Air Pollution

Physics
Prof.Dr. Gülen GÜLLÜ
• understanding of air pollution begins with
physics. Physics and chemistry are interrelated;
in fact, for air pollution it is arguably best to
refer to physicochemical processes.
• how things move and how efciently energy is
transferred among compartments lie at the
heart of understanding air pollution.
The atmosphere serves as the medium through
which air pollutants are transported and
dispersed. While being transported, the pollutants
may undergo chemical reactions and, in addition
to removal by chemical transformations, may be
removed by physical processes such as
gravitational settling, impaction, and wet removal.

In this section, basic concepts of meteorology

necessary to an understanding of air pollution
meteorology without specifc regard to air
pollution problems will be given.
ENERGY
All of the energy in the atmosphere is derived from sun which is 150 million
km away from the earth.
The earth’s gravity
keeps the thin layer of
gases that constitute
the atmosphere
Radiation from a
Blackbody
 = 0.48
µm

İncoming solar radiation outgoing

The portion of the incoming radiation
reflected and scattered back to space is
the albedo.
Albedo global map
 Heat balance
Because of the
solar beam’s
more direct angle
of incidence in
equatorial
regions,
considerably
more radiation
penetrates and is
stored by water
near the equator
than water nearer
the poles.
The Earth and its
atmosphere
maintain an
energy balance by
either absorbing
incoming radiation
or reflecting it
energy back into
space.
Solar energy radiates towards Earth. The
atmosphere and the Earth’s surface absorb some
of the energy and reflect some of it too. Incoming
solar radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere by
clouds, water vapor, dust, and ozone. The earth’s
surface also absorbs radiation. Clouds and
surfaces on the Earth also reflect radiation. Heat
that is absorbed on the Earth is reradiated into
the atmosphere. Some of this reradiated heat is
absorbed by clouds, water vapor, ozone, and
carbon dioxide. 

Energy coming into the Earth’s atmosphere from

the sun is always in balance with the energy
leaving Earth’s atmosphere going back out into
space. However, carbon dioxide traps infrared
radiation. As humans emit more carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere, this natural balance
becomes altered, resulting in less heat escaping
MOTION
Vertical and horizontal air motions afect
both weather and the mixing processes of
importance to air pollution.
• Verticle motions
• Upward vertical motions ; caused by lifting
over terrain, lifting over weather fronts, and
convergence toward low-pressure centers.
• Downward vertical motions; caused by
sinking to make up for divergence near high-
pressure centers.
• Horizontal motions; winds
• If atmosphere resists vertical motions,
STABLE
• If the atmosphere enhances vertical
motions, UNSTABLE
First law of
thermodynamics
If a volume of air is held constant and a small
amount of heat Δh is added, the temperature of the
air will increase by a small amount ΔT. This can be
expressed as
Δh = cv ΔT
where cv is the specifc heat at constant volume.
In this case, all the heat added is used to increase
the internal energy of the volume afected by the
temperature.
For compressible fluids like air, the stability is
depend on temperature and density of the
atmosphere.
If, instead of being restricted, the volume of air
considered is allowed to remain at an equilibrium
constant pressure and expand in volume, as well as
change temperature in response to the addition of
heat, this can be expressed as
Δh = cv ΔT + p Δv

By using the equation of state, the volume change

can be replaced by a corresponding pressure
change:

Δh = cpΔT + v Δp
where cp is the specifc heat at constant pressure
and equals cv + Rd, where Rd is the gas constant for
dry air.
Adiabatic processes
An adiabatic process is one with no loss or gain
of heat to a volume of air.
• If heat is supplied, the process is DIABATIC

• If heat is withdrawn, the process is

NONDIABATIC

Near the earth’s surface, where heat is

exchanged between the earth and the air, the
processes are diabatic. However, away from the
surface, processes frequently are adiabatic.
• If an air parcel is forced upward over a
ridge, the upward-moving air will
encounter decreased atmospheric
pressure and will expand and cool. If the
air is not saturated with water vapor, the
process is called dry adiabatic.
•For
  any parcel of air, moving upward without
signifcant mixing with the air around it, reversible
adiabatic behaviour would be observed.
For adiabatic perfect gas;

Where, is the heat capacity of the gas at constant P.

From the hydrostatic equation

by combining these equations,

For any perfect gas, reversible adiabatic

temperature variation is;
For the air at the gravity of the earth, we
calculate that;
 

= -0.00978 K/m = -9.78 °C/km ≈ -10 °C/km

This temperature gradient is called the

lapse rate (LR), it is normally stated as a
positive number.
If the LR>10 K/km, superadiabatic LR
If the LR<10 K/km, subadiabatic LR.
The LR of standard atmosphere (ELR) is
6.49 K/km.
 DALR

(Subadiabatic LR)

