Lecture Notes

Traffic Engineering
(Course Code: CEL 761)

Department of Civil Engineering

Career Point University, Hamirpur
 CHAPTER 1
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 Traffic engineering is a comparatively new branch of engineering.
 It has grown with increase in traffic in recent years.
 As vehicular traffic increased, there was a problem of congestion on streets.
 It began to hamper the safe and efficient movement of traffic.
 More accidents were caused.
 There is a problem of parking.
 There is a problem of environmental pollution.
 There is necessity to give attention to the operational characteristics of
highway transportation.
Thus, there is a need to study;
1. Better geometric design;
2. Better capacity
3. Better intersections
4. Better traffic regulation
5. Better signals
6. Traffic Signs
7. Roadway marking
8. Parking facilities
9. Bus Stand/Truck parkings
10. Street Lighting

The above needs are met by the services of traffic engineer.

“The traffic engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with the planning
and geometric design of roads, streets and highway and with traffic operation
thereon, as their use is related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation
of persons and goods.
Highway engineering and traffic engineering are related subjects.

Functions of Traffic Engineer

1. Collection, Analysis and Interpretation of data pertaining to traffic.
 Origin and destination survey
 Volume counts
 Speed, travel time and delay measurement
 Accident statistics
 Parking Characteristics
 Pedestrian behaviour and use of streets
 Capacity studies.
 Economic loss caused due to inferior traffic facilities.
The data collected is analysed and interpreted

2. Traffic and Transportation Planning

 To prepare plan to ensure safe, orderly and fully integrated transportation
system
 Mathematical models are used to predict how a system will behave under a
given set of conditions.
3. Traffic Design
 It is concerned with geometric design of highway and streets;
 Intersection design
 Grade separated inter changes
 Design of off street and on street parking
 Design of terminal facilities for trucks and buses
4. Measures for operation of traffic
 Legislation and enforcement measures for regulating driver, vehicle and
road users.
 Management measures such as one way streets, prohibited turning, exclusive
bus lanes etc.
 Measures for regulation of parking
 Traffic Control devices such as traffic signs, signals, markings.

5. Administration
To organize and administer the various programmes intended to secure,
safe and efficient traffic in towns and cities.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

IN A CITY

Mayor
City Council

PWD Traffic Engg. Police Safety Other

Deptt. Deptt. Deptt. Deptt.

City Traffic Engineer

Design Planning Research Survey Analysis Sign

& Studies & Report Markings
Co-operative
Activities

Signals Co-operative
 Activities

Field Crew Drafting and Design Field Crews

Road user and Vehicle

 Traffic Engineer has to design and operate the traffic facilities.
 These facilities are used by
Motorists
Cyclists
Pedestrians
 Proper understanding of behaviour of road user and vehicle characteristics is
necessary.

Human Factors Governing Road User Behaviour

 Human body is a complex system
 It exhibits reaction to external stimuli
 Human behaviour having a bearing on traffic can be considered under two
groups:-
(a) Physiological group – vision and hearing
(b) Psychological Group -Perception
(PIEV) -interception
- Emotion
-volition
VISION- AN IMPORTANT FACTOR
Human eye is a sensory organ
It enables us to see and evaluate the size, shape and colour of objects.
 The image formed on retina is transmitted to brain.
 The zone of acute vision is formed by a cone whose angle is 3o about the centre
of the retina.
 Peripheral vision deals with the total visual field for the two eyes.
 The angle of peripheral vision is about 160o in horizontal direction and 115o in
vertical direction.
 Colour vision is important for discerning traffic lights and colour schemes in
traffic signs.
 Ability of the driver eye to adapt to glare is an important factor.

Hearing
 It is an aid to road user.
 Sound of horn can alert a pedestrian to safety.
 Elderly person can perceive better through hearing.

Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition (PIEV)

 An important psychological characteristic.
 The time taken for perception, intellection, emotion and volition is called PIEV
time.
 Perception-Process of perceiving the sensation received
 Intellection-identification of the stimuli by developing new thoughts and ideas.
 Emotion-Personal trait of individual that govern decision making.
 Volition-will to reach to a situation.
 CHAPTER-2

Power Performance of Vehicles

Knowledge of power performance of vehicle is necessary to:

 Determine the vehicle running cost
 Design geometric elements like grades

Resistance to motion of a vehicle

Power developed by the engine (Pb) should be sufficient to overcome all resistance
to motion at the desired sped and to accelerate at any desired rate.

Following forces have to be overcome fro this purpose.

1. Rolling resistance (pf)
2. Air resistance (Pa)
3. Grade resistance (Pi)
4. Inertia forces during acceleration and deceleration (Pj)
5. Transmission losses

1. Rolling resistance (Pf)

When the wheels roll over the road surface, the deformation of tyres is
caused;
 Irregularities of surface
 Roughness of surface
Shocks and impacts are caused by such a motion.
These hinder rolling motion of the wheels.

Rolling resistance varies with the type of surfacing.

Values of co-efficient of rolling resistance (f)

(a) Cement concrete and asphalt surfacing 0-01 to 0.02
(b) Road with smooth chippings treated with bitumen
Binders 0.02 to 0.025
(c ) Gravel surfacing not treated with binders 0.03 to 0.04
(d) Cobble stone pavement 0.04 to 0.05
(e) Earth road, smooth dry and compact 0.03 to 0.06

Rolling resistance (Pf) = mfg (Newton’s)

m= mass of vehicle in kg
f= co-eff of rolling resistance, g=acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
Rolling resistance depends on ;
*Speed of vehicle
Its value is approx. constant upto 50km pH
At higher values of speed, the co-eff increase in value
Fv = f0 (1+0.01 (V-50)
Fv= co-eff at speed V
V= speed in kmph
fo= co.eff of rolling resistance up to 50 KPH

2. Air Resistance
o Vehicle is resisted by air when in motion.
o Air has a density, it exerts pressure against the front of vehicle.
o Friction of air against the sides of vehicle body
o Eddying of the air stream behind the vehicle.
o Flow of Air through vehicle for ventilation.

Air Resistance (Pa) = Ca. A.v2 Newtons.

A= projected front area of vehicle in sqm
V=speed of vehicle relative to air m/sec
Ca=co-eff of air resistance
G=acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/sec2

This value can be taken from Standard tables.

3. Grade Resistance
 When a vehicle has to climb a grade, additional work has to be done by
vehicle.
 It is equal to the work that will be needed to left the vehicle through height
represented by inclination.
 It slope is ‘i’ percent, the rise if i/100 m
 If mass of vehicle is ‘m’ kg, additional force is equal to ± Pi = m.i.g/100

4. Inertia force acceleration and deceleration

Force – ma
± Pj = ma – m. dv/dt
Pj = Force to accelerate (N)
M= Mass of vehicle, kg
a= average acceleration m/sec2
5. Transmission Losses
 Losses in power occur due to mode of power transmission from engine to
gear system and in the gear itself.
 The total effect is to consume about 10-15% of engine power.
 This can be as high as 25% in trucks.

