing
the columns on that level.
MOMENT A method for analysing
indeterminate structure through
a structural frame of linear DISTRIBUTION an iterative process f fixing a
B. RIGID FRAME/
members rigidly connected at METHOD rigid joint in space, determining
MOMENT their joints. Applied loads the fixed end moments at the
RESISTING FRAME produce axial, bending and joint, then the joint allows it to
shear forces in all members of rotate and studying the
the frames. ; indeterminate and transference of moment and
rigid rotation to other joints
FIXED FRAME A rigid frame connected to its
supports with fixed joint ;
resistant to deflection than a
hinged frame

C. HINGED FRAME A rigid frame connected to its

supports with a pin joints ;
allowing the frame to rotate as
a unit when strained by support
settlements and to flex slightly
when stressed by changes in
temperature
PLASTIC HINGE A virtual hinge that developed
when all fiber are fully yielded
at a cross section of a
structural member