👉​Where are tropical rainforests?

TRF: mainly around the Equator and the lowland areas between 10°N and °S.
[Tropic of Cancer / Tropic of Capricorn]
*Amazon Basin in South America holds about one-third(~33.3%) of the world’s rainforests.

👉
*Indonesia and Congo hold about one-fifth(~20%).
​What has happened to TRF?
→ 12% → <5% [the earth’s land surface]
● Brazil: deforestation since 1990s (*Peak at 1995 → slowed down since 2004)
● SE Asia:serious in Indonesia(*Between 1990-2010, 20.3% has disappeared)
● Congo Basin:reatively low but still significant(*average annal rate:~0.2%)

😃​Layer structure of TRF

Emergent layer​: The highest
layer, 30-50 m above the ground.
Trees are widely spaced.
❏ tall / straight / smooth
trunks → umbrella shape

Canopy layer​: The second layer,

20-30 m above the ground. Trees
are close and continuous.
❏ oval-shaped crowns /
highly branched(complete for
sunlight)

Young tree layer​: The third

layer, 15 m above the ground.
Tree seedlings of the above
layers are sparse.
❏ conical crowns

Shrub layer​: The fourth layer,

<5m above the ground. Tree
seedlings of the above layers are
sparse.
❏ Shrubs and ferns and
other plants

Undergrowth​: The bottom layer,

on the forest floor.
Ferns, fungi, etc., are sparse.
❏ little sunlight can
penetrate into the lower layer.
😃​Evergreen
● no seasonal pattern in defoliation / flowering / fruiting
● new leaves quickly replace shed leaves

😃​Tree with special characteristics of root and leaves

● Board leaves and drip-tips
❏ Broad leaves→ absorb more sunlight
❏ Drip-tips→ quickly shed rainwater when needed (#high annual rainfall).
● Thin bark and cauliflory
❏ Thin and smooth bark→ No need to protect the tree from the cold / facilitate
transpiration
❏ Cauliflory→ trunk flowers and fruits are found on the trunk and main branches
● Shallow and buttress boots
❏ Shallow roots→ all nutrients are concentrated on the topsoil, so shallow roots can
absorb them more efficiently
❏ Buttress roots→ roots that extend laterally, up to 4 m high Absorb nutrients from a
larger area, support the tree's great weight

😃​Rich diversity of plant species

● Rich luxuriant plant species​(#mixed stand hardwood)
● Woody plants, including trees and woody shrubs, are found. They ​take advantage of
the large amount of insolation​.
● Some plants ​rely on other plants​ (which are their hosts):
❏ Climbers​: They grow on tall trees for physical support. They start at ground level,
hook onto and climb along their hosts, and reach the canopy layer. They may spread
to other trees to maximise the amount of sunlight received. Lianas are an example.
❏ Epiphytes:​ They are small shrubs or herbs that attach themselves on tree trunks or
branches. They do not have roots in the soil, and have aerial roots that capture
moisture from the air. They can then grow in the canopy layer and capture sunlight.
They are harmless to their hosts.
❏ Strangler​: They send their roots to the ground and surround the host trees. They
grow rapidly and soon cover the crown of the hosts, blocking out their sunlight. The
host will die so the strangler can inherit its place in the canopy.
❏ Parasites​: They grow directly on their hosts, and absorb nutrients from them. Large
amounts of litter in tropical rainforests provides a nutritious environment for parasites.
Rafflesia is an example.
❏ Saprophytes:​ They grow well in the dark. Ferns and fungi are examples.

😃​Diversified animal species

● only ​5%​ of Earth surface but they are home to ​50% ​of the Earth’s species.
❏ Emergent layer: bird species
 ❏ Canopy layer: birds and orang-utan
❏ Young tree layer: butterflies, frogs and snakes
❏ Undergrowth layer: large animals(*tigers, gorillas)
❏ Soil: earthworm

@ Animals of different habitats take advantage of the diverse habitats provided by the
stratifie vegetation. @

😃​Climatic characteristics in TRF

● High temp. all year around
❏ High annual mean temperature: ~26-27°C(# located in equatorial regions)
● Small annual range of temperature: ~ 2-4°C
❏ # the small annual range of insolation in equatorial areas
❏ Result: Lack of seasonality - no distinct winter
● Small diurnal range of temperature: ~6-8°C(# located in equatorial regions)

● located along the Intertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ)

❏ convergence of the warm moist tropical air masses → convection rain
● uniformly high temp.(#heavy convection rain occurs mostly in afternoon)
● high annual rainfall (> 2000mm)
❏ everly distributed and no dry season
❏ Equatorial climate(Humid tropical climate)
● Evenly distributed high humidity
👉​Sustainable development in TRF​ → some ways to protect TRFs
# ​forest management (sustainable)

WAYS

● Tapping resources from existing cleared land without destroying the rainforest
(#Agroforestry → growing trees and crops on the same plot of land)
(intercropping → ↑ yield and income in a sustainable way)
❏ Increase productivity of existing farmland by improve soil fertility
❏ Increase productivity of ranches and plantations
(#Ranches → grow legumes on pastureland / grow crops in cattle pastures /
plantations {abundoned land} )
❏ Develop sustainable forests and tree plantations
(a variety of trees → specific sources for wood products→ now established in
degraded land)
● Restoring degraded forested land
❏ Afforestation (with adequate protection an afforestation zone can gradually
regenerate through natural succession)
❏ Timber plantation (replant new trees after logging→ ↑economic value)
● Better forest management
a) Conserve and protect rainforests
i) National parks and nature reserves (#Manu National Park of Peru)
ii) Ban any logging activities
iii) Native tribe reserves → ↑ ​ ​cultural diversity
iv) Establish wildlife and bird sanctuaries
v) Ecotourism
↳ +ve ( job opportunties for local people / ↑ ​ ​ tax-revenue / ↓ poverty / ↑
​ ​manpower and
resources / education )
vi) Biological prospecting fees
b) Control and regulate
i) Ban clear cutting in rainforest areas
ii) Allow selective logging
iii) Adopting forest-friendly logging practices
↳ Cutting the climbers and lianas before felling trees → ↓ wood waste
↳ Using mew technologies to extract logs → ↓ damage to the soil
↳ Planning roads carefully → ↓ soil erosions
iv) Adopt a certification system for timber production to combat illegal logging
v) Gov’t issue licenses to control the extent and the rate of logging
vi) To combat illegal logging (Gov’t)
↳ +ve ( prevent over-exploitation of TRF / ensures a stable supply of timber to customers)
● Enforcement of legislation → Combat illegal logging activities
● International effort ​- #carbon trading (Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions
trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide and it currently constitutes the bulk of
emissions trading under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
……………………..………..
Stakeholders
① TRF countries Gov’t
→ Gov’t limitations
② Local people / tribes
③ Private developers
④ MDC’s government
⑤ International organizations
⑥ Individual