Power Requirements of a vehicle

The torque developed at the flywheel of engine is converted to a torque at
the rear axle.
Rear Axle Torque Ta= k TcGtGa
k= = co-eff of transmission ( 0.85 to 0.90)
Tc= engine torque at fly wheel
Gt= Transmission gear ratio.
Ga= rear axle gear ratio

6. Rear Axle Torque imparts a tractive force pp at the contact of the wheel
and road.

Rear Axle Torque

Tractive force or Tyre rim pull (pp)=
Radius of rolling torque
=kTcGeGa/rw

rw is related to radius of tyre ro

rw=  ro
tyre deformation factor (0.945 to 0.95 for high pressure tyres)

Power output at a speed of um/sec =Pp v

V  100 v
But v=  m / sec (i)
3600 3.6

Where V= speed in kmph

Pp  V
Power output = (ii)
3.6

2rwn
Also v= (when n is engine speeds in RPM) (iii)
60Gt Ga

Substituting eq (iii) in Eq (i)

V 2rwn 0.377rwn
 = (iv)
3.6 60Gt Ga Gt Ga

Substituting equation (iv) is equation (ii)

Pv  0.377 rwn
Power output =
Gt Ga
Pv  0.377 rw  n
=
Gt Ga k
K= transmission efficiency

Pp =Pf +Pa +P1 + Pj

Other vehicles characteristics

1. Dimension and weight
2. Turning capability
3. Braking system
4 Acceleration and deceleration
5. Vehicle lightning system
6. Features of the vehicle body
7. Tires
 CHAPTER-3

SPEED, JOURNEY TIME AND DELAY SURVEYS

1. Speed is rate of movement of vehicle

2. It is expressed in KPH

Types of Speed

Spot Speed Instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.

Length of the course
Running Speed =
Running Time
Length of the course
=
Journey Time - Delay

Journey Speed is over all travel speed

Distance
=
Total Journey Time including delay

Time mean speed is the average of a number of spot speed measurements

Space mean speed – It is the average of speed measurement at an instant of time

over a space.

What is use of speed, journey time and delay studies?

Spot Speeds
 For geometric design of roads
 For regulation and control of traffic operations
 For analyzing the cause of accidents
 For before and after studies of road improvement schemes.
 For determining the problem of congestion on roads and relating capacity
with speeds.

Journey Speeds of Delays

 Cost of journey depends on speed.

 To evaluate congestion, capacity, level of service and need for improvement
 For trip assignment
 For assessing effectiveness of improvement measures.
 Delay studies at intersections provide data for design and installation of
appropriate traffic control device.

Method of measuring spot speeds

1. Observation of time taken by vehicle to cover a known distance.
2. Radar speedometer
3. Photographic method

Type of Observation of Time Method

Long base method- Long distance
Short base method- Short distance
1. Direct tenancy procedure
2. Enoscope
3. Pressure contact tubes

General Considerations for selecting site of survey

1. The location at which measurements are taken is governed by the
specific purpose for which data in required.
Example:- high accident frequency location.
2. The influence of study team and equipment should be minimum.
3. Generally straight, level and open sections of highways should
be selected.
Recommended base length for spot speed

Average speed Base length

Less than 40 kmph 27m
40 – 60 54m
˃65 81m

Direct Timing Procedure for spot speed

1. One of the simplest methods
2. Two reference points are marked on pavement at suitable distance.
3. An observer starts and stops an accurate stopwatch as the
vehicle crosses these two marks.
. 4. From the distance and measured time, the speed can be calculated.
5. Large errors are likely to be introduced because of parallax
effect.
6. A simple variation of this is to station two observers, one at each
reference point.
 7. Disadvantage with this method is that it involves reaction time of
two individual observers.
Enoscope
1. It elimination the parallax effect
2. It is also known as Mirror box
3. It is an L-shaded box open at both ends with mirror at 450
angle to the arms of the instrument
4. It bends the line of light of the observer method
5. It can be used with one or two enoscopes

Pressure contact tubes

1. In this detectors (pneumatic tubes) are used to indicate the time
of entering are leaving the base length
2. When a vehicle passes over the tube, an air impulse is sent which
activates automatically controlled stopwatch
3. When the vehicle passes over second point, the stopwatch
automatically stops.
4. Disadvantage is that the contact tubes are easily seen by drivers
and may affect their behavior

Short base method for spot speed

1. The base length in very short - 2m
2. The instrument are electronic and are used on conjuction with
pneumatic tubes or electronic detectors

Rader speed meters

1. These meters work on Doppler principle
2. The speed of a moving body changes in proportional to the changes in
the frequency between the radio waves transmitted to moviny body and radio
waves received back
3. It directly measures the spot speed
4. The instrument is battery operated and portable
5. The instrument is set at a height of 1.0 m above GL
6. The speed of vehicle in both directions can be measured

Photographic Method
1. Time lapse camera photography is used to determine the speed
of vehicles in crowded streets
2. Photographs are taken at fixed intervals on special camera
3. We can trace the vehicle’s passage with reference to time
Method of measuring Running Speed
1. Moving observer Method
2. Registration Number Method
3. Elevated Observer Method

Moving Observer Method –General Procedure

 The speed and flow can be obtained by traveling in a car against and with
the flow and noting down;
 The journey time
 No. of vehicles met from opposite direction
 No. of vehicles overtaking.

Detailed Field Procedure

 A small, preferable even No. of test cars are required.
 Each carrying a driver and 3 observers.
 One observer counts opposite traffic
 Another observer carries a recording board on which a watch is mounted.
 It carries a journey log prepared in advance, on which the observer records
the totals from the hand tallies.
 Two stop watches are required.
 Third observer records the number of overtaking and overtaken vehicles.
 The method is well suited to study speeds along different roads in an area.
 The route is divided into convenient sections 0.76 to 1.5 km in length.

Advantages of the Method

 It gives an unbiased estimate of the flow.
 It is economical to manpower
 It enables data on speed and flow to be collected.
 It gives mean values of flow and speed over a section
 It gives additional information on stops at intersections, delays, parked
vehicles.

Registration No. Method

 Observers are stationed at the ends of measuring section 0.50 to 1.0 km.
 Time and registration No. of vehicles entering and leaving the section are
noted using synchronized watches.
  By matching the registration No. later, journey time and speed can be
determined.
 If the traffic is too heavy, some method of sampling can be adopted.
 Vehicle classification can also be noted.
 Two observers are employed for each direction of travel, one for noting
down Registration No. and other for recording time.

Advantages
1. No. sophisticated instruments are required
2. It is suitable for rural highway sections.

Limitations
 The analysis is laborious and time consuming
 It can only be used on highway having no intersection.
 It yields no data on delays

Elevated Observer Method

 The observers are stationed on the top of an elevated building.
 They select vehicles at random and follow their course along the road,
noting time of entering the section, duration and nature of delays and time of
leaving.
 Test section has to be short.

Presentation of Travel Time and Journey Speed Data

 Journey speed and running speed can be represented in a graphical form.
 The time taken for journey to various points from common point can be
depicted in time zone map.
 In this map, time taken is shown in the form of contours and it is known as
Isochrones.

Delay Studies
 Delay studies along routes are best done by moving observer method.
 Delays occurring due to stopping can be conveniently recorded by a separate
stop watch
 Special watches can accumulate delay time.
 In addition to stopped delays, there can be delays caused by the intersection
of various factors such as congestion, inadequacy of carriage widths, parked
cars and heavy pedestrians-This is called congestion delay or operational
delay.
 One method of measuring congestion delay is to determine the average
running speed, when traffic conditions are free moving.
 The difference between this speed and actual speed under congested
conditions gives an idea of congestion delay.
 CHAPTER 4

VEHICLE VOLUME COUNTS STUDY

1. Need for Vehicle Volume Counts

 Volume of traffic-one of fundamental measured of traffic.
 It is also called traffic flow.
 Expressed as vehicle per hour or vehicles per day.
 Traffic flow is converted into equivalent passenger car units.
 Vehicle volume is necessary to understand the efficiency at which system is
working presently.
 It is also necessary to know the quality of service offered to road users.
 By knowing the volume are can assess whether a particular section of road is
handling traffic much above or below its capacity.
 Volume counts are indicators of the need to improve the transport facilities.
 It is an invaluable tool in the hands of transport planner.
 It enables the planner to draw of schemes for improvement.
 If traffic flow is available for number of years the rate of growth can be
determined.
 Traffic regulator and control systems are designed on the basis of accurate
flow data.
 It is also required to evaluate the financial viability of roads.