(superadiabatic LR)
Superadiabatic LR
(ELR>DALR)
Subadiabatic LR
(ELR<DALR)
Example
• A stack 100 m tall emits a plume at 20◦C.
The prevailing lapse rates are shown
below. How high will the plume rise
(assuming perfect adiabatic conditions)?
Example
A stack is 1000 ft tall, and emits smoke at
90◦F. The ground level temperature is 80◦F,
and the temperature at 2000 ft is 100◦F
(assume a straight-line lapse rate between
these two temperatures).
a. Draw a picture of the expected plume
and name the type of plume.
b. If in the same situation the plume
temperature is 92◦F, how high would the
plume rise? (Assume zero stack velocity
and perfect adiabatic conditions.)
 Potential Temperature
• 
Another useful concept in
determining stability in the
atmosphere is potential
temperature.
The potential temperature is found
from:

where is temperature and is

pressure (in millibars, mb). This
value is the same as the
temperature that a parcel of dry air
would have if brought dry
adiabatically to a pressure of 1000
mb.
• When dθ/dz < 0, i.e., when the potential
temperature decreases upward, the atmosphere is
top heavy and unstable.
• When dθ/dz = 0, i.e., when the potential
temperature is vertically uniform, the atmosphere
is neutral, mixing.
• When dθ/dz > 0, i.e., when the potential
temperature decreases upward, the air is stably
stratifed and the atmosphere is stable.
This explains why potential temperature tends to be
constant across the well mixed across the
convective boundary layer.
Efect of Mixing
The mixing of air in a vertical layer
produces constant potential temperature
throughout the layer. Such mixing is
usually mechanical, such as air movement
over a rough surface. The efect of mixing
is to achieve a mean potential
temperature throughout the layer (dashed
line).
 Radiation inversion
Radiation inversions are
probably the most common
type of temperature
inversion. They form near the
earth’s surface during the
night. After sunset, especially
on a clear night the earth’s
surface cools because
energy is radiated to space.
The air which is just above
the earth cools through
contact with the cool surface.
Air is a poor conductor of
heat so only a thin suface
layer of air is cooled leaving
the air above almost
unafected and therefore
warmer. 
Nocturnal inversion
After sunset on clear
nights, the groundsurface
cools rapidly. However, air
is not a very good
conductor of hear. As a
result, only the layer of air
in the frst few hundred
meters from the surface
cools.
The air further aloft
remains warm creating
what is called the
«nocturnal inversion».
 Subsidence Inversions
The slow sinking of air in
areas of high pressure
gives rise to another type
of inversion, the
subsidence inversion.
Subsidence inversions are
formed when a mass of air
descends and warms
adiabatically. The subsiding
air mass almost never
continues downward to the
earths surface because
there is always some,
however slight turbulent
mixing taking place
keeping the air below the
inversion cooler.
 Frontal Inversions
Frontal inversions occur
where a mass of cold air
moves into a region that
was previously occupied
by a warm air mass. The
cold air, being more dense
slides in underneath the
warmer air lifting the
warm air up. This results
in the warm air mass
overlaying the cold air,
thus an inversion.
Any local heating of the
cold air will cause it to rise
but the lifting will not
continue above the frontal
inversion unless the rising
air mass is warmer than
the overlaying warm layer.
UNSTABLE
NEUTRAL

STABLE
LOW LEVEL INVERSION

UPPER LEVEL INVE

ENERGY-MOTION
RELATIONSHIPS
• Vertical and horizontal motions occur in the
atmosphere and are important to both weather
processes and the movement of pollutants.
• Wind is the horizontal component of velocity.
• The winds are most easily understood by
considering the balance of various forces in
the atmosphere. The applicable physical law is
Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma; if a
force F is exerted on a mass m, the resulting
acceleration a equals the force divided by the
mass.
• Newton’s frst law of motion
An object at rest (or in motion) will remain at rest (or in
motion) as long as no force is exerted on the object

• Newton’s second law of motion

F= ma (force= mass times the acceleration)
acceleration could be change of speed or direction

Four forces include ;

• Pressure gradient force
• Coriolis force
• Centrifugal force
• Friction force
Pressure Gradient Force
•  Pressure gradient (pressure
diference/distance)
• Pressure gradient force (PGF) (from high
to low pressure)
• Strength and direction of the pressure
gradient force is dependent of horizontal
pressure diference

x 
x:distance
• Pressure diferences also cause vertical
motions
• Divergence and convergence (right-hand
rule)
 Coriolis Force
• Coriolis force is an
apparent force due to
earth’s rotation
• Its strength increases
with the object’s speed,
earth rotation and
latitude
• Its direction :
perpendicular to wind, to
the right-hand side
overNH and to the left
over SH
• Coriolis force changes
the direction only (but
not the wind magnitude)
Geostrophic winds
• Friction btw earth surface and
atmosphere is neglected after 700 km
altitude.
Gradient Winds
When the isobars are curved, an additional
force, a centrifugal force outward from the
center of curvature, enters into the
balance of forces.
Efect of Friction
The frictional efect of the earth’s surface
on the atmosphere decreases with the
altitude. The greater the friction, the
slower the wind and the greater the
amount of turning toward low pressure.
Friction becomes inefective about 1 mile
above the surface.
LOCAL WIND SYSTEMS
Local wind systems such as
• Sea and land breezes
• Mountain and valley winds
• Urban-rural circulations
• Flow around structures
are important interms of dispersion and
transport of pollutants.
Sea and land breezes
 Mountain and valley winds

Valley Breeze: during the day, Mountain breeze: at night time,

the warm air from the valley the cool air moves down the
moves up the slopes into the slopes into the valley, lowering
moutainous regions. the temperatures in the valley
Urban-rural circulations
• Low level mesoscale
crculation produced by
diurnal thermal flux
gradients between
urban and rural areas.
• Play role in triggering
and enhancing
convection above or
downwind of major
metropolitian areas
• Smog formation above
urban areas
• Influence winter
precipitations forecasts
 GENERAL CIRCULATION
Atmospheric
motions are driven
by the heat from
incoming solar
radiation
and the
redistribution and
dissipation of this
heat to maintain
constant
temperatures on
the average.
Hot air rises in
the tropics,
moves north or
south, descends
and returns in
the equatorial
"Hadley cells".
Its path along
the surface is
bent into the
trade winds by
the Earth's
rotation (Coriolis
Efect). Two
other cells in
each
hemisphere