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Definition/Classification of Fuels
• The fuels are substances which by oxidation / combustion with air, give off energy in the form
of heat or light in quantities, utilizable efficiently and economically in industries and domestic
processes.
• The heat may be produced either by combustion or by nuclear fission & fusion.
• The heat generated by the combustion of fuel is utilized either directly , or is converted into
mechanical or electrical energy.
• Those fuels which produced heat by the combustion (compounds of C & H2) are termed as
simply Fuels , whereas, those which release heat by fission or fusion are called Nuclear Fuels.
Classification:
• Depending upon the State of Occurrence, these are classified as solid, liquid or gaseous fuels.
• Fuels in each general division are further classified as Primary and Secondary fuels.
• Primary fuels are those which occur in nature. Viz. Wood, Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas etc.
• Secondary fuels are those which are derived from primary fuel. eg. Fuel oil & Kerosene (derived
from petroleum), Coke oven gas (derived from coal) etc. It is further classified into
manufactured and by-product fuels.
• Manufactured Fuels are those which are made for some specific purpose, eg. Coke (made for
iron making in BF route); gasoline (made for internal combustion engine); Producer gas( made
for industrial heating) etc.
• By-product Fuels are those which are a co-product / side product( unavoidable product) of a
regular manufacturing process, eg. Bagasse, tar, refinery gas etc. By- product fuels help
industries in conserving primary fuels.
• Chemical Fuels are of an exotic nature and normally not used in conventional process. Examples
are Hydrazine( a rocket fuel) ; ammonium nitrate, fluorine etc.
• Nuclear Fuels which release heat by fission (Neutron bombardment) are Uranium, Plutonium
etc., and those generating heat by fusion are deuterium and tritium( both are isotopes of
Hydrogen). In both the situation, the mass is converted into energy.
The fuels used in practice can be broadly classified as Solid, Liquid and Gaseous.
Table gives the classification of important fuels (excluding Chemical & Nuclear fuels)
Manufactured By-Products
Solid
i. Renewable; *Wood *Wood Charcoal *Wood refuse(Saw Dust)
ii. Non- *Coal *Semi Coke *Begasse
Renewable -Anthracite(A) *Coke *Waste materials from Grains ( Rice husk)
(Fossil) -Bituminous(B1 to *Briquette of coal *Coke Breeze
B8) *Pulverized Coal *Char(DRI Kiln)
-Lignite(L)
*Peat
Liquid
i. Renewable; Oil seed & Sugarcane *Vegetable Oil *Paper Pulp Mill waste
ii. Non- Petroleum or *Alcohol *Tar, Pitch, Benzol ( Coal to Coke)
Renewable Crude oil *Petrol, *Diesel
(Fossil) *Kerosene
Gaseous
i. Renewable; H2 in water Hydrogen *Sewage Gas
ii. Non- Natural gas(NG) & Producer Gas, *Blast Furnace Gas
Renewable(F Liquefied petroleum Water gas, *Coke oven Gas
ossil) gases Coal gas, Oil Gas, *Oil refinery Gas
Reformed NG, *LD converter gas
Acetylene, LPG
BF-BOF Coking coal, Met. Coke Diesel, --- BF Gas; Coke oven gas;
Non-coking coal Furnace Oil Producer gas
I) Moisture: The moisture (H2O) is present in every type of coal in varying amount (0.5wt.% to 20 wt.%). The
moisture present in the solid fuel is removed during use at the expense of its heating value. The moisture could be
present in, a) free (surface), b) adsorbed(inherent) or c) combined(chemical compound) state.
a) Free or surface moisture:- This kind of moisture is loosely present on the surface or in the pores of coal. This
moisture is derived from rain during storage, transportation and washing of coal. When water saturated coal is left
in air for sometime, the excess free water evaporates and the moisture content in the coal attains equilibrium
with the atmospheric humidity. The per cent weight loss of free water by air drying at room temperature is termed
as free or surface moisture.
Inherent Moisture:- The water molecules adsorbed on the external surface and internal open pore surface is
termed as inherent moisture. Its value would depend on porosity and atmospheric humidity.
• As the lower rank coals posses high porosity, therefore, the inherent moisture content would also be
more in lower rank coals compared to higher rank coals.
• The coal sample when heated to 110±5⁰C temp. for some time, then the absorbed (inherent) moisture
molecules are detached and get removed. This moisture in coal cannot be avoided. However, a lower
value would be appreciated.
Combined Moisture: Coal contains mineral matter which contains water molecules that are chemically attached.