2. Types of Counts
2.1 Levels of Measurement of Flow
There are 3 common levels of measurement of traffic flow.
(a) Average annual flow- vehicles /year
(b) Annual average daily traffic (AADT)- vehicle per day
(c) Hourly flow- vehicles per hour

Average Annual Flow- it is used estimating the total travel on a road system.
 It help in determining the gross annual resources.

AADT-It is utilized in design of geometric standards.

Also used for improvement of existing facilities.
Hourly flow is required to design traffic control system.

Short Term Counts and Long Term Counts

 Duration of count depends upon the purpose of study.
 Counts can be for a short term, say an hour or for a full day.
 Counts can be continuous and regular affair.

Methods Available for Traffic Counts

1. Manual methods
2. Combination of manual and mechanical methods
3. Automatic methods
4. Moving Observer method
5. Photographic methods.

Manual Methods
1. Details of vehicles classification & No of occupants can be obtained.
2. Data can be collected giving breakdown of traffic in each direction.
3. Specific vehicular movements such as left turn, right turn etc can be noted.
4. They can record unusual conditions obtained at the time of count. It can
be:
* Weather conditions
* Break Down
* Temporary Closure of any lane.
5. It is a cheaper method
6. Date if easy to analyze
7. Suitable for short term and non-continuous counts

Advantages of Automatic Devices

 Only alternative for continuous record of traffic.
 Useful for counts in remote areas.
 Yield data which is amenable to computer analysis
 Equipments are now available in India.

1. Manual Methods
No. of observers
It depend upon the lanes in highways and type of information desired.
Double two way road- one separate observer for each direction.
500 vehicles per hour in one direction.

Equipment Needed
 A watch
 Pencil, eraser and pencil sharpener.
 Clip Board
  IRC has prescribed the field data sheet.
 This form can be used upto 4 hours.
 Data for a period of one week is recommended

3. Combination of Manual and Mechanical Methods

 An example of this is multiple pen-recorder.
 A chart moves continuously at the speed of clock.
 Different pen record the occurrence of different events on the chart.
 The actuation of event recorder pen is by pressing the electric switch.
Advantages
 A permanent record is kept for each class of vehicle.
 Additional information can become available.
 This process is time consuming.
3. Automatic Devices
(a) Sensor or Detectors
Pneumatic Tube
Electric contact
Coaxial cable
Photo electric devices
Radar
Infrared and ultrasonic sensors
Magnetic Sensors
(b) Recording Mechanism
Counting register-accumulating counter
Printed output
Electronic system

4. Video photography
It can give a permanent record of volume.
Analysis can be done in office
 Chapter 5
Origin Destination survey (O-D Survey)

O-D Survey is necessary to know:-

o How many trips are made?
o To group these trips with reference to zones of their origin and
destination
o Land use pattern of zone
o Household characteristics of the trip making family
o Time of day, when journey is made
o Purpose of trip
Origin- is the place from where the trip begins.
Destination- the place where the trip ends.

Specified uses of O-D Survey

 To determine the amount of by passable traffic that enter a town.
 To develop trip generation and destination models.
 To determine the extent to which the present highway is adequate and to
plan for new facilities.
 To assess the adequacy of parking facilities.

Preliminaries
 Define the study area and subdivide it into sub-zones
 Origin and destination survey can be related to these zones.
 To study transportation problem of towns, it is necessary to define external
cordon lines.
 Cordon lines are imaginary lines at the boundary of study area.
 In big towns, it is necessary to select some internal cordon lines, which may
be concentric rings.
 To check the accuracy of survey, it is necessary to have screen lines, which
are imaginary lines dividing the area into parts.

Survey Methods
1. Home interview survey
(a) Full interview technique
(b) Home questionnaire technique
2. Road side interview survey
3. Post card questionnaire survey
4. Registration No. plate survey
5. Tags on vehicles
 Usually it is adequate to carry out only an external cordon O-D survey in a
town with population less than 5000
 External –internal cordon survey are appropriate for town with population
5000-75000
 External cordon is selected at the edge of urban development and internal is
located at the limits of central business district.
 For large cities, with population more than 75000 most effective method is
to combine external cordon survey with home interview survey.

Checking the Accuracy of O-D Survey Data

 Data obtained from home interview survey is usually cross checked with
data obtained from screen line and cordon counts.

Presentation of Results
 The survey yields a vast amount of data.
 It is to be presented in the form of tables or pictorial form.
 Most convenient form is O-D matrix, in which origin zone and destination
zones are presented.
 Horizontal axis of matrix represents the destination zones.
 Vertical axis of matrix represents the origin zones.
 Zones may further be divided into internal and external zones.
 No. of trips are entered in the cells of matrix.
 Most popular pictorial representation is by means of desire line chart.
 In this the trips between any pair of zones are represented by a straight line
connecting the centroid of two zones and having a band width drawn to a
suitable scale to present actual volume of traffic.

√
 Chapter6
Parking Studies

 Parking is one of the major problems of urban areas.

 It is created by increased traffic.
 It has an impact on transport development.
 Less space is available in urban areas for parking.
 This affects the mode choice also.
 It is has a great economic impact.

Data required for Parking Studies

 Availability of parking space

 Extent of its usage.
 Parking demand
 To estimate the parking fares

Parking Statistics
Parking Accumulation
 It is the No. of vehicle parked at a given duration of time.
 This is expressed by accumulation curve
 Accumulation curve is the graph obtained by plotting No. of bays occupied
with respect of time

Parking Volume
Total No. of vehicles parked in a given duration of time .

Parking Load
It gives area under the accumulation curve.
It is obtained by simply multiplying the No. of vehicle occupying parking area
with the time interval.

It is expressed in vehicle hours.

Average Parking Duration

Total vehicle hours
=
No.of vehicles parked
Parking Turnover
= No. of vehicles parked in a duration
No. of parking bays available
Expressed as No. of vehicles per bay per time duration.

Parking Index
 Also called occupancy or efficiency
 It is ratio of No. of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space
available.
 It gives an aggregate measure of how effectively the parking space is
utilized.
 Parking Index = Parking Load
Parking Capacity
Parking Surveys

Conducted to collect parking statistics

The most common surveys are:-

 Inout survey
 Fixed period survey
 License plate survey

1. In-out Survey
 In this occupancy count is selected
 Parking lot is taken in the beginning
 No. of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time
interval is counted.
 No. of vehicles that leave parking lot is also taken
 Only one person can conduct the survey.
 We count get any data regarding duration.

2. Fixed Period Sampling

 Similar to in-out survey
 All vehicles are counted at the beginning of survey.
 After a fixed interval, the count is again taken.
  There are chances of missing the No. of vehicles that were parked
for a short duration.

3. License plate Method

 Most accurate and realistic data.
 Every parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval of 15min
or so and license plate No. is noted down.
 This will give the data regarding duration.
 It help in calculating the fare.
 It is labour intensive.

Ill Effects of Parking

 Congestion
 Accidents
 Environmental pollution
 Obstruction to fire fighting operations

Parking Requirements
 For residential plot areas of less than 300m2
 Minimum one-fourth of open area is reserved for parking.
 Offices- one space for every 70m2 as parking area
 One parking space = 10 seats in restaurant
= 20 seats in a cinema

On street parking
 It means vehicles are parked on the sides of street itself
 It is controlled by Govt. agencies.
 Classification is based on the angle in which vehicle are parked
w.r.t. road alignment.
 As per IRC standard dimension of car is 5×2.5m and for truck is
3.75×7.5m

(a) Parallel Parking

 Vehicles are parked along with the length of road.
  Most safest parking
 It consumes max. curve length
 Only minimum No. of vehicles can be parked.
 It produces fewer obstructions.
 Length available to park ‘N’ No. of vehicles

L= N/5.9
(b) 30o Parking
 Vehicles are parked at 30o w.r.t. road.
 More vehicles can be parked
 Better maneuverability
 Delay to traffic is minimum
L=0.58 +5N
(c) 45oC parking
 More No. of vehicles can be parked.
 L= 3.54N+1.77
(d) 60o Parking
 More No. of vehicles can be parked.
 L= 2.89N+2.16
(e) Right angle parking
 Vehicles are parked at 90o to roads
 It consumes max. width of curb
 It need complex maneuvering
 It may cause severe accidents
 L=2.5N
 It can accommodate max. number of vehicles.

Off Street Parking

 Some areas are exclusively allotted for parking.
 It may be operated by public or private firms.
 Chapter 7

Use of Photographic Techniques in Traffic Survey

Different Methods of photography in traffic studies

 Continuous stereoscopic strip photography from moving planes.
 Stereo camera photos from stationary object
 Conventional air photography from airplanes.
 Time lapse photography from aeroplanes or balloons.
 Time lapse photography from fixed position on the ground.

Advantages of Photographic Methods

 They present more accurate data.
 Use limited manpower
 Provide permanent records of traffic conditions
 Driver’s behaviour is unaffected by study.
 They obviate much of the tedium of manual count and data
collection.
 They afford opportunity for inter-relationship between various
traffic parameters.

Disadvantages
1. These surveys are expensive.
2. Analysis of the film is complicated and time consuming.

1. Conventional Photography
 Photographs can be taken from moving aircraft or from a
stationery platform.
 Ordinary camera format is 230×230 mm
Or 70×70mm
 A 60% fore and after overlap and 25% lateral overlap is more
common.
 A study of car parking by conventional photograph is very
convenient.
2. Continuous strip photography
 This method utilizers stereoscopic photography
 In this two continuously overlapping strips of photographs are
produced.
 Usually a double lens is used.
 To provide stereoscopic effect, the lenses are inclined.
 It is possible to determine parameters such as speed, volume,
lateral spacing, headway, parking characteristics etc.

3. Time Lapse Photography

 Photographs taken at continuous interval of time lapse provide a
record of continuous changes or development in a system.
 Road traffic which consist of a sequence of events spread over
time can be studied by this technique.
 A photographic film can continuously record the entire sequence
of events.
 Films taken at a lapse of every second are generally sufficient.
 Each individual film taken at this interval of one second is called a
frame.
 Each frame then represents the true traffic conditions at particular
instant, it was exposed.
 Position of different vehicle is pictorially represented in the frame.
 Successive frames will contain different positions of the same
vehicles.
 A comparison of these will yield traffic data desired.

Equipments Required
1. A cine camera
2. A time device
3. A cine projector

Analysis
V
Traffic Volume =  3600 vehicles/ hour
(n - m)t
 V= total of vehicles
m, n=frames taken at ‘t’ interval.

Concentration of vehicles
 It can be measured by counting the number of vehicles in a chosen
length say 180m
 No. of vehicles is counted on each series frame of series and
mean value is found out.

Speed- If the vehicles passes the end points of section in frame m and
n the time taken to travel = (m-n)t
Speed = (m  n)t m / sec
d
d = length of section
Time gap = (m-n)t sec.
 CHAPTER 8

SPEED STUDIES

Spot speeds measured at any particular location will depend on:

 Geometric layout of road
 Volume of traffic
 Composition of Traffic
 Condition of road
 Environmental Influence
 Human element

 The speeds measured show a considerable amount of scatter.

 Mathematical analysis of observed data makes it possible to understand
speed characteristics.

Grouping of Spot Speeds Data

 To facilitate easy computation, speed data is grouped with speed class
intervals and a frequency distribution table is constructed.

Speed Class Mid Point No. of Frequency Communicative

Limits Speed Vehicles Frequencies
26-29.9 28 9 2.5% 2.5
30-33.9 32 74 20.4% 22.9
34-37.9 36 79 21.7% 44.6

Histogram and Cumulative Frequency Curves

Histograms
 Horizontal axis represents the speed class limits
 Vertical axis represents the percentage frequency
 Histogram shows that speeds of vehicles, tend to cluster about the mean
value.
 The frequency drops on speeds depart from the mean
Cumulative Frequency
 It can be plotted against upper limits of speed class.
 It gives the cumulative frequency distribution curve.
 It is of great use in determining the percentile speed
  Percentile speed is the speed below which a specified percentage of vehicles
are traveling.
 98th Percentile speed – The speed below which 98% of all vehicles travel.
 It is used as design speed in geometric design
 Sometimes 95th percentile is used.
 95th Percentile – The speed below which 95% of all vehicles travel.
 It is used for determining the speed limits for traffic regulations

50th Percentile speed or median speed

It is speed at which these are as many vehicles going faster as these are
going slower.
15th Percentile Speed
The speed below which 15% of all vehicles travel.
It is used to determine the lower limit of speed on major highways.
Arithmetic mean and standard Deviation
Arithmetic mean – it is the average of observed speed
x
 xi fi
 fi
x = AM
xi = midpoint speed of group i
fi = No. of speed observations in group ‘i’

General Trends in Speed Data

 Speed is governed by number of factors
 Some of which also determine the level of service under which the highway
operates.
Speed Trends
 There is an increase in speed of all types of vehicles.
 Congestion has been increasing in cities.
 Speeds in urban areas have been decreasing.

Why free speeds of vehicles on Indian Roads are lower?

Various possible reasons are;
1. Drivers are conscious of the danger from pedestrians and animals.
2. High fuel consumption at high speed.
3. Poor condition of shoulders.
4. Lower standards of driving discipline
5. Lower H.P. of passenger cars and commercial vehicles.
6. Heavy over loading of trucks and buses
7. High occupancy rate of cars and buses
8. Low horse power of scooters
 Free speeds of different types of vehicles follow a normal distribution.
 The co-eff of variation is in the range of 0.15 to 0.20.
 Free speeds at night are lower significantly than free speeds under day light
conditions.
 Free speeds on wet surfaces are significantly lower than those on dry
surfaces.
 Raining conditions reduce the free speeds.