Such chemically bonded water molecules do not evolve when the coal is heated at 110±5⁰C . This kind of moisture
can be removed only when the coal is heated at higher temperature. Such combined moisture forms the part of
volatile matter, and it is not determined separately.
• However, the presence of combined water in coal is not appreciated as it consumes some heat for its own
dissociation, rendering lower net calorific value of coal for use.
II) Volatile matter
• It is the part of coal which is evolved as volatile(gaseous) product when the coal is heated in the absence
of air.
• As the quantity of volatile product is dependent on temperature, time, surface area etc., therefore, a
specific procedure is adopted to make the result reproducible and comparable. The quantity of VM in coal
may range from 2wt% to 40wt%, while it is below 2wt% in coke and wood char.
The VM content plays an important role during its selection for a given application.
VM in coal, wt.% Type of Coal Application of coal
< 10 Anthracite Intense heat in coal bed for hand forging of steel
Alkalies(Na2O+K2O) 0-4
• These values are needed for selecting coal for given applications.
• It gives the specific values determined under standard test procedures. The various test specifications are
given in following sections:
Sample Preparation:- Coal and Coke are bulk materials. The analysis of a given batch of shipment or production
has to be monitored on regular basis. The size of batch could range from a few tons to hundreds of tons.
• Collecting a representative sample for proximate analysis becomes very important to increase the validity
of the test. There are standard sampling procedures which are strictly followed during sample preparation
amounting 1 kg(-72 mesh, i.e. -200um).This sample is stored in a glass bottle with proper labelling.
• Specification for the Test:-
The proximate analysis would need only a few grams of coal. Basically, sample amounting 100g is taken and
stored in a glass bottle after air drying for 24 hrs. This sample is utilized for the following tests:
Moisture test: A glass dish(50mm dia. and 10mm deep) with lid is used to determine moisture content. One gram
air dried coal sample is taken in the glass dish with lid and weighed in a chemical balance. After weighing, the coal
is made to spread by gentle tap in the dish to nearly 0.3g/cm2 for uniform evaluation of moisture. The sample is
exposed to 110± 5 ⁰C temperature for one hour in a oven without lid on the dish. The sample is cooled after
heating by keeping it in desiccators with lid in position to avoid atmospheric moisture adsorption. After cooling, the
sample is weighed, keeping the lid in position. The loss in weight is accounted for inherent moisture content.
Volatile matter test:- The specially designed silica crucible with lid is used to determine volatile matter content
in coal/coke. The deep crucible with lid allows heating the sample in the absence of air. The volatile matter can exit
through loose lid but air is unable to infiltrate in.
• One gram of sample is taken in the VM crucible and weighed with lid accurately in a chemical balance.
This VM crucible is then placed over a nichrome (80%Ni-20&Cr alloy) wire tripod to keep its bottom 5mm
above the floor inside the furnace.
• The crucible kept on tripod is heated in furnace at 925 ± 5 ⁰C for seven minutes. After that the crucible is
taken out, cooled in air with lid in position and then weighed to notice the loss in weight due to the
removal of volatile matter and inherent moisture.
• As the inherent moisture content can be known, the VM content can be estimated.
Ash determination:-
• Silica dish (50mmdia. and 10mmdeep) without lid is used for this purpose. One gram sample is taken and
weighed accurately in a chemical balance. The coal is spread over uniformly in the dish.
• This is then heated at 450 ⁰C for 30min in furnace to oxidize all the sulphur and part of carbon in coal.
Then crucible is transferred to another furnace at 800 ± 5 ⁰C to oxidize the sample for 60min. Samples
having low reactivity (e.g. graphite, petroleum coke, coke) may take time to complete the combustion.
• This two stage heating is done to remove all the sulphur and carbon without formation of CaSO4.
• If the coal is heated directly to high temperature, the sulphur may get fixed in ash as CaSO4 rendering
higher ash value.
• After ensuring the complete oxidation of carbon, the dish is cooled to weigh the residue ash.
Basis for reporting the results:-
The results of the test are reported based on the level of moisture in the sample like:
i) As received basis; ii)Air- dried basis; iii)Dry basis; iv)Dry ash free(DAF) basis, and
v)Dry mineral matter free basis or unit coal basis.