Time Mean Speed

The mean speed of vehicles over a period of time at a point in space is
called time mean speed
Space mean speed
The mean speed over a space at a given instant is called space mean speed.
 Time mean speed is never less than space mean speed.

c qi vi
Time mean speed ν t  
i 1 Q
c ki vi
Space mean speed  s  
i 1 K

 
2
v v  s
v
t s
s
c 1 2
     v  v1 
i  1c 
s 1 e

= Std Deviation of space means speeds

 Chapter 9
Traffic Forecasting
 Transport is the catalyst for all round development of a nation.
 It is one of basic infrastructures.
 When capital is scarce and has competing demands, investment in a
transport sector have be planned carefully.
 This underlines the need for estimating the future traffic accurately.
 Accurate estimate of future traffic will influence the engineering design and
economic decision.
Limitation of Traffic Forecasting
 Forecasting can at best be approximate.
 It is generated as a result of the interplay of a number contributory factors
 Future pattern of population, GDP, vehicle ownership, agricultural output,
free can be estimated with only a limited degree of accuracy.
 It cannot be done very precisely.

Type of Traffic
1. Current Traffic – existing and attracted
 This is the volume of traffic that would use an improved highway, if it were
open to traffic.
2. Traffic Increase
It includes;
 Normal growth of traffic – general increase in NOs.
 Diverted traffic
 Induced traffic-new traffic because of new travelers
 Development traffic-due to improvement on adjacent level.

Forecasts based on Past Trends and Extrapolation

 Simplest method
 Analyse th e past data and use past trends
 It is assumed that conditions will continue to change in future at the same
rate as in the past.

BUPKn = 29.31 (1.100)n

BUPKn = Bus Passenger –km in billions at the end of the period.
n = Year 1951

Another Method
Loge T = Ao +A1 loge GNP
T= Transport Demand
GNP= Gross National Product
Ao and A1 are co-eff
A1 directly gives the elasticity of transport demand w.r.t. GPN.

Freight Movement
Loge T= -20.4 677 +2.3563 loge GNP
T= Total freight moved by road in billion tonne km.

Sequential and simultaneous Models.

Trip making behaviour consist of 4 descriptors.
Trip frequency
Destination
Mode
Route and other choice

 In sequential models, trip making behaviour is built up in a sequential order.

 Each decision is made independently of other.
 In simultaneously models, all attributes of travel choice are considered
together.

Aggregate and Disaggregate Models.

 Aggregate models deal with the estimation of travel of a group of travelers.
 Disaggregate model deal with the individual travelers.

Period of Forecasting
 Plans are for 10 years.
 5 years plan in detail and another 5 years in less detail.
 In UK- design period is 15 years.
 Chapter 10

Traffic Signs

Important of traffic signs

 Give timely warning of hazardous situations when they are not evident.
 Help in regulating traffic by imparting message to desiverse.
 Give information of high way routes, directions and point of interest.
Need for international standardization
 Graphic symbols are adopted to convey messages, rather than lettered
messages.
 Traffic signs have been incorporated in motor vehicles Act in India.
 IRC standard have been evolved.
General Principles and Traffic signs
 They should be installed only by the authority of law
 Proper enforcement measures should be undertaken
 Sign should be put openly after traffic engineering studies and sound
engineering judgment.
 Excessive use of signs should not be resorted to
 Signs should be designed for the foreseeable traffic conditions and speed on
roads.
 They basic requirements of a sign are that it be legible to those using it and
that it be understood in time to produce a proper response.
This means that;
 High visibility day and night
 Symbol of adequate size
 Location at a conspicuous position
 Simplicity and infirmity in design, position and application.
 These should be two sizes for each type of sign
o Standard size
o Reduced size

Types of Traffic Signs

According U.N. Protocol, there are following classes
(a) Danger signs or warming signs.
(b) Sign giving definite instructions or Regulators
Signs these are divided into
(i) Prohibitory Signs
(ii) Signs
(c) Information Signs
(i) Indication Signs
(ii) Advance direction signs and direction signs
(iii) Place and route identification signs

Danger signs or warning signs or cautionary signs

 Used when it is deemed necessary to warn traffic of existing or potentially
hazardous condition on road or adjacent to a highway.
 Ensure safety to traffic
 Should be kept minimum
 UN protocol recommends an equilateral triangle with one point upward.
 Side of the triangle is 900mm for a standard size and 600m for a reduced
size.
 These signs have a red border and symbol therein the arc in black colour
against a white background.

Prohibitory signs
 These are part of regulatory signs.
 They intend to inform the highway users of traffic law or regulations.
 They give negative instructions.
 They may be of following types.
o Movement prohibition
o Waiting restrictions
o Restriction on dimension, weight or speed.
 They are of circular shape with 600 mm dia as standard size and 400mm as
reduced size.
 The signs have red border
 Backward colour is white for speed control, blue for waiting and parking
restrictions.
 Symbol are in black colour for prohibitory signs and white for direction
control.

Mandatory Signs
 They are a part of regulatory signs.
 They convey definite positive instructions.
 They are of two types
(i) Stop Signs
(ii) YIELD sign or GIVEWAY sign
 STOP sign required all vehicles to come to halt before stop line.
  They should not be indiscriminately used
 It is used at an intersection.
(a) Intersection of a less important road with main road.
(b) Street entering a thorough highway.
(c) Un-signaled intersection in a signalized area
(d) Other intersection
 STOP sign should not be used on
(a) Through roadways
(b) For speed control
(c) At signalized Inter-sections

Various Designs of STOP sign

IRC Standards
 Octagon with white border and Red background
 Size room standard and 600 mm reduced size.

YIELD or GIVEWAY sign

 It is used to assign right of way to traffic on certain approaches to an inter-
section
 It is used in following conditions:
(i) On a minor road at the entrance to an intersection.
(ii) On entrance ramp to an expressway
(iii) Within an intersection with a divided highway, where a STOP sign
is present at entrance to first roadway.
(iv) Where there is a separate left turn lane.
(v) At an intersection where a special problem exists.
YIELD sign should not be used to;
 Control the major flow of traffic
 On approaches of more than one of the intersection streets where there is
STOP sign.
 On thorough roadways.
IRC Standards
 Downward points of equilateral triangle having a red border and white
background
 Size 900mm standard and 600 mm by reduced.

Informatory Signs
 Intended to guide the motorists along streets and highways.
 To inform about the intersecting routes.
  To direct to cities, towns etc.
 To help motorist along highway.
 These signs do not lose their effectiveness by overuse.
 It is desirable to erect them as frequently as is necessary.
 Size of letters is related highway type.
 Letter size may be 8 to 15cm on rural roads.
 In urban areas size is 8 to 10 cm
 For overhead signs the range is 20-25 cm, numerals are slightly larger 25-30
cm.
 Only upper case letters are used.

Indication Signs
They provide information of facilities such as
 Hospitals
 Filling stations
 Telephones
 Eating Place
 Rest House
 They are rectangular in shape
 IRC recommends a size of 600×450mm with black symbol against white
rectangle and blue background.