These different ways of reporting the test result are explained as follows:
i) As received basis:- The coal sample may have free moisture in as-received condition. This sample is weighed
and left in room spread in a tray for 48 hrs, to be weighed again. The weight percent lost is taken as free moisture
in as-received sample.
ii) Air-dried basis:- The air-dried sample is tested for moisture (M), volatile matter(VM),ash(A) and Fixed
Carbon(FC) and the results are reported as M%,VM%,A% and FC% without any subscript letter. The M% is
indicative of inherent moisture.
iii) Dry basis:- Utilizing the results reported under air dried basis, the VM, Ash and FC is calculated by excluding the
moisture content and reported by adding “dry” in subscript as:-
VM dry % = VM% / (100-M%) X100;
A dry % = A% / (100-M%) X100;
FC dry % = FC%/ (100-M%) X100;
iv) Dry ash free(daf) basis:- Sometimes coal analysis free from ash and moisture is needed. This is indicated by
adding “daf” in the subscript and calculate as:-
VMdaf % = VM% / [100-(M%+A%)] X 100;
FC daf % = FC% / [100-(M%+A%)] X 100;
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Storage and Applications of Coal
Storage of Coal:-
The storage of coal is common in plants producing steel, sponge iron, aluminium, power etc.
Aim of coal storage:- The coal storage is a necessity due to following reasons:-
i) To maintain a minimum inventory for uninterrupted production,
ii) To have surplus stock of coal to meet the unforeseen factors like closure of mining process, breakdown in the
means of transportation, weather problem etc.
iii)To blend coal from different source for meeting required specifications,
iv) Difficulties associated with import process from other nations with short notice.
Problems with coal storage:- coals cannot be stored in large quantities due to the following problems
associated with it:-
i) Storage of coal requires capital,
ii) It requires extra handling and land which add to cost,
iii) Prolonged coal storage causes it to deteriorate in quality due to slow oxidation ,
iv) In some cases, the open stored coal may catch fire by itself.
During storage coal is exposed to air, it is slowly oxidised. The temperature of the coal rises and oxidation is
accelerated. This results in a further temp rise and if the process is allowed to continue, ignition may occur in the
storage pile.
The increase in temp and the reaction with oxygen gradually impairs certain properties of coal.
(a) The heating value decreases;
(b) The coal tends to disintegrate; and
(c) Its coking quality is gradually reduced.
The spontaneous heating (oxidation) of coal depends on several factors:-
(a)Type of coal and its constituents:- All coals are not oxidised at the same rate. The rate of oxidation is usually
higher for coal with high content of natural or bed moisture, oxygen , VM or finally divided pyrites. The
characteristics rate of oxidation is generally low for high rank coals.
(b)Surface area available for oxidation:-Finer coals expose more surface to the air than lump coals and ,therefore,
might be expected to oxidise more rapidly.
The finer sizes, however, when stored alone, tends to form a fairly tight pile which packs well so that the air may
be largely excluded from the centre of the pile.
• A pile of lump coal contains a multitude of passage ways through which the air can penetrate readily. But
the surface exposed to the air is relatively small, and the heat is rapidly carried away by the air.
• The greatest danger of fire attends the storage of mixed fine and lump coal, such as run of mines. In such
a pile, there are passageways for circulating of air and the same time a large area of coal surface. Air tends
to enter a pile at the bottom and flow upward with chimney effect, particularly if heating occurs.
(c) The initial temp. of coal bed:- The rate of oxidation rises rapidly with increase in temp. Tests that at temp
between 30° and 100°C, the rate of oxidation of coal increases by a factor of about 2.2 for each 10°C rise in temp.
If coal is stored on a hot day, the entire mass will be at the increased temp, and the rate of oxidation will be
accelerated. When coal is already in storage, high atmospheric temp. are less important. Because, coal is black,
most of the heat rays from the Sun which impinge on the surface are absorbed but, because of low conductivity
of coal, the region of increased temp is confined largely to the outer layer. If coal is stored over steam lines, even
when they are covered or buried, small quantities of heat lost by conduction accumulate in the coal and speed up
oxidation.
(d) Moisture in the coal bed:- There is some evidence that alternate wetting and drying has increased the
tendency towards the oxidation of coals, but the effect of drying has not been definitely determined.
(e) External heat sources:-like steam pipe line, hot air duct or furnace.
VM 20-30 15-36
FC 79 Porosity 45%
3. Water Gas:
High temperature coke is needed for preparing water gas(CO+H2) by passing steam through a hot bed of coke.
The important property desired by coke is its high reactivity. The low coke strength(CSR %) for high CRI(%)(more
than 30) is not harmful as the coke bed remains static and bed height is also less. The high ash in coke is also not
harmful as it is discarded at the end. The VM in coke must be less than 7% as it will need gas cleaning to use the
product gas.