Direction signs, Advance Direction signs and Place Identification signs

 These signs indicate the name of place
 They are rectangular in shape, terminate in the form of any arrow load
 Advance direction signs are necessary at intersections of roads.
 They are rectangular in shape.
Overhead Signs
 They are provided at locations where the following conditions exist.
o Traffic volume at or new capacity6
o Complex interchange
o Three or more lanes in each direction
o Restricted sight distance
o Closely spaced interchanges
o Where multilane exist
o Large percentage of trucks
o Street lighting background
o High speed traffic
 o Consistency of sign message location
o Insufficient space for ground mounted Signs
o Junction of an interstate route
o Right exist ramps

 The height of panel ranges from 125 cm to 305 cm

 Size of letter in 25-30 cm
 Max panel length is 7.0 m
 Vertical clearance needed in India is 5.5 m
Route Marker Signs
 It consist of a shield pointed on a rectangular plate 450 × 600 mm
 Signs have a yellow background; lettering and border are in black.
Location, Height and Maintenance of Signs
 In India sign should be located on left side of road
 They may be repeated on other side.
 On express ways overhead signs are necessary on hill roads they are fixed on
valley side of road
 They are mounted on posts
 As per IRC standards the sign should not be erected less than 60 cm away
from the edge of the kerb or at a distance of 2-3 m from carriage way edge.
 The sign posts should be maintained in proper position and in a legible
condition at all time.
 Damaged signs should be replaced immediately.
 Periodic painting of signs should be routine part of maintenance.
Variable Message Signs (VMS)
 They are also known as Dynamic Message Sign (DMS)
 They display information which can be changed whenever needed b y a
remote control.
 They are high intensity LEDs, yellow in colour
 Size of letter is 3 80-400 mm
 They give information such as
o Weather conditions
o Incident notifications
o Congestion
o Travel Time
Traffic Markings
 They are as a means of controlling and guiding traffic
 They are highly important on roads and intersections
  They promote safety
 They bring about smooth and harmonious flow of traffic guided paths of
travel
 They supplement the message conveyed by signals and signs
 They convey the required information without distracting attention
Limitations
 Obliteration by snow
 Poor visibility when wet
 Need frequent renewed when painted on surface

Classification
I. Pavement Markings
II. Object Marking

(a) Pavement Markings

 These are done an carriage way itself
 These include
o Control line
o Lane line
o Edge line
o Step Line
o No Overtaking line
o Pedestrian crossing
o Cyclist Crossing
o Carriage way restriction
o Route direction arrows
o Parking space lines
o Intersection approved marking

 These should be used whenever following exist

o Two lane roadway with a minimum ADT of 2000 vehicles.
o Two way roadway less than 6m wide with an ADT of 1000 vehicles.
o They way roadway less than 4.5m wide with ADT of 500 vehicles.
o All four or six lane highways
o Wherever safety conditions warrant it.
Centre Lines
On two lane rural highway – 3m dashes separated by 4.5m spaces
ON multilane highway – centre line may be continuous or broken.
Lane Lines
 These guide traffic
 They help in proper utilization of roadway
 These are 1.5m dashes with 4.5 m gap
 They should be used on follow
o On all rural highways
o On all multi lane highway
o On all congested locations
o On all important streets

Edge Lines
 Those carriage way which have no kerb are provided with edge lines to
serve as visual guide.
 Useful during bad weather conditions
 Useful during poor visibility
 These are continuous lines about 15 cm away from edge.
No Overtaking or passing Zones
 They are provided on summit curbs and horizontal curbs where the
minimum sight distances are less
Stop lines
 They are used where drivers are supposed to stop in compliance to a stop
sign.
 The work STOP may be marked
 Width for rural roads in 30cm and urban-roads 20cm
Pedestrian Crossing
 Used on all inter section where there is conflict between it should be 2 m
wide
Cyclist Crossing
 It is marked in 50cm squares at 100cm C/c width = 2m
Carriage way width Restrictions
 There are markings for the transition of carriage way with from 2 lane to 4
lane divided.
Route Direction Arrows
 Used to guide traffic in correct direction and lane
 Marking are elongated in direction of traffic
Parking Space Limits
 It enables efficient use of parking space
 It prevents encroachment on bus stops, loading and unloading zones
Intersection approach Markings
 Used to guide traffic at intersections.

(b) Object Markings

 They include objects with the roadway and objects adjacent to the roadway.
 The include guard rails, trees, drums
 Alternate black and white strips are put atleast 10cm wide at 450.
 They are usually illuminated or reflected.

Kerb Markings
 They indicate parking restrictions, loading zones.
 They are given with appropriate colours.
 They are as follows
o Parking, standing and stopping prohibited (Red)
o Commercial loading zones effective only during business hours
(yellow)
o Passenger loadings (white) for very short parking limit (green)

Reflector Markers
 There are provided at kerbs
 They consist of single reflecting button or cluster of buttons.
 Covered with reflecting coatings.
 Chapter 11
Traffic Signals

 It is power operated traffic control device.

 A sign by which traffic is warned or directed to take some specific action.
 It is signal which directs the traffic to stop and permit to proceed
alternatively.
Advantages
1. Provides an orderly movement of traffic.
2. Reduces the frequency of certain type of accidents.
3. Provide a means of interrupting heavy traffic to cross.
4. Promotes driver confidence by assuring the right the way.
5. Affords considerable economy over manual control.

Disadvantages
1. May increase certain type of accident
2. When improperly tuned it will cause excessive delays.
3. May encourage drivers to prefer alternate routes.

Classification of Signals
1. Traffic control signals
(a) Fixed time signals.
(b) Traffic actuated signals.
(i) Fully actuated signal
(ii) Semi-actuated signal
(iii) Speed control signal
2. Pedestrian signals.
3. Specific traffic signals

Fixed Time Signals

They are set to repeat regularly a cycle of red, yellow, green lights

Advantages
Ensure minimum delay for a group of vehicles.

Disadvantage
It may hold vehicle from one side when there is no traffic in the other.

Traffic Actuated Signals

  It recognizes the demand of flow of traffic.
 It distributes the time cycle or green time accordingly.

Time cycle is the number of seconds required to complete one complete sequence
of signal applications.
Advantages
 Reduces delays
 Adaptable to short term fluctuations in traffic.
 Increases capacity
 Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions

Disadvantages
 Uneconomical
 Increases the maintenance and inspection cost
 Detectors are very costly to install

Signal System
1. Simultaneous system or synchronized system
 All signals along the given street always show same direction at the same
time.
 The division of cycle is same at all signalized intersections.
 Only one control is used to operate a series of intersections.
Disadvantage
 Not conducive to allow continuous movement of all the vehicles.
 Encourages speeding of drivers between stops
 Overall speed is reduced
 Inefficiency is inevitable
 Result in difficulty for the side streets vehicles.
2. Alternate System
 Alternate signal along a given road show opposite indications at the same
time.
 System is operated with a single controller
 It permits the vehicles to travel one block in half the time cycle.
Disadvantages
 Results in inefficiency at most of the intersections
 Not suited for the unequal block lengths
 Adjustments are difficult for changing traffic conditions.
3. Signals Progressive System
 Signals controlling a street give green indications according to
predetermined schedule to permit continuous operation of group of vehicles
along a street at a planned rate of speed.
 The speed may very in different parts of the system.

4. Flexible Progressive System

 In this system it is possible at each intersection authomatically to vary the
following.
o Cycle time and division at each signal depending upon traffic.
o The offset enables two or more completely different plans.
o It is possible to introduce plasting or shut down during off peak
houses.

Timing of Signals

Timing an isolated Signal

 It should have time cycle of 40-60 sec.
 Max two cycle should be 120 sec.

The various steps are as under:

1. Determine the pedestrian crossing time of all approaches (Speed in
m/sec)
2. These values will be minimum green plus amber time for each phase.
3. Compute green plus amber time in proportion to approach volume per
approach lane. No phase should be less than 15 sec.
4. Adjust the cycle time to next higher 5 second interval and recomputed
phase values.
5. Secret amber periods based upon approach speeds.
6. Compute percentage value for all phases.
7. Computed timing should be installed in the controller and the operation
of the intersection observed during peak conditions.

Timing of Co-ordinated System

 All the signals in the system must operate on the same cycle length.
 Division of cycle may vary with individual intersections.
 Total cycle must remain constant.
  Critical intersection is tuned according to the above system and the resulting
cycle length used throughout the system.
 Determination of offset.
o An offset is the interval in seconds between a certain instant
arbitrarily used as time reference base and the start of the ‘go’
indication at a given signal at that system.

Design of Signals
The cycle time should such that delay at all approaches of intersection is
minimum.
1.5T  5
Co  Seconds
1 X
Co = Optimum Cycle time
T = Lost time due to starting and termination time
X = x1 + x2 + x3 ……………… xn
f f f
x1. x2, x3 …… xn = 1 , 2 , 3
S S S
1 2 3
f1, f2,f3 represent the flow in legs 1,2,3 …… x

S1, S2, S3 represents the saturation flow in leg 1, 2, 3 …… x

The effective green time is proportional to x1, x2, x3 such that G1: G2 : G3
…… Gx = x1 : x2 : x3 …… xn where G1, G2 are the effective green time in leg 1, 2,
3 the amber time is assumed 2 second in each leg saturation flow
S = 525W PCU/hr
W = width of roadway

Channelization

 Improvement to a plain intersection can be done by channelizing traffic.

 It is done by providing obstacle islands.
 It guides the vehicles at intersection into definite paths.
 The main function is to reduce the conflicting movements and afford one-
way traffic.
Islands
 Island is an area with in the roadway from which the vehicular traffic is
diverted by pavemarking or other warning device or by physical
construction.

Types of Islands
1. Channalizing Island
Located in the roadway to confine specific movement of traffic to definite
channels

2. Refuge Island
These are located in a cross walk to provide refuge for the pedestrians
3. Loading Islands
Provided at regular bus or train stops when it is near the middle of street
 It give protection to passengers

Conditions Warranting Channelization

1. Excessive areas or improper use of the area.
2. High accident rate
3. Complete intersection
4. Conflicting tearing movement
5. Speed to high for conditions
6. Very high traffic volume
7. Providing protection to the pedestrian

Design of Islands
Various factors to be considered are
1. Traffic Factors
(i) Earlier Traffic Capacity
(ii) Capacity of the roadway
(iii) Size and shape characteristics of Vehicles
(iv) Turning movement
(v) Pedestrian volume and movements
(vi) Transit operation
(vii) Accidents

Physical Factors
I. Area of conflict
II. Angles of entering the streets
 III. Cross-sections
IV. Steep grades
V. Sight distances
VI. Right of way lines
VII. Location of buildings and other physical features
VIII. Exists of traffic control devices
IX. Types of pavement
X. Lighting conditions

Human Factors
I. Intelligence and skill of drivers
II. Reaction time
III. Driving habits
IV. Vision
V. Pedestrian Walking Speeds

Economic Factors
I. Cost of improvement
II. Reduction in number of accidents
III. Time saved
IV. Reduction in No. of stops

Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes

 On important roads, we should provide acceleration and deceleration lanes.
 This enables the vehicle to accelerate to the design speed of road or
 To decelerate to the design speed of intersection while entering it.
 These lanes need not be of a fuel width
 It only means a partial lane.

Traffic Rotary
 It is a specialized form of ‘at grade’ intersection where vehicles from the
converging arms are forced to move round an island in one direction in an
orderly manner.

Advantages
(a) An orderly and regimental traffic flow is provided
(b) All traffic proceeds at a fairly uniform speed
(c) Direct conflict is eliminated
 (d) Rotaries are especially suited for intersections with five or more
intersection legs.
(e) For moderate traffic these are self governing

Disadvantages
 When the flow increases the capacity, wearing generally give way to stop
and go motion. It may end in lock up.
 It requires a large area
 Not suitable where pedestrian volume is high
 Not suitable where angle of intersection is to acute
 It makes travel trouble some
 Traffic turning right has to travel a little extra distance.
Questions
1. What is traffic signal? What are its advantages & disadvantages?
2. How do you classify traffic signals?
3. Discuss various types of traffic signal systems?
4. Describe the timings of signals
5. Write a note on design of signals
6. What is channelization of traffic? What conditions warrant
channelization?
7. How do we design the traffic islands? What are various factors which
are to be considered while designing islands?
 Chapter 12
Traffic and the Environment

1. Traffic engineer has a great responsibility in ensuring that the road

traffic does not spoil the environment.

Detrimental efforts of Traffic on the Environment

1. Safety
2. Noise
3. Air Pollution
4. Vibration
5. Visual Intrusion and Degrading of Aesthetics
Noise
 Noise is unwanted sound
 Noise is the result of a number of activities
 Road traffic, aircraft, railway, industrial and construction activities all
produce noise.
 Traffic engineer is concerned with abatement of noise generated by road
traffic.
Effects of Noise
(i) Subjective Effects
(ii) Behavioural Effects
(iii) Physiological effects

Subjective Effects
 Annoyance
 Disturbance
 Dissatisfaction
 Bother
 Noisiness
All these effects are difficult to measure precisely.

2. Behavioural Effects
 Interference with sleep, speech or any task
 Disturbance in studies and intellectual pursuits
3. Physiological Effects
 These effect cause startle or fright phenomenon
 It can result in harmful effects
 It may produce deafness

Generation of Noise by Road Traffic

1. Noise generated by various parts of the vehicle
2. Noise contributed by the interaction the vehicle and road surface.
3. Noise dependent on speed, flow and density of traffic

Elements that contribute to vehicle noise

I. Engine
II. Inlet
III. Exhaust
IV. Propulsion and Transmission
V. Breaks
VI. Horns
VII. Chassis
VIII. Body Structure
IX. Loads in Vehicle
X. Door Slamming

Some facts related to noise generation

1. Motor cycles and scooters are noisier than passenger cars.
2. Commercial trucks are main source of noise.
3. Old vehicles generate more noise
4. Rough surface produce more noise
5. Wet surface also contribute to noise
6. As traffic level increase, the noise level inevitably increase
7. Higher speeds cause higher noise level.
8. Noise level increase during acceleration.

Measurement of Noise Level

 Unit – decibel (dB)
 It is a unit of sound pressure level.
 To account for the ear’s response at low and high frequencies, different
weighting factors A, B and C are used
 A weighted decibel, db(A) is commonly used for measuring the relative
levels of noise produced by different levels of traffic.
  Instrument used to record sound levels is the Sound level meter.

Control of Traffic Noise

1. Changes in design of vehicles
2. Changes in tyres or road surface
3. Elimination of Noisier vehicles
4. Modification in traffic operation
5. Designing streets, building and areas for producing less noise.

Air Pollution
 Pollution of the atmosphere by fumes of vehicle makes the urban streets
extremely unpleasant.

Major Pollutants
 Carbon dioxide
 Water vapour
 Unburnt petrol/diesel
 Organic compounds produced from petrol
 Carbon monoxide
 Oxides of Nitrogen
 Lead compounds
 Carbon particle (smoke)

Effects of Pollutants
 CO2 is most contributor to climate change.
 CO2, NOx and lead effect the health
 Smoke contains minute particles of Carbon, and may prove dangerous with
other compounds.
 Smog is the result of the combination of smoke and fog.
 Fog can cause hazards to driving and irritation to eyes.

Measurement for Controlling Air Pollution

1. Reduce the pollutants at the source

2. Use small cars instead of bigger ones
 Patronize public transport system
 Use alternative fuels and methods of propulsion
 Restrain traffic through road pricing
 Control idling of engineer, engines should be stopped during traffic delays.
 Construct bypass and ring roads to reduce traffic in the mid-town.

Vibrations
 A vehicle moving on a road surface induces vibration in the surroundings.
 Vibrations are of following types.
o Vibrations generated in the contained air
o Surface vibrations
o Underground vibrations
 On narrow streets flanked by buildings, the air contained between buildings
is vibrated when vehicles move on the streets.
 These vibrations are annoying to the people.
 Surface vibrations are those, which are set up on the structures above the
ground.
 Underground vibrations are set in the soil mass and foundations.

Surface finish of road surfaces and its effect on generation of vibrations.

 Irregularities in the road surface are major cause of vibrations
 The effect of vibrations are;
o Cracking of plaster
o Rattling of doors, window and glass panes
 If the there is large movement of commercial vehicles the vibrations may
induce sympathetic resonance in the buildings.
 This cause unpleasantness to the inhabitants and even structural damage.
 Vibrations can give rise to overstresses in bridges.

Ameliorative Measure
1. Improvement in the surface finish of the road
2. Reducing the number of heavily loaded commercial vehicles in the badly
affected zones.
3. Improvement in the suspension system of vehicles.
4. Provision of wider streets
5. Enforcing a certain minimum space between adjacent buildings.
Visual Intrusion and Degrading the Aesthetics
 In the visual surrounding there has been the steady intrusion of motor
vehicles.
 The tranquility and openness of parks and squares has been invaded and
spoiled by vehicles.
 Service stations, garages and petrol filling stations have sprung up along the
road.
 This has degraded the general scenic beauty of the surrounding.
 Numerous, signs, signals, bill boards have sprung up all along the streets.
 The beauty of historical land marks and architectural master pieces has been
destroyed.

Severance and Land Consumption

 Severance is the general term denoting the psychological, culture and
physical disturbance caused by a traffic facility on the neighbourhoods, the
land, the society and its life styles.
 Highways and streets consume an enormous amount of land.
 Compulsory acquisition of the land can make inroads into homogenous and
closely knit life of community.
 It can cause disruption to its way of life.
 Land acquisition for roads has created problems of rehabilitation and
relocation.

Guidelines for planning new facilities to keep the effects of severance low.
1. Historic and cultural sites must be preserved
2. Severance of school playgrounds should be avoided
3. The educational, medical, cultural and religious needs of the community
should be carefully looked into while planning a new facility.
4. Virgin forest lands, parks and conservation in lands should not be
disturbed.
5. Highways should be planned in such a way that they have the least
impact on ecological system.

Question
1. Describe the detrimental effects of noise on environment. How we can
control the traffic noise?
2. What are the major pollutants of air due to traffic and what are their
effects? What measures can be taken to control the air pollution?
3. What are the effects of vehicle vibrations on environment and what
ameliorative measure can be taken?
4. Discuss the visual intrusion and degradation of aesthetics by traffic.
5. What do you mean by the term severance and land consumption by
traffic facilities? Suggest some guidelines while planning new facilities.
Questions -Traffic Engg
1. What is the significance of traffic engineering?
2. What are the different functions of Traffic Engineer?
3. What are the human factors governing road user behaviors?
4. What are the various forces that have to be overcome by the
vehicle on a road?
5. What are the different methods of measuring running speed?
6. What are the different methods of measuring spot speeds?
7. What is the need for vehicle volume counts?
8. What are the methods available for traffic counts?
9. What is the necessity of conduct O-D Survey? What are the
specified users of O-D Survey?
10.How the parking studies are conducted?
11.How the spot speeds data is grouped?
12.Why the free speeds of vehicles in Indian roads are lower?
13. What are limitations of traffic forecasting and what are various
types of forecasts?
14. What is the importance of traffic signs? What are its types?
15. What is traffic signal? What are its advantages & disadvantages?
16.How do you classify traffic signals?
17.Discuss various types of traffic signal systems?
18.Describe the timings of signals
19.Write a note on design of signals
20.What is channelization of traffic? What conditions warrant
channelization?
21.How do we design the traffic islands? What are various factors
which are to be considered while designing islands?
22.Describe the detrimental effects of noise on environment. How
we can control the traffic noise?
23.What are the major pollutants of air due to traffic and what are
their effects? What measures can be taken to control the air
pollution?
24.What are the effects of vehicle vibrations on environment and
what ameliorative measure can be taken?
25.Discuss the visual intrusion and degradation of aesthetics by
traffic.
26.What do you mean by the term severance and land consumption
by traffic facilities? Suggest some guidelines while planning new
facilities.
27. What is traffic rotary? What are its advantages & disadvantages?
MCQ- Traffic Engineering
1. Traffic engineering has growth in ------------------ years.
(a) Recent (b) 300 (c) 1000 (d) None of these.
2. Highway engineering and traffic engineering are---------- subjects.
(b) Related (b)not related (c) complimentary (d) None of these.
3. Traffic facilities are used by-------------------
(a) Motorists (b) cyclists (c) Pedestrians (d) All of these.
4. Human behavior on traffic can be considered under……………
(a) Physiological (b) Psychological (c) both a and b. (d) None of these.
5. Sound of horn can------------------
(c) Alerts a road user (b) alert a pedestrian (c) both a and b (d) None of
these.
6. The zone of acute vision is formed by a cone whose angle is -------------- degree.
(a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 100 (d) 400
7. The angle of peripheral vision is---------------- degree in horizontal direction.
(a)160 (b) 130 (c) 120 (d) 90
8. PIEV Theory is related to ---------------- engineering.
(a) Traffic (b) mechanical (c) both a and b (d) None of these.
9. Colour vision is important for discerning------------
(a) Traffic lights (b) colour (c) both a and b (d) None of these.
10. The co-off of transmission of a vehicle----------------
(a) 0.85 to0.90 (b) 0.2 to0.3 (c) 0.5 to 0.8 (d) 0.1 to 0.2

Answer: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
‘a a d d c a a a c

Traffic Engineering
1. The Standard size of prohibitory sign is -----------
(a) 600 mm dia circular (b) 500 min square (c) 600min square (d)None of these

2. As IRC the standard size of yield sing should be

(a) Equilateral triangle of 900 mm size (b) 900 m square (c) 600 min circular (d) None of
these

3. In the size of letters of informatory size is -------------- on rural roads

(a) 8 to 15cm (b) 3 to 5 cm (c) 20 to 25c (d) None of these

4. VMS Means
(a) Variable message sign (b) Broad Movable sign (c) Very minute Size (d) None of
these

5. Vertical clearance needed for over head sign is------------------

 (a)5.5m (b) 3.8m (c) 7.0m (d) 4.0m

6. Indication signs provide information about -------------

(a) Hospitals (b) Filling station (c) Rest Horse (d) All of these

7. Stop signs should not be used--------------

(a)For Speed control (b) at signalized intersections (c ) Through roadway (d) All of
these
8. Radar speed meter works on _____________ principle
(a) Doppler (b) Bernoulli (c) D’Alembert (d) None of these

9. The moving observer method for measuring running speed involves a driver and _____
observers
(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 1
10. Registration number method for measuring running speed has the advantage of ___________
(a) No sophisticated equipment involved (b) suitable for rural areas (c) Both a & b
(a) None of above
11. Parking studies require data on ___________
(a) Availability of parking space (b) Extent of its usage (c) both a & b (d) None
of these

(Ans: 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, 5a, 6d, 7d, 8a,9a,10c, 11